Antifeminism

For the Japanese band, see Anti Feminism.

Antifeminism, also spelled anti-feminism, is opposition to feminism. In the late 19th century and early 20th century, antifeminists opposed particular policy proposals for women's rights, such as the right to vote, educational opportunities, property rights, and access to birth control.^[1][2] In the mid and late 20th century, antifeminists often opposed the abortion-rights movement and, in the United States, the Equal Rights Amendment.

In the early 21st century, some antifeminists in the United States see their ideology as a response to one rooted in hostility towards men, holding feminism responsible for several social problems, including lower college entrance rates of young men, gender differences in suicide and a perceived decline in manliness in American culture.^[3][4][5] 21st century antifeminism has sometimes been an element of violent, far-right extremist acts.^[6][7][8]

Definition

Canadian sociologists Melissa Blais and Francis Dupuis-Déri write that antifeminist thought has primarily taken the form of masculinism, in which "men are in crisis because of the feminization of society".^[9]

The term antifeminist is also used to describe public female figures, some of whom (such as Naomi Wolf, Camille Paglia, and Katie Roiphe) define themselves as feminists, based on their opposition to some or all elements of feminist movements.^[10] Other feminists label writers such as Roiphe, Christina Hoff Sommers, Jean Bethke Elshtain, and Elizabeth Fox-Genovese as antifeminist^[11][12] because of their positions regarding oppression and lines of thought within feminism.^[13]

The meaning of antifeminism has varied across time and cultures, and antifeminism attracts both men and women. Some women, like those in the Women's National Anti-Suffrage League, campaigned against women's suffrage.^[14]

Men's studies scholar Michael Kimmel defines antifeminism as "the opposition to women's equality". He says that antifeminists oppose "women's entry into the public sphere, the re-organization of the private sphere, women's control of their bodies, and women's rights generally." Kimmel further writes that antifeminist argumentation relies on "religious and cultural norms" while proponents of antifeminism advance their cause as a means of "'saving' masculinity from pollution and invasion". He argues that antifeminists consider the "traditional gender division of labor as natural and inevitable, perhaps also divinely sanctioned."^[15]

Viewpoints

Antifeminist ideology rejects at least one of the following general principles of feminism:^[16]

1. That social arrangements among men and women are neither natural nor divinely determined.
2. That social arrangements among men and women favor men.
3. That there are collective actions that can and should be taken to transform these arrangements into more just and equitable arrangements

Some antifeminists^[who?] argue that feminism, despite claiming to advocate for equality, ignores rights issues unique to men. They believe that the feminist movement has achieved its aims and now seeks higher status for women than for men via special rights and exemptions, such as female-only scholarships, affirmative action, and gender quotas.^{[17][18][19][undue weight? ]}

Antifeminism might be motivated by the belief that feminist theories of patriarchy and disadvantages suffered by women in society are incorrect or exaggerated;^[16][20] that feminism as a movement encourages misandry and results in harm or oppression of men; or driven by general opposition towards women's rights.^{[15][21][22][23]}

Furthermore, antifeminists view feminism as a denial of innate psychological sex differences and an attempt to reprogram people against their biological tendencies.^[24] They have argued that feminism has resulted in changes to society's previous norms relating to sexuality, which they see as detrimental to traditional values or conservative religious beliefs.^[25][26][27] For example, the ubiquity of casual sex and the decline of marriage are mentioned^{[by whom?]} as negative consequences of feminism.^{[28][29][undue weight? ]} In a report from anti-extremism charity HOPE not Hate, half of young men from UK believe that feminism has "gone too far and makes it harder for men to succeed".^[30][31]

Moreover, other antifeminists oppose women's entry into the workforce, political office, or the voting process, as well as the lessening of male authority in families.^[32] They argue that a change of women's roles is a destructive force that endangers the family, or is contrary to religious morals. For example, Paul Gottfried maintains that the change of women's roles "has been a social disaster that continues to take its toll on the family" and contributed to a "descent by increasingly disconnected individuals into social chaos".^{[33][undue weight? ]}

History

United States

 

American antisuffragists in the early 20th century

19th century

The "women's movement" began in 1848, most famously articulated by Elizabeth Cady Stanton demanding voting rights, joined by Lucy Stone, Susan B. Anthony and others who also pushed for other rights such as education, job freedom, marital and property rights, and the right to choose when or whether to become a mother.^[34] However, by the end of the century, a cultural counter movement had begun. Janet Chafetz identified in a study 32 first-wave antifeminist movements, including those in the 19th century and early 20th century movements.^[35] These countermovements were in response to some women's growing demands, which were perceived as threatening to the standard way of life. Though men were not the only antifeminists, men experienced what some have called a "crisis of masculinity"^[36] in response to traditional gender roles being challenged. Men's responses to increased feminism varied. Some men subscribed to feminist ideals, and others became decidedly antifeminist. Antifeminist men cited religious models and natural law to emphasize women's need to return to the private sphere, in order to preserve the current social order.^[36]

In the 19th century, one of the major focal points of antifeminism was opposition to women's suffrage, which began as a grassroots movement in 1848 and spanned for 72 years.^[37][2] Opponents of women's entry into institutions of higher learning argued that education was too great a physical burden on women. In Sex in Education: or, a Fair Chance for the Girls (1873), Harvard professor Edward Clarke predicted that if women went to college, their brains would grow bigger and heavier, and their wombs would atrophy.^[38] Other antifeminists opposed women's entry into the labor force, their right to join unions, to sit on juries, or to obtain birth control and control of their sexuality.^[15]

The pro-family movement appeared in the late 19th century, by about 1870.^[39] This movement was intended to halt the rising divorce rate and reinforce traditional family values. The National League for the Protection of the Family, formerly known as the Divorce Reform League, took over the movement in 1881.^[39][40] Samuel Dike was one of the founders of the League, and was considered an early expert on divorce. Through his efforts, the League garnered attention from pro-family advocates. It underwent a shift from fighting against divorce to promoting marriage and traditional family.^[39] Speaking on behalf of the League in an 1887 address to the Evangelical Alliance Conference, Samuel Dike described the ideal family as having "one man and one woman, united in wedlock, together with their children".^[39] This movement built the foundation for many pro-family arguments in contemporary antifeminism.

Early 20th century

Women's suffrage was achieved in the US in 1920, and early 20th-century antifeminism was primarily focused on fighting this. Suffragists scoffed at antisuffragists. Anna Howard Shaw, president of the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) from 1904 to 1915, presumed that the antisuffragists were merely working under the influence of male forces.^[41] Later historians tended to dismiss antisuffragists as subscribing to the model of domestic idealism, that a woman's place is in the home. This undermines and belittles the true power and numbers behind the antisuffrage movement, which was primarily led by women themselves.^[41] Arguments employed by antisuffragists at the turn of the century had less to do with a woman's place in the home as much as it had to do with a woman's proper place in the public realm. In fact, leaders of the movement often encouraged other women to leave the home and participate in society.^[41] What they opposed was women participating in the political sphere.

There were two reasons antisuffragists opposed women participating in the political realm. Some argued that women were already overburdened. The majority of them, however, argued that a woman's participation in the political realm would hinder her participation in social and civic duties. If they won the right to vote, women would consequently have to align with a particular party, which would destroy their ability to be politically neutral. Antisuffragists feared this would, in fact, hinder their influence with legislative authorities.^[41]

Mid 20th century

In 1951, two journalists published Washington Confidential. The novel claimed that Communist leaders used their men and women to recruit a variety of minorities in the nation's capital, such as females, colored males, and homosexual males. The popularity of the book led the Civil Service Commission to create a "publicity campaign to improve the image of federal employees"^[42] in hopes to save their federal employees from losing their jobs. This ploy failed once the journalists linked feminism to communism in their novel and ultimately reinforced antifeminism by implying that defending the "white, Christian, heterosexual, patriarchal family" was the only way to oppose communism.^[42]

Late 20th century

Equal Rights Amendment

The Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) is a perennially proposed amendment to the United States Constitution that would grant equal rights and opportunities to every citizen of the United States, regardless of their sex. In 1950 and 1953, ERA was passed by the Senate with a provision known as "the Hayden rider", making it unacceptable to ERA supporters.^[43][44] The Hayden rider was included to keep special protections for women. A new section to the ERA was added, stating: "The provisions of this article shall not be construed to impair any rights, benefits, or exemptions now or hereafter conferred by law upon persons of the female sex." That is, women could keep their existing and future special protections that men did not have. By 1972, the amendment was supported by both major parties and was immensely popular. However, it was defeated in Congress when it failed to get the vote of 38 legislatures by 1982.^[45] Supporters of an unaltered ERA rejected the Hayden rider, believing an ERA containing the rider did not provide for equality.^[46]

Jerome Himmelstein identified two main theories about the appeal of antifeminism and its role in opposition to the ERA. One theory is that it was a clash between upper-class liberal voters and the older, more conservative lower-class rural voters who often serve as the center for right-wing movements; in other words, this theory identifies particular social classes as more inherently friendly to antifeminism. Another theory holds that women who feel vulnerable and dependent on men are likely to oppose anything that threatens that tenuous stability; under this view, while educated, independent career women may support feminism, housewives who lack such resources are more drawn to antifeminism. Himmelstein, however, says both views are at least partially wrong, arguing that the primary dividing line between feminists and antifeminists is cultural rather than stemming from differences in economic and social status.^[47] There are, in fact, similarities between income between activists on both sides of the ERA debate. As it turned out, the most indicative factors when predicting ERA position, especially among women, were race, marital status, age, and education.^[48] ERA opposition was much higher among white, married, older, and less educated citizens.^[48] Women who opposed the ERA tended to fit characteristics consistent with the Religious Right.^[49]

Val Burris, meanwhile, says that high-income men opposed the amendment because they would gain the least with it being passed; that those men had the most to lose, since the ratification of the ERA would mean more competition for their jobs and possibly a lowered self-esteem.^[45] Because of the support of antifeminism from conservatives and the constant "conservative reactions to liberal social politics", such as the New Deal attacks, the attack on the ERA has been called a "right-wing backlash".^[45] Their methods include actions such as "insults proffered in emails or on the telephone, systematic denigration of feminism in the media, Internet disclosure of confidential information (e.g. addresses) on resources for battered women"^[9] and more.

Abortion

Abortion remains one of the most controversial topics in the United States. Roe v. Wade was decided in 1973, and abortion was utilized by many antifeminists to rally supporters. Antiabortion views helped further several right-wing movements, including explicit antifeminism, and helped right-wing politicians rise to power.^[50][51] Antiabortion writings and conservative commentary in the late 20th century criticized the feminist movement's embrace of the right to abortion as selfish and self-centered.^[51]

21st century

 

A group of Polish activists protest an International Women's Day march in Warsaw, Poland, 2010

Some current antifeminist practices can be traced back to the rise of the religious right in the late 1970s.^[10] BBC and Time, among others, have covered the 2014 social media trend #WomenAgainstFeminism. These antifeminists contend that feminism demonizes men (misandry) and that women are not oppressed in 21st century Western countries.^{[20][52][53][54][55][56]}

The website Jezebel has also reported on an increasing number of women and female celebrities rejecting feminism and instead subscribing to humanism.^[57]

In response to the social media trend, modern day feminists also began to upload similar pictures to websites such as Twitter and Tumblr. Most used the same hashtag, "womenagainstfeminism", but instead made satirical and bluntly parodic comments.^[58] In November 2014, Time magazine included "feminist" on its annual list of proposed banished words. After initially receiving the majority of votes (51%), a Time editor apologized for including the word in the poll and removed it from the results.^[59][60]

Germany

In March 2019, the Verein Deutsche Sprache [de] ("German Language Association"), an advocacy group for German language purism, organized a petition proclaiming that billions of Euros are being wasted in Germany on "gender gaga" (gender-neutral language and gender studies). This is money the organization believes can be better used to fund hospitals, natural science faculties and virus research institutes.^[61]

Serbia

In April 2022, far-right political party Leviathan, with a significant public profile of almost 300,000 Facebook followers, missed out on a seat in parliament in Serbia's 2022 election. The Leviathan party portrays migrants as criminals, and themselves as the defenders of Serbian women. The group has been praised by some in Serbia for defending 'traditional family values' and hierarchical gender roles, while opposing the empowerment of women and feminist ideologies.^[62]

South Korea

Social improvements by women have sparked an anti-feminist backlash, in which disgruntled young men have become vocal critics of feminism and feminist women who speak out in public. Yoon Suk-yeol narrowly won South Korea's 2022 presidential election. During his run for presidency, he called for the Ministry of Gender Equality and Family to be abolished, and accused its officials of treating men like “potential sex criminals.”^[63] Yoon also said that he doesn't think systemic structural discrimination based on gender exists in South Korea. However, Korean women are near the bottom of the developed world according to several economic and social indicators.^[64]

Organizations

 

Symbol used for signs and buttons by ERA opponents

Founded in the U.S. by Phyllis Schlafly in 1972, Stop ERA, now known as "Eagle Forum", lobbied successfully to block the passage of the Equal Rights Amendment in the U.S.^[65] It was also Schlafly who forged links between Stop ERA and other conservative organizations, as well as single-issue groups against abortion, pornography, gun control, and unions. By integrating Stop ERA with the thus-dubbed "New Right", she was able to leverage a wider range of technological, organizational and political resources, successfully targeting pro-feminist candidates for defeat.^[65]

In India, the Save Indian Family Foundation is an antifeminist organization^[66] opposed to a number of laws that they claim to have been used against men.^[67]

The Concerned Women of America (CWA) are also an antifeminist organization. Like other conservative women's groups, they oppose abortion and same-sex marriage and make appeals for maternalism and biological differences between women and men.^[68][69]

The Independent Women's Forum (IWF) is another antifeminist, conservative, women-oriented group. It's younger and less established than the CWA, though the two organizations are often discussed in relation to each other. It was founded to take on the "old feminist establishment".^[69] Both of these organizations pride themselves on rallying women who do not identify with feminist rhetoric together. These organizations frame themselves as being by women, for women, in order to fight the idea that feminism is the only women-oriented ideology. These organizations chastise feminists for presuming to universally speak for all women. The IWF claims to be "the voice of reasonable women with important ideas who embrace common sense over divisive ideology".^[69]

Explanatory theories

According to Amherst College sociology professor Jerome L. Himmelstein, antifeminism is rooted in social stigmas against feminism and is thus a purely reactionary movement. Himmelstein identifies two prevailing theories that seek to explain the origins of antifeminism: the first theory, proposed by Himmelstein, is that conservative opposition in the abortion and Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) debates has created a climate of hostility toward the entire feminist movement.^[47]

The second theory Himmelstein identifies states that the female antifeminists who lead the movement are largely married, low education, and low personal income women who embody the "insecure housewife scenario" and seek to perpetuate their own situation in which women depend on men for fiscal support. However, numerous studies have failed to correlate the aforementioned demographic factors with support for antifeminism, and only religiosity correlates positively with antifeminist alignment.^[47]

Authors Janet Saltzman Chafetz and Anthony Gary Dworkin, writing for Gender and Society, argue that the organizations most likely to formally organize against feminism are religious. This is because women's movements may demand access to male-dominated positions within the religious sector, like the clergy, and women's movements threaten male-oriented values of some religions.^[35] The more successful a feminist movement is in challenging the authority of male-dominated groups, the more these groups will organize a countermovement.^[35]

Implicit feminism

University of Illinois at Chicago sociology professor Danielle Giffort argues that the stigma against feminism created by antifeminists has resulted in organizations that practice "implicit feminism", which she defines as the "strategy practiced by feminist activists within organizations that are operating in an anti- and post-feminist environment in which they conceal feminist identities and ideas while emphasizing the more socially acceptable angles of their efforts".^[70] Due to the stigma against feminism, some activists, such as those involved with Girls Rock, may take the principles of feminism as a foundation of thought and teach girls and women independence and self-reliance without explicitly labeling it with the stigmatized brand of feminism. Thus, most women continue to practice feminism in terms of seeking equality and independence for women, yet avoid the label.^[70]

Connections to far-right extremism

Antifeminism has been identified as an underlying motivation for far-right extremism.^[6][7][8] For example, the perpetrators of the Christchurch massacre and the El Paso shooting appear to have been motivated by the conspiracy theory that white people are being replaced by non-whites largely as a result of feminist stances in Western societies.^[71] Many who affiliate with the white nationalist alt-right movement are antifeminist,^[72][73] with antifeminism and resentment of women being a common recruitment gateway into the movement.^[74][75]

Media researcher Michele White argues that contemporary antifeminism often supports antisemitism and white supremacy, citing the example of the Neo-Nazi websites Stormfront and The Daily Stormer, which often claim that feminism represents a Jewish plot to destroy Western civilization.^[76] According to Helen Lewis, the far-right ideology considers it vital to control female reproduction and sexuality: "Misogyny is used predominantly as the first outreach mechanism", where "You were owed something, or your life should have been X, but because of the ridiculous things feminists are doing, you can't access them."^[71] Similar strands of thought are found in the incel subculture, which centers around misogynist fantasies about punishing women for not having sex with them.^[77]

See also

• Backlash (sociology)
• École Polytechnique massacre
• Feminazi
• Incel
• The Manipulated Man
• Manosphere
• Men's rights movement
• Sexism
• Social justice warrior

References

1. Ford, Lynne E. (2009). Encyclopedia of Women and American Politics. Infobase Publishing. p. 36. ISBN 978-1-4381-1032-5. from the original on 16 April 2023. Retrieved 22 December 2015.
2. Maddux, Kristy (Fall 2004). "When patriots protest: the anti-suffrage discursive transformation of 1917". Rhetoric & Public Affairs. 7 (3): 283–310. doi:10.1353/rap.2005.0012. S2CID 143856522.
3. "How anti-feminism is shaping world politics". The Washington Post. from the original on 21 March 2019. Retrieved 25 October 2018.
4. "'Anti-feminist' YouTuber Sydney Watson launches March for Men in Melbourne". News hub. from the original on 25 October 2018. Retrieved 25 October 2018.
5. Anderson, Kristin J.; Kanner, Melinda; Elsayegh, Nisreen (2009). "Are Feminists man Haters? Feminists' and Nonfeminists' Attitudes Toward Men". Psychology of Women Quarterly. 33 (2): 216–224. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.692.9151. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.2009.01491.x. S2CID 144704304.
6. Träbert, Alva (n.d.). At the Mercy of Femocracy? Networks and Ideological Links Between Far-Right Movements and the Antifeminist Men's Rights Movement. Gender and Politics. Cham: Springer International Publishing. pp. 273–288. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-43533-6_18. ISBN 978-3-319-43533-6. from the original on 16 April 2023. Retrieved 9 September 2021 – via Springer Link.
7. Fielitz, Maik; Thurston, Nick (2019). "Bet ween Anti-Feminism and Ethnicized Sexism". Post-Digital Cultures of the Far Right: Online Actions and Offline Consequences in Europe and the US. Transcript Verlag. ISBN 978-3-8376-4670-2. from the original on 16 April 2023. Retrieved 8 December 2021 – via Google Books.
8. Lorentzen, Maia Kahlke; Shakir, Kevin (1 June 2020). "The Anti-Feminism of the Far-Right Imageboard Terrorists". Conjunctions. 7 (1): 000010714671119855. doi:10.7146/tjcp.v7i1.119855. ISSN 2246-3755.
9. Blais, Melissa; Francis Dupuis-Déri, Francis (2012). "Masculinism and the antifeminist countermovement". Journal of Social, Cultural and Political Protest. 11 (1): 21–39. doi:10.1080/14742837.2012.640532. S2CID 144983000.
10. Hammer, Rhonda (2006). "Anti‐feminists as media celebrities". Review of Education, Pedagogy, and Cultural Studies. 22 (3): 207–222. doi:10.1080/1071441000220303. S2CID 143539183.
11. Stacey, Judith (Summer 2000). "Is academic feminism an oxymoron?". Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society. 25 (4): 1189–1194. doi:10.1086/495543. JSTOR 3175510. S2CID 144886664.
12. Kamarck Minnich, Elizabeth (Spring 1998). "Feminist attacks on feminisms: patriarchy's prodigal daughters". Feminist Studies. 24 (1): 159–175. doi:10.2307/3178629. JSTOR 3178629.
13. Jervis, Lisa; Zeisler, Andi, eds. (2006). BITCHfest : ten years of cultural criticism from the pages of Bitch magazine. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN 978-0-374-11343-8. (Foreword by Margaret Cho.)
14. Rover, Constance (22 July 2019). "Ix. The Anti-Suffragists". Women's Suffrage and Party Politics in Britain, 1866–1914. University of Toronto Press. pp. 170–177. doi:10.3138/9781487575250-012. ISBN 978-1-4875-7525-0. from the original on 9 September 2021. Retrieved 9 September 2021 – via www.degruyter.com.
15. Kimmel, Michael; Aronson, Amy, eds. (2004). "Antifeminism". Men and masculinities a social, cultural, and historical encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. pp. 35–37. ISBN 978-1-57607-774-0.
16. Clatterbaugh, Kenneth (2007). "Anti-feminism". In Flood, Michael; Kegan Gardiner, Judith; Pease, Bob; Pringle, Keith (eds.). International encyclopedia of men and masculinities. London: Routledge. pp. 21–22. ISBN 978-0-41-533343-6. from the original on 16 April 2023. Retrieved 6 May 2020.
17. Wattenberg, Ben (1994). "Has feminism gone too far?". MenWeb. from the original on 13 October 2006. Retrieved 30 September 2006.
18. Pizzey, Erin (1999). "How the women's movement taught women to hate men". Fathers for Life. from the original on 26 September 2006. Retrieved 30 September 2006.
19. Shaw Crouse, Janice (7 February 2006). . Concerned Women for America. Archived from the original on 27 April 2006. Retrieved 30 September 2006.
20. Brosnan, Greg (24 July 2014). "#BBCtrending: Meet the 'Women Against Feminism'". BBC News. BBC. from the original on 14 April 2017. Retrieved 24 July 2014.
21. Blee, Kathleen M. (1998), "Antifeminism", in Mankiller, Wilma; et al., eds. (1998). The reader's companion to U.S. women's history. Boston, Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin Co. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-395-67173-3.
    • "The two major waves of antifeminist activity coincide with the two waves of the women's rights movement: the campaign to secure female suffrage in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, and the feminist movement of the late twentieth century. In both periods, those holding a traditional view of women's place in the home and family tried to advance their cause by joining with other conservative groups to forestall efforts to extend women's rights."
22. Mertz, Thomas J. (2005), "Antifeminism", in Cline Horowitz, Maryanne, ed. (2005). New dictionary of the history of ideas / Vol. 1, Abolitionism to Common sense. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 94–98. ISBN 978-0-684-31378-8.
    • "Antifeminism, then, repudiates critiques of male supremacy and resists efforts to eliminate it (often accompanied by dismissal of the idea that change is possible). Note that this definition of antifeminism limits its reference to reactions against critiques of gender-based hierarchies and efforts to relieve the oppression of women."
23. Howard, Angela Marie (2008), "Antifeminism", in Smith, Bonnie G., ed. (2008). The Oxford encyclopedia of women in world history / Vol. 1, Abayomi to Czech Republic. Oxford England New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 115–119. ISBN 978-0-19-514890-9.
    • "Reform activity that challenged either the subordination of women to men or the patriarchal limitation of women's status provoked an antifeminist response that included an intellectual and political campaign to halt progress toward women's rights and equality."
24. Hampton, Jean (1996), "The case for feminism 16 April 2023 at the Wayback Machine", in Leahy, Michael P.T., ed. (1996). The liberation debate: rights at issue. London New York: Routledge. p. 10. ISBN 978-0-415-11694-7.
25. Desai, Murli (2014), "Feminism and policy approaches for gender aware development 16 April 2023 at the Wayback Machine", in Desai, Murli, ed. (2014). The paradigm of international social development: ideologies, development systems and policy approaches. New York: Routledge. p. 119. ISBN 978-1-135-01025-6.
26. Barthalow Koch, Patricia (2004), "Feminism and sexuality in the United States 16 April 2023 at the Wayback Machine", in Francoeur, Robert T.; Noonan, Raymond J., eds. (2004). The Continuum complete international encyclopedia of sexuality. New York: Continuum. p. 1163. ISBN 978-0-19-975470-0.
27. Jaggar, Alison (1983), "Traditional Marxism and human nature 16 April 2023 at the Wayback Machine", in Jaggar, Alison, ed. (1983). Feminist politics and human. Totowa, N.J: Rowman & Allanheld. p. 75. ISBN 978-0-7108-0653-6.
28. Kassian, Mary A. (2005). The feminist mistake: the radical impact of feminism on church and culture. Wheaton, Illinois: Crossway Books. ISBN 978-1-58134-570-4.
29. Lukas, Carrie L. (2006). The politically incorrect guide to women, sex, and feminism. Washington, DC Lanham, MD: Regency Publishing. ISBN 978-1-59698-003-7.
30. "Feminism Has 'Gone Too Far', Say 50 Percent of Gen Z Men". www.vice.com. 3 August 2020. from the original on 10 June 2021. Retrieved 10 June 2021.
31. "Young, Male and Anti-Feminist – The Gen Z Boys Who Hate Women". www.vice.com. 28 May 2021. from the original on 11 June 2021. Retrieved 10 June 2021.
32. Busch, Elizabeth Kaufer (2009), "Women against liberation", in Busch, Elizabeth Kaufer; Lawler, Peter Augustine (eds.), Democracy reconsidered, Lanham, Maryland: Lexington Books, p. 242, ISBN 978-0-7391-2481-9
33. Gottfried, Paul (21 April 2001). "The trouble with feminism". LewRockwell.com. from the original on 20 November 2021. Retrieved 30 September 2006.
34. Faludi, Susan (1992), "Backlashes then and now 16 April 2023 at the Wayback Machine", in Faludi, Susan, ed. (29 May 2010). Backlash: the undeclared war against women. London: Vintage. p. 69. ISBN 978-1-4090-4344-7.
35. Chafetz, Janet; Dworkin, Anthony (March 1987). "In the face of threat: organized antifeminism in comparative perspective". Gender & Society. 1 (1): 33–60. doi:10.1177/089124387001001003. JSTOR 190086. S2CID 145056212.
36. Kimmel, Michael S. (September 1987). "Men's responses to feminism at the turn of the century". Gender and Society. 1 (3): 261–283. doi:10.1177/089124387001003003. JSTOR 189564. S2CID 145428652.
37. Dolton, Patricia F. (2014). "The alert collector: women's suffrage movement". Reference and User Services Quarterly. 54 (2): 31–36. doi:10.5860/rusq.54n2.31.
38. Clarke, Edward H. (2006). Sex in education. Rockville, Maryland: Wildside Press. pp. 29, 55. ISBN 978-0-8095-0170-0. Preview. 16 April 2023 at the Wayback Machine
39. Adams, Michele (April 2007). "Women's rights and wedding bells: 19th-century pro-family rhetoric and (re)enforcement of the gender status quo". Journal of Family Issues. 28 (4): 501–528. doi:10.1177/0192513X06297465. S2CID 145588708.
40. Henderson, C. R. (March 1898). "Reviews: The Report of the National League for the Protection of the Family". American Journal of Sociology. 3 (5): 705. doi:10.1086/210751.
41. Thurner, Manuela (Spring 1993). ""Better citizens without the ballot": American antisuffrage women and their rationale during the progressive era". Journal of Women's History. 5 (1): 33–60. doi:10.1353/jowh.2010.0279. S2CID 144309053.
42. Storrs, Landon R.Y. (Spring 2007). "Attacking the Washington "Femmocracy": antifeminism in the Cold War Campaign against "Communists in Government"". Feminist Studies. 33 (1): 118–152. doi:10.2307/20459124. JSTOR 20459124.
43. Paul, Alice. "Conversations with Alice Paul: Woman Suffrage and the Equal Rights Amendment (interview with Amelia R. Fry) (November 1972 and May 1973)". cdlib.org. Suffragists Oral History Project, University of California, Berkeley. from the original on 6 February 2016. Retrieved 19 July 2016.
44. Freeman, Jo (June 1996). "What's in a Name? Does it matter how the Equal Rights Amendment is worded?". jofreeman.com. from the original on 18 November 2016. Retrieved 19 July 2016.
45. Burris, Val (June 1983). "Who opposed the ERA? An analysis of the social bases of antifeminism". Social Science Quarterly. 64 (2): 305–317. JSTOR 42874034.
46. Harrison, Cynthia Ellen (1989), ""Reasonable distinctions": an alternative to the ERA", in Harrison, Cynthia Ellen, ed. (1988). On Account of Sex: The Politics of Women's Issues, 1945–1968. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 31–32. ISBN 978-0-520-06121-7.
47. Himmelstein, Jerome (March 1986). "The social basis of antifeminism: Religious networks and culture". Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion. 25 (1): 1–15. doi:10.2307/1386059. JSTOR 1386059.
48. Marshall, Susan E. (May 1991). "Who speaks for American Women? The future of antifeminism". The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. 515 (1): 50–62. doi:10.1177/0002716291515001005. JSTOR 1046927. S2CID 145178814.
49. Brady, David W.; Tedin, Kent L. (March 1976). "Ladies in pink: religion and political ideology in the anti-ERA movement". Social Science Quarterly. 56 (4): 564–575. JSTOR 42860411.
50. Petchesky, Rosalind Pollack (Summer 1981). "Antiabortion, antifeminism, and the rise of the new right". Feminist Studies. 7 (2): 206–246. doi:10.2307/3177522. JSTOR 3177522.
51. Joffe, Carole (June 1987). "Abortion and antifeminism". Politics & Society. 15 (2): 207–211. doi:10.1177/003232928701500206. S2CID 153392612.
52. Young, Cathy (24 July 2014). "Stop fem-splaining: what 'Women Against Feminism' gets right". Time. Time Inc. from the original on 25 September 2018. Retrieved 24 July 2014.
53. Kim, Eun Kyung (30 July 2014). "Is feminism still relevant? Some women saying they don't need it". Today. NBC. from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 1 August 2014.
54. Young, Cathy. "Daughters of feminism strike back". Newsday. Cablevision. from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 1 August 2014.
55. Boesveld, Sarah (25 July 2014). . National Post. Postmedia Network Inc. Archived from the original on 24 March 2015. Retrieved 1 August 2014.
56. Durgin, Celina (28 July 2014). "Anti-feminists baffle feminists". National Review. National Review, Inc. from the original on 8 October 2017. Retrieved 1 August 2014.
57. Dries, Kate (2 November 2013). "The many misguided reasons famous ladies say 'I'm Not a Feminist'". jezebel.com. Gawker Media. from the original on 21 March 2019. Retrieved 14 August 2014.
58. Chang, Charis. "#WomenAgainstFeminism goes viral as people explain why they don't need feminism anymore". news.com.au. from the original on 12 August 2014. Retrieved 13 August 2014.
59. Steinmetz, Katy (12 November 2014). "Which word should be banned in 2015?". Time. from the original on 10 October 2018. Retrieved 18 November 2014.
60. Rabouin, Dion (15 November 2014). "Time Magazine apologizes for including 'feminist' in 2015 word banishment poll". International Business Times. from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 18 November 2014.
61. Debionne, Philippe (28 March 2020). "Verein macht Gender-Studien für fehlende Finanzmittel bei Virusforschung verantwortlich". Berliner Zeitung (in German). from the original on 30 July 2021. Retrieved 24 May 2022.
62. "Extreme Entitlement: Misogyny, Anti-Feminism in Far-Right Recruitment". Balkan Insight. 10 May 2022. from the original on 18 May 2022. Retrieved 24 May 2022.
63. "How South Korea's Next President Capitalized on Anti-Feminist Backlash". Time. from the original on 24 May 2022. Retrieved 24 May 2022.
64. Seoul, Raphael Rashid in (11 March 2022). "'Devastated': gender equality hopes on hold as 'anti-feminist' voted South Korea's president". the Guardian. from the original on 13 August 2022. Retrieved 2 August 2022.
65. Tierney, Helen (1999), "Antifeminist movements 16 April 2023 at the Wayback Machine", in Tierney, Helen, ed. (1999). Women's studies encyclopedia: A–F. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. p. 95. ISBN 978-0-86172-112-2.
66. Basu, Srimati (2006). "Playing off courts: the negotiation of divorce and violence in plural legal settings in Kolkata". The Journal of Legal Pluralism and Unofficial Law. 38 (52): 41–75. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.485.7052. doi:10.1080/07329113.2006.10756591. S2CID 144414017.
67. Kulkarni, Mangesh (2014), "Critical masculinity studies in India 16 April 2023 at the Wayback Machine", in Dasgupta, Rohit K.; Gokulsing, K. Moti, eds. (20 December 2013). Masculinity and its challenges in India: essays on changing perceptions. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers. p. 65. ISBN 978-0-7864-7224-6.
68. Schreiber, Ronnee (2008). Righting feminism: conservative women and American politics. Oxford New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-533181-3.
69. Schreiber, Ronnee (October 2002). "Injecting a woman's voice: Conservative women's organizations, gender consciousness, and the expression of women's policy preferences". Sex Roles. 47 (7–8): 331–341. doi:10.1023/A:1021479030885. S2CID 140980839.
70. Giffort, Danielle M. (October 2011). "Show or tell? Feminist dilemmas and implicit feminism at girls' rock camp". Gender & Society. 25 (5): 569–588. doi:10.1177/0891243211415978. JSTOR 23044173. S2CID 145503177.
71. Lewis, Helen (7 August 2019). "To Learn About the Far Right, Start With the 'Manosphere'". The Atlantic. from the original on 14 June 2020. Retrieved 6 April 2020.
72. Stack, Liam (15 August 2017). "Alt-right, alt-left, antifa: a glossary of extremist language". The New York Times. from the original on 17 December 2019. Retrieved 26 October 2017.
73. Hawley, George. Making Sense of the Alt-Right. Columbia University Press. p. 17.
74. Carranco, Shannon; Milton, Jon; Curtis, Christopher (20 May 2018). "Alt-right in Montreal: The war against women". Montreal Gazette. from the original on 1 April 2019. Retrieved 1 April 2019.
75. Romano, Aja (14 December 2016). "How the alt-right's sexism lures men into white supremacy". Vox. from the original on 10 August 2018. Retrieved 1 April 2019.
76. White, Michele (2022). "An Introduction to and Critique of Anti-feminisms". In White, Michele; Negra, Diane (eds.). Anti-Feminisms in Media Culture (1st ed.). New York: Routledge. pp. 1–24. doi:10.4324/9781003090212-1. ISBN 978-1-0030-9021-2. S2CID 246953267.^{[page needed]}
77. Ling, Justin (19 June 2018). "'Not as ironic as I imagined': the incels spokesman on why he is renouncing them". The Guardian. from the original on 3 May 2020. Retrieved 6 April 2020.

Further reading

• Faraut, Martine (2003). "Women resisting the vote: a case of anti-feminism?". Women's History Review. 12 (4): 605–621. doi:10.1080/09612020300200376. S2CID 145708717.
• Howard, Angela; Adams Tarrant, Sasha Ranaé, eds. (1997). Opposition to the Women's Movement in the United States, 1848-1929. Antifeminism in America: A Collection of Readings From the Literature of the Opponents to U.S. Feminism, 1848 to the Present. Vol. 1. New York: Garland Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8153-2713-4.
• Howard, Angela; Adams Tarrant, Sasha Ranaé, eds. (1997). Reaction to the Modern Women's Movement, 1963 to the Present. Antifeminism in America: A Collection of Readings From the Literature of the Opponents to U.S Feminism, 1848 to the Present. Vol. 3. New York: Garland Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8153-2715-8.
• Howard, Angela; Adams Tarrant, Sasha Ranaé, eds. (1997). Redefining the New Woman, 1920-1963. Antifeminism in America: A Collection of Readings From the Literature of the Opponents to U.S. Feminism, 1848 to the Present. Vol. 2. New York: Garland Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8153-2714-1.
• Kampwirth, Karen (2006). "Resisting the feminist threat: antifeminist politics in post-Sandinista Nicaragua". NWSA Journal. 18 (2): 73–100. JSTOR 4317208. S2CID 145487146.
• Kampwirth, Karen (2003). "Arnoldo Alemán takes on the NGOs: antifeminism and the new populism in Nicaragua". Latin American Politics and Society. 45 (2): 133–158. doi:10.1111/j.1548-2456.2003.tb00243.x. JSTOR 3176982. S2CID 153608755.
• Kampwirth, Karen (1998). "Feminism, antifeminism, and electoral politics in post-war Nicaragua and El Salvador". Political Science Quarterly. 113 (2): 259–279. doi:10.2307/2657856. JSTOR 2657856.
• Kinnard, Cynthia D. (1986). Antifeminism in American thought: an annotated bibliography. Boston, Mass.: G.K. Hall & Co. ISBN 978-0-8161-8122-3.
• Mansbridge, Jane (1986). Why we lost the ERA. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-50357-8.
• Nielsen, Kim E. (2001). Un-American womanhood : antiradicalism, antifeminism, and the first Red Scare. Columbus: Ohio State University Press 978-0-8142-0882-3. ISBN 978-0-8142-0882-3.
• Price-Robertson, Rhys (Spring 2012). "Anti-feminist men's groups in Australia (An interview with Michael Flood)" (PDF). DVRCV Quarterly (3 ed.). Collingwood, Vic.: Domestic Violence Resource Centre Victoria. pp. 10–13. ISSN 1838-7926 – via Xyonline.net.
• Schreiber, Ronnee (2008). Righting feminism: conservative women and American politics. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-533181-3.
• Swanson, Gillian (2013) [first published 1999]. Antifeminism in America: A Historical Reader (1st ed.). New York: Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781315051970. ISBN 978-1-3150-5197-0.

External links

•   Media related to Anti-feminism at Wikimedia Commons
•   The dictionary definition of antifeminism at Wiktionary
• Antifeminism at Curlie