Phallaceae is a family of fungi, commonly known as stinkhorns, within the order Phallales. Stinkhorns have a worldwide distribution, but are especially prevalent in tropical regions. They are known for their foul-smelling, sticky spore masses, or gleba, borne on the end of a stalk called the receptaculum. The characteristic fruiting-body structure, a single, unbranched receptaculum with an externally attached gleba on the upper part, distinguishes the Phallaceae from other families in the Phallales. The spore mass typically smells of carrion or dung, and attracts flies, beetles and other insects to help disperse the spores. Although there is great diversity in body structure shape among the various genera, all species in the Phallaceae begin their development as oval or round structures known as "eggs". The appearance of Phallaceae is often sudden, as gleba can erupt from the underground egg and burst open within an hour.[3] According to a 2008 estimate, the family contains 21 genera and 77 species.[4]
Species of stinkhorns have gasteroid, or internally produced spores. Fruit bodies originate as a gelatinous, spherical, or egg-shaped structure that may be completely or partially buried underground. The peridium, the outer layer of the egg, is white, or purple/red, with two or three layers. The outer layer is thin, membranous, and elastic, while the inner layer is thicker, gelatinous, and continuous. At maturity, the peridium opens up and remains as a volva at the base of the receptaculum.[5]
The porous mushroom is among the fastest growing in the world, extending by 5 mm per minute, so fast that a crackling sound can be heard.[6] Technically it is not really growing, as it uses a form of cellular origami to increase its size by absorbing water.[7]
The fertile portion of the fruiting body is often borne on the end of a wide, fleshy or spongy stalk (as in the Phallales), which may be cylindrical, star-shaped, or reticulate (forming a network). They may be brightly colored, sometimes with a lattice- or veil-like membrane enclosing and protecting the spores. The spore-containing substance, the gleba, is typically gelatinous, often foul-smelling, and deliquescent (becoming liquid from the absorption of water). The gleba is formed on the exterior face of the cap or the upper part of the receptacle.
The basidia are small and narrowly club-shaped or fusiform, short-lived (evanescent), with four to eight sterigmata. The spores are usually ellipsoid or cylindrical in shape, hyaline or pale brown, smooth, more or less smooth-walled, and truncated at the base.[8]
A bisected stinkhorn egg (Phallus impudicus)
The gelatinous layer of the stinkhorn (Clathrus ruber) contains high concentrations of potassium, calcium, manganese, and iron. A moderate amount of calcium is found in the receptacle and gleba as well as a high amount of manganese is also found in the gleba. Retaining a high potassium concentration is important for the growth of the stem of the fruiting body called the carpophore, where potassium plays a key component in regulating osmotic pressure. This osmotic pressure helps maintain the shape of the carpophore. The calcium found in the gelatinous layer contributes to the slimy characteristics of the gel and protects the carpophore during growth. The strong adhesive gelatinous layer consists of polysaccharides that are formed by the sequestration of calcium ions. The high manganese and iron concentrations in the gelatinous layer and gleba are theorized to produce enzymes that produce sugars and odorous compounds that play a role in attracting insects.[9]
Stinkhorns are edible, but only at the egg stage when the smell is less strong. The inner layer can be cut out with a knife and eaten raw – it is crisp and crunchy with a radish-like taste. [10]
The mushrooms also contains several pharmaceutical compounds with potential for cancer treatment.[11]
Fruiting bodies have a short stalk from which arises a spore-bearing structure (the receptaculum) of 5–8 arched arms. These arms, initially joined at the top, disconnect and curve irregularly to expose the inner surface of each arm, which is covered with green spore-containing gleba. Spores are 3–4 × 1–1.5 μm.[12]
Aseroë rubraMature fruiting bodies contain a roughly cylindrical white or pinkish stalk approximately 6 × 2 cm, with a volva at the base. At the top is a bright red disc with a variable number of arms, typically 3–7 cm long. The gleba found on the disc and inner side of the arms is slimy, foetid, and green colored. Spores are hyaline, with dimensions of 4–6 1.5–2 μm.[12]Aseroë rubra, an Australian and Pacific species which has spread to Europe and North America.
Clathrus columnatusFruiting bodies are latticed (clathrate), and made of hollow tubular arms that originate from the basal tissue within the volva. Spores are elliptical, smooth, hyaline, with dimensions of 4–6 ×1.5–2.5 μm.[13] Examples include Clathrus ruber, the lattice stinkhorn, Clathrus archeri, the octopus stinkhorn, and Clathrus columnatus, the columned stinkhorn.
A genus of four species with fruit bodies that are a short stalk from which six columns arise, joining at the top to form a red, arching, clathrate receptaculum. The gleba is smeared on the inside surface of the receptaculum.[9]
Contains a single species, E. yunnanensis found in China, that resembles Phallus except for a peridium that is separated from the base of the stem and which does not persist as a volva.[14]
Fruiting bodies are latticed (clathrate), and have gelatinous arms that lie sessile within the volva. Spores are elliptical, and have dimensions of 4–6 1.5–2.5 μm.[13] The New Zealand native, Ileodictyon cibarium, known as the basket fungus, has a fruiting body shaped somewhat like a round or oval ball with interlaced or latticed branches.
Characters in this genus include a white calyptra (tissue which covers the top of the fruiting body to which the gleba is attached), lamellate plates covered with gleba. The gleba has a white mottled surface, and the pileus appears wig-like when removed of the gleba. The thick, stout stalk has many chambered walls.[15]
Fruiting bodies are 4.5–6.5 cm long, 2.2–5 cm in diameter, and have four or five thick white chambered arms that are joined at the top, but free at the base. This monotypic genus, containing the single species L. rodrigueziana, is known only from Costa Rica.[16]
Lysurus mokusinFruiting bodies consist of a long stalk with 3 or 4 short, thick arms. These arms, initially joined together, but usually separate at maturity, are covered with the brownish-olivaceous gleba. Spores are ellipsoidal, with dimensions of 4–5 × 1.5–2 μm.[13]
The mature fruiting body has a spongy, cylindrical hollow stalk which ends in a slender, tapered, sometimes curved head covered with the dark olivaceous, slimy gleba. In older specimens, the gleba may be washed or worn off to show the orange or red color of the head itself. Notable species include the dog stinkhorn Mutinus caninus.
This genus contains the single species Neolysurus arcipulvinus, described from Costa Rica. The stipe and arms have a tubular construction, similar to species from Lysurus. Neolysurus is unique in having a long stipe, ending in arms or columns that branch and interconnect to support a cushion-shaped, olive green gleba. The glebal cushion is divided into polygonal compartments by a fine pinkish white, solid mesh. The hymenium is continuous between the mesh.[17]
In species of Phallus, the receptaculum is a tall unbranched stalk that ends in a cap-like structure that bears the gleba. Notable species include Phallus impudicus, the common stinkhorn, Phallus hadriani, Phallus ravenelii, and Phallus indusiatus (syn. Dictyophora indusiata), the Chinese "bamboo fungus", eaten as a food in southwestern China after the foul smelling cap is removed.
Fruiting bodies are egg-shaped, 2.2–3.5 cm in diameter by 3–4 cm high, with a dull white, soft exoperidium (roughly 1 mm thick) and a grayish exoperidium (3–4 mm thick). The gleba is contained within internal chambers that are separated by whitish, gelatinous tissue that originates from a columella-like, gelatinous central core. Spores are elliptical, smooth, nearly hyaline, and 3.5–4.5 1.5–2 μm.[18]
This genus resembles the Protubera, except that the tissue is "gelatinous fleshy in the peridium and not so distinctly gelatinous as in Protubera maracuja, they are less gelatinous in the nature of the sterile strands than those of P. maracuja".[19] Spores are clylindric, thin-walled, and 3.7–5 2–2.5 μm. This monotypic genus contains the single species Protuberella borealis, known only from Asia.
The number and type of volatile compounds produced by stinkhorn mushrooms changes throughout its life course. When the stinkhorn is still in its egg stage, the total amount of volatile substances is relatively low. The sulfuric odorous compounds (that attract insects) is absent. During this stage the mushroom’s veil covers up the slime covered cap that contains the spores. When the stinkhorn grows into a more mature-fruit body, there are over twenty-two volatile compounds found in the mature-fruit bodies including dimethyl oligosulfides, aroma-active phenylalanines and various terpenoids that act as insect attractants. In an over-ripe stinkhorn, forty-one volatile components are present, many of which also act as insect attractants. Dimethyl oligosulfides are not as commonly found in over-ripe fruit as they were in the mature fruit bodies since many of the insects already carried the smelly slime away.[20]
The stinkhorn contains compounds of carrion, such as oligosulfides, and of feces, such as phenol, indole and p-cresol. This provides evidence for mimicry of carrion and feces and convergence in the putrid scents of fungus. The stinkhorn’s scent is similar to that of rotten meat and dog feces. This scent profile supports the assumption that the stinkhorn mimics fly brood sites and food sources. The flies are being lured in by the exploitation of their innate attraction to smell of the decaying animal matter that the stinkhorn gives off. [21]
Referencesedit
^"Clathraceae Chevall. 1826". MycoBank. International Mycological Association. from the original on 2012-03-17. Retrieved 2010-08-06.
^"Lysuraceae Corda 1842". MycoBank. International Mycological Association. from the original on 2012-03-17. Retrieved 2010-08-06.
^"Stinkhorn | fungus order | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2023-02-21.
^Kirk PM, Cannon PF, Minter DW, Stalpers JA (2008). Dictionary of the Fungi (10th ed.). Wallingford: CABI. p. 519. ISBN978-0-85199-826-8.
^Jülich W. (1982). Higher taxa of Basidiomycetes. Bibliotheca Mycologia 85. Cramer, Vaduz. 485 pp.
^Zang, Mu; Petersen, Ronald H. (May–June 1989). "Endophallus, a new genus in the Phallaceae from China". Mycologia. 81 (3): 486–89. doi:10.2307/3760091. JSTOR 3760091.
^Long, W.H.; Stouffer, David J. (Nov–Dec 1943). "Studies in the Gasteromycetes: IX. The genus, Itajahya, in North America". Mycologia. 35 (6): 620–8. doi:10.2307/3754905. JSTOR 3754905. from the original on 2015-09-23. Retrieved 2013-07-10.
^Saenz, JA (1980). "Ligiella, a new genus for the Clathraceae". Mycologia. 72 (2): 338–49. doi:10.2307/3759257. JSTOR 3759257.
^Miller, O. K.; Ovrebo, C. L.; Burk, W. R. (October 1991). "Neolysurus: A new genus in the Clathraceae". Mycological Research. 95 (10): 1230–4. doi:10.1016/S0953-7562(09)80016-6.
^Imai, S; Kawamura, A (1958). "On the Japanese species of Protubera". Science Reports of the Yokohama National University. 2 (7): 1–6.
^Pudil, Frantisek (January 2014). "Compounds in Stinkhorn (Phallus impudicus L. ex Pers.) at Different Stages of Grouwth". from the original on 2022-06-01. Retrieved 2022-06-01.
^Johnson, S. D.; Jürgens, A. (2010-10-01). "Convergent evolution of carrion and faecal scent mimicry in fly-pollinated angiosperm flowers and a stinkhorn fungus". South African Journal of Botany. Chemical diversity and biological functions of plant volatiles. 76 (4): 796–807. doi:10.1016/j.sajb.2010.07.012. ISSN 0254-6299.
Books citededit
Ellis JB, Ellis MB (1990). Fungi without Gills (Hymenomycetes and Gasteromycetes): An Identification Handbook. London: Chapman and Hall. ISBN0-412-36970-2.
Miller HR, Miller OK (1988). Gasteromycetes: Morphological and Developmental Features, with keys to the Orders, Families, and Genera. Eureka, CA: Mad River Press. ISBN0-916422-74-7.
External linksedit
Media related to Phallaceae at Wikimedia Commons
Data related to Phallaceae at Wikispecies
Index Fungorum
Dictyophora duplicata, the veiled stinkhorn or the netted stinkhorn
Stinkhorns: The Phallaceae and Clathraceae
February 15, 2024
phallaceae, family, fungi, commonly, known, stinkhorns, within, order, phallales, stinkhorns, have, worldwide, distribution, especially, prevalent, tropical, regions, they, known, their, foul, smelling, sticky, spore, masses, gleba, borne, stalk, called, recep. Phallaceae is a family of fungi commonly known as stinkhorns within the order Phallales Stinkhorns have a worldwide distribution but are especially prevalent in tropical regions They are known for their foul smelling sticky spore masses or gleba borne on the end of a stalk called the receptaculum The characteristic fruiting body structure a single unbranched receptaculum with an externally attached gleba on the upper part distinguishes the Phallaceae from other families in the Phallales The spore mass typically smells of carrion or dung and attracts flies beetles and other insects to help disperse the spores Although there is great diversity in body structure shape among the various genera all species in the Phallaceae begin their development as oval or round structures known as eggs The appearance of Phallaceae is often sudden as gleba can erupt from the underground egg and burst open within an hour 3 According to a 2008 estimate the family contains 21 genera and 77 species 4 PhallaceaeThe common stinkhorn Phallus impudicusScientific classificationDomain EukaryotaKingdom FungiDivision BasidiomycotaClass AgaricomycetesOrder PhallalesFamily PhallaceaeCorda 1842 Type genusPhallusJunius ex L 1753 Synonyms 1 2 Clathraceae Chevall 1826 Lysuraceae Corda 1842Fresh stinkhorn mushroom Contents 1 Description 2 Genera 3 Volatile compounds 4 References 4 1 Books cited 5 External linksDescription editSpecies of stinkhorns have gasteroid or internally produced spores Fruit bodies originate as a gelatinous spherical or egg shaped structure that may be completely or partially buried underground The peridium the outer layer of the egg is white or purple red with two or three layers The outer layer is thin membranous and elastic while the inner layer is thicker gelatinous and continuous At maturity the peridium opens up and remains as a volva at the base of the receptaculum 5 The porous mushroom is among the fastest growing in the world extending by 5 mm per minute so fast that a crackling sound can be heard 6 Technically it is not really growing as it uses a form of cellular origami to increase its size by absorbing water 7 The fertile portion of the fruiting body is often borne on the end of a wide fleshy or spongy stalk as in the Phallales which may be cylindrical star shaped or reticulate forming a network They may be brightly colored sometimes with a lattice or veil like membrane enclosing and protecting the spores The spore containing substance the gleba is typically gelatinous often foul smelling and deliquescent becoming liquid from the absorption of water The gleba is formed on the exterior face of the cap or the upper part of the receptacle The basidia are small and narrowly club shaped or fusiform short lived evanescent with four to eight sterigmata The spores are usually ellipsoid or cylindrical in shape hyaline or pale brown smooth more or less smooth walled and truncated at the base 8 nbsp A bisected stinkhorn egg Phallus impudicus The gelatinous layer of the stinkhorn Clathrus ruber contains high concentrations of potassium calcium manganese and iron A moderate amount of calcium is found in the receptacle and gleba as well as a high amount of manganese is also found in the gleba Retaining a high potassium concentration is important for the growth of the stem of the fruiting body called the carpophore where potassium plays a key component in regulating osmotic pressure This osmotic pressure helps maintain the shape of the carpophore The calcium found in the gelatinous layer contributes to the slimy characteristics of the gel and protects the carpophore during growth The strong adhesive gelatinous layer consists of polysaccharides that are formed by the sequestration of calcium ions The high manganese and iron concentrations in the gelatinous layer and gleba are theorized to produce enzymes that produce sugars and odorous compounds that play a role in attracting insects 9 Stinkhorns are edible but only at the egg stage when the smell is less strong The inner layer can be cut out with a knife and eaten raw it is crisp and crunchy with a radish like taste 10 The mushrooms also contains several pharmaceutical compounds with potential for cancer treatment 11 Genera edit nbsp Bridal veil stinkhorn Phallus indusiatus Anthurus Kalchbr amp MacOwan 1880 Fruiting bodies have a short stalk from which arises a spore bearing structure the receptaculum of 5 8 arched arms These arms initially joined at the top disconnect and curve irregularly to expose the inner surface of each arm which is covered with green spore containing gleba Spores are 3 4 1 1 5 mm 12 Aporophallus Moller 1895 Aseroe Labill 1800 nbsp Aseroe rubraMature fruiting bodies contain a roughly cylindrical white or pinkish stalk approximately 6 2 cm with a volva at the base At the top is a bright red disc with a variable number of arms typically 3 7 cm long The gleba found on the disc and inner side of the arms is slimy foetid and green colored Spores are hyaline with dimensions of 4 6 1 5 2 mm 12 Aseroe rubra an Australian and Pacific species which has spread to Europe and North America Blumenavia Moller 1895 Clathrus P Micheli ex L 1753 nbsp Clathrus columnatusFruiting bodies are latticed clathrate and made of hollow tubular arms that originate from the basal tissue within the volva Spores are elliptical smooth hyaline with dimensions of 4 6 1 5 2 5 mm 13 Examples include Clathrus ruber the lattice stinkhorn Clathrus archeri the octopus stinkhorn and Clathrus columnatus the columned stinkhorn Colus Cavalier amp Sechier 1835 A genus of four species with fruit bodies that are a short stalk from which six columns arise joining at the top to form a red arching clathrate receptaculum The gleba is smeared on the inside surface of the receptaculum 9 Echinophalus Henn 1898 Endophallus Zang amp Petersen 1989 Contains a single species E yunnanensis found in China that resembles Phallus except for a peridium that is separated from the base of the stem and which does not persist as a volva 14 Ileodictyon Tul ex M Raoul 1844 Fruiting bodies are latticed clathrate and have gelatinous arms that lie sessile within the volva Spores are elliptical and have dimensions of 4 6 1 5 2 5 mm 13 The New Zealand native Ileodictyon cibarium known as the basket fungus has a fruiting body shaped somewhat like a round or oval ball with interlaced or latticed branches Itajahya Moller 1895 Characters in this genus include a white calyptra tissue which covers the top of the fruiting body to which the gleba is attached lamellate plates covered with gleba The gleba has a white mottled surface and the pileus appears wig like when removed of the gleba The thick stout stalk has many chambered walls 15 Kobayasia Kobayasi S Imai amp A Kawam 1958 This genus circumscribes the single species Kobayasia nipponica found in Japan in 1958 Laternea Turpin 1822 nbsp Laternea pusillaLigiella J A Saenz 1980 Fruiting bodies are 4 5 6 5 cm long 2 2 5 cm in diameter and have four or five thick white chambered arms that are joined at the top but free at the base This monotypic genus containing the single species L rodrigueziana is known only from Costa Rica 16 Lysurus Fr 1823 nbsp Lysurus mokusinFruiting bodies consist of a long stalk with 3 or 4 short thick arms These arms initially joined together but usually separate at maturity are covered with the brownish olivaceous gleba Spores are ellipsoidal with dimensions of 4 5 1 5 2 mm 13 Mutinus Huds Fr 1849 The mature fruiting body has a spongy cylindrical hollow stalk which ends in a slender tapered sometimes curved head covered with the dark olivaceous slimy gleba In older specimens the gleba may be washed or worn off to show the orange or red color of the head itself Notable species include the dog stinkhorn Mutinus caninus Neolysurus O K Mill Ovrebo amp Burk 1991 This genus contains the single species Neolysurus arcipulvinus described from Costa Rica The stipe and arms have a tubular construction similar to species from Lysurus Neolysurus is unique in having a long stipe ending in arms or columns that branch and interconnect to support a cushion shaped olive green gleba The glebal cushion is divided into polygonal compartments by a fine pinkish white solid mesh The hymenium is continuous between the mesh 17 Phallus Junius ex L 1753 In species of Phallus the receptaculum is a tall unbranched stalk that ends in a cap like structure that bears the gleba Notable species include Phallus impudicus the common stinkhorn Phallus hadriani Phallus ravenelii and Phallus indusiatus syn Dictyophora indusiata the Chinese bamboo fungus eaten as a food in southwestern China after the foul smelling cap is removed Protubera Moller 1895 Fruiting bodies are egg shaped 2 2 3 5 cm in diameter by 3 4 cm high with a dull white soft exoperidium roughly 1 mm thick and a grayish exoperidium 3 4 mm thick The gleba is contained within internal chambers that are separated by whitish gelatinous tissue that originates from a columella like gelatinous central core Spores are elliptical smooth nearly hyaline and 3 5 4 5 1 5 2 mm 18 Protuberella S Imai S Imai amp Kawam 1958 This genus resembles the Protubera except that the tissue is gelatinous fleshy in the peridium and not so distinctly gelatinous as in Protubera maracuja they are less gelatinous in the nature of the sterile strands than those of P maracuja 19 Spores are clylindric thin walled and 3 7 5 2 2 5 mm This monotypic genus contains the single species Protuberella borealis known only from Asia Pseudoclathrus B Liu amp Y S Bau 1980 Pseudocolus Lloyd 1907 Staheliomyces E Fisch 1921 Volatile compounds editThe number and type of volatile compounds produced by stinkhorn mushrooms changes throughout its life course When the stinkhorn is still in its egg stage the total amount of volatile substances is relatively low The sulfuric odorous compounds that attract insects is absent During this stage the mushroom s veil covers up the slime covered cap that contains the spores When the stinkhorn grows into a more mature fruit body there are over twenty two volatile compounds found in the mature fruit bodies including dimethyl oligosulfides aroma active phenylalanines and various terpenoids that act as insect attractants In an over ripe stinkhorn forty one volatile components are present many of which also act as insect attractants Dimethyl oligosulfides are not as commonly found in over ripe fruit as they were in the mature fruit bodies since many of the insects already carried the smelly slime away 20 The stinkhorn contains compounds of carrion such as oligosulfides and of feces such as phenol indole and p cresol This provides evidence for mimicry of carrion and feces and convergence in the putrid scents of fungus The stinkhorn s scent is similar to that of rotten meat and dog feces This scent profile supports the assumption that the stinkhorn mimics fly brood sites and food sources The flies are being lured in by the exploitation of their innate attraction to smell of the decaying animal matter that the stinkhorn gives off 21 References edit Clathraceae Chevall 1826 MycoBank International Mycological Association Archived from the original on 2012 03 17 Retrieved 2010 08 06 Lysuraceae Corda 1842 MycoBank International Mycological Association Archived from the original on 2012 03 17 Retrieved 2010 08 06 Stinkhorn fungus order Britannica www britannica com Retrieved 2023 02 21 Kirk PM Cannon PF Minter DW Stalpers JA 2008 Dictionary of the Fungi 10th ed Wallingford CABI p 519 ISBN 978 0 85199 826 8 Julich W 1982 Higher taxa of Basidiomycetes Bibliotheca Mycologia 85 Cramer Vaduz 485 pp The Handy Biology Answer Book Mycofluidics The Fluid Mechanics of Fungal Adaptation Cannon PF Kirk PM 2007 Fungal families of the world Wallingford CABI p 270 1 ISBN 978 0 85199 827 5 a b Miller and Miller p 91 https www woodlandtrust org uk trees woods and wildlife fungi and lichens stinkhorn text Stinkhorn 20is 20edible 2C 20but 20only with 20a 20radish 2Dlike 20taste The Chemistry Pharmacology and Therapeutic Potential of the Edible Mushroom Dictyophora indusiata Vent ex Pers Fischer Synn Phallus indusiatus a b Ellis and Ellis p 219 a b c Miller and Miller p 80 Zang Mu Petersen Ronald H May June 1989 Endophallus a new genus in the Phallaceae from China Mycologia 81 3 486 89 doi 10 2307 3760091 JSTOR 3760091 Long W H Stouffer David J Nov Dec 1943 Studies in the Gasteromycetes IX The genus Itajahya in North America Mycologia 35 6 620 8 doi 10 2307 3754905 JSTOR 3754905 Archived from the original on 2015 09 23 Retrieved 2013 07 10 Saenz JA 1980 Ligiella a new genus for the Clathraceae Mycologia 72 2 338 49 doi 10 2307 3759257 JSTOR 3759257 Miller O K Ovrebo C L Burk W R October 1991 Neolysurus A new genus in the Clathraceae Mycological Research 95 10 1230 4 doi 10 1016 S0953 7562 09 80016 6 nbsp Miller and Miller p 83 Imai S Kawamura A 1958 On the Japanese species of Protubera Science Reports of the Yokohama National University 2 7 1 6 Pudil Frantisek January 2014 Compounds in Stinkhorn Phallus impudicus L ex Pers at Different Stages of Grouwth Archived from the original on 2022 06 01 Retrieved 2022 06 01 Johnson S D Jurgens A 2010 10 01 Convergent evolution of carrion and faecal scent mimicry in fly pollinated angiosperm flowers and a stinkhorn fungus South African Journal of Botany Chemical diversity and biological functions of plant volatiles 76 4 796 807 doi 10 1016 j sajb 2010 07 012 ISSN 0254 6299 Books cited edit Ellis JB Ellis MB 1990 Fungi without Gills Hymenomycetes and Gasteromycetes An Identification Handbook London Chapman and Hall ISBN 0 412 36970 2 Miller HR Miller OK 1988 Gasteromycetes Morphological and Developmental Features with keys to the Orders Families and Genera Eureka CA Mad River Press ISBN 0 916422 74 7 External links edit nbsp Media related to Phallaceae at Wikimedia Commons nbsp Data related to Phallaceae at Wikispecies Index Fungorum Dictyophora duplicata the veiled stinkhorn or the netted stinkhorn Stinkhorns The Phallaceae and Clathraceae Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Phallaceae amp oldid 1182465591, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,
