30,000 Spaniards 94 cannons[6][7] 10–12,000 French (12 battalions)[6][7] Total: 42,000[8] (largest Spanish military mobilisation of the eighteenth century)[9][10]
Casualties and losses
Very low:[11] (14 British soldiers killed in combat, 804 by disease or accidents;[12] Portuguese losses low)
The Spanish invasion of Portugal (1762) between 5 May and 24 November, was a military episode in the wider Fantastic War in which Spain and France were defeated by the Anglo-Portuguese Alliance with broad popular resistance. It involved at first the forces of Spain and Portugal until France and Great Britain intervened in the conflict on the side of their respective allies. The war was also strongly marked by guerrilla warfare in the mountainous country, which cut off supplies from Spain, and a hostile peasantry, which enforced a scorched earth policy as the invading armies approached that left the invaders starving and short of military supplies and forced them to retreat with heavy losses, mostly from starvation, disease, and desertion.
During the first invasion, 22,000 Spaniards commanded by Nicolás de Carvajal, Marquis of Sarria, entered the Province of Alto Trás-os-Montes, in the northeast of Portugal, with Oporto their ultimate goal. After occupying some fortresses they were confronted with a national uprising. Taking advantage of the mountainous terrain, the guerrilla bands inflicted heavy losses on the invaders and practically cut off their communication lines with Spain, causing a shortage of essential supplies. Near starvation, the Spaniards tried to conquer Oporto quickly but were defeated in the Battle of Douro and the Battle of Montalegre before they retreated to Spain. After that failure, the Spanish commander was replaced by Pedro Pablo Abarca de Bolea, Count of Aranda.
Meanwhile, 7,104 British troops landed in Lisbon, leading a massive reorganization of the Portuguese army under Wilhelm, Count of Schaumburg-Lippe, the supreme commander-in-chief of the allies.
During the second invasion of Portugal (Province of Beira), an army 42,000 French Spanish soldiers under Aranda took Almeida and several other strongholds, and the Anglo-Portuguese army stopped another Spanish invasion of Portugal by the province of Alentejo and won the Battle of Valencia de Alcántara (Spanish Extremadura), where a third Spanish corps was assembling for an invasion.
The allies managed to stop the invading army in the mountains east of Abrantes, where the slope of the heights facing the Franco-Spanish army was abrupt but very soft on the side of the allies, which facilitated the supply and movements of the allies but acted as a barrier for the Franco-Spaniards. The Anglo-Portuguese also prevented the invaders from crossing the river Tagus and defeated them at the Battle of Vila Velha.
The Franco-Spanish army (which had their supply lines from Spain cut off by the guerrillas) was virtually destroyed by a deadly scorched earth strategy. Peasants abandoned all nearby villages and took with them or destroyed the crops, food and all else that could be used by the invaders, including the roads and houses. The Portuguese government also encouraged desertion among the invaders by offering large sums to all deserters and defectors. The invaders had to choose between stay and starve or withdraw. The outcome was the disintegration of the Franco-Spanish army, which was compelled to retreat to Castelo Branco, closer to the frontier, when a Portuguese force under Townshend made an encircling movement towards its rearguard. According to a report sent to London by the British ambassador in Portugal, Edward Hay, the invaders suffered 30,000 losses, almost three-quarters of the original army, mainly caused by starvation, desertion and capture during the chase of the Franco-Spanish remnants by the Anglo-Portuguese army and peasantry.
Finally, the allies took the Spanish headquarters, Castelo Branco, capturing a large number of Spaniards, wounded and sick, who had been abandoned by Aranda when he fled to Spain, after a second allied encircling movement.
During the third invasion of Portugal, the Spaniards attacked Marvão and Ouguela but were defeated with casualties. The allies left their winter quarters and chased the retreating Spaniards. They took some prisoners, and a Portuguese corps entered Spain took more prisoners at La Codosera.
On 24 November, Aranda asked for a truce which was accepted and signed by Lippe on 1 December 1762.
The 1762 Bourbon invasion of Portugal was actually a succession of three military campaigns in different places and times with similar results:
"The first object of the allied governments of Spain and France was to invade Portugal, the ancient ally of Great Britain, which was supposed to be wholly incapable of defending itself against so formidable a confederacy...that feeble and defenceless kingdom was invaded shortly afterwards at three distinct points by three Spanish armies, such was the spirit of patriotism awaked among the peasantry by a few British officers, that the invaders were repulsed, and ultimately driven back in disgrace."[16]
— Studies in history
Backgroundedit
Portuguese and Spanish neutrality in the Seven Years' Waredit
During the Seven Years' War, a British fleet under Admiral Boscawendefeated a French fleet in Portuguese waters in front of Lagos, Algarve, in 1759. Three French ships of the line were captured and two were destroyed. Portugal, though an old ally of Britain, had stated her neutrality in this war and accordingly, the Portuguese prime minister Pombal demanded satisfaction from Great Britain. The British government apologized to the Portuguese king, José I, by sending a special delegation to Lisbon,[17] yet the captured vessels were not returned, as demanded by France (Pombal had previously informed Pitt that he did not expect it).[18] The Portuguese government materially assisted the French garrisons that had taken refuge in Lagos after the battle. The French king, Louis XV, thanked José I for all the assistance given to the French sailors, although claiming for the navies. The case seemed settled, but Spain and France would use it as a pretext to invade Portugal four years later.
Portugal was having increasing difficulties in maintaining its neutrality in the Seven Years' War because of outbreaks of minor incidents between British and French: on one occasion, the British consul in Faro instructed British frigates to enter the city's harbour and prevent a French warship from unloading; and in Viana do Minho, British businessmen armed themselves and boarded a boat, recapturing a captured British merchant ship from a French corsair. Despite these incidents, the king and government of Portugal were strongly committed to keep the country out of the war.
On their part, the French were pressuring a reluctant Spain to enter the war on their side (while beginning secret negotiations with Great Britain to end it).[19] Both countries eventually signed the third Family Compact (15 August 1761), a "continental system" mainly designed to isolate Britain in Europe.[20] However, British ships intercepted official correspondence from Spain to France and learned that there was a secret clause providing that Spain should declare war on Britain on 1 May 1762.[21][22] The British anticipated Spain, declaring war first on 2 January 1762.
The Franco-Spanish Ultimatumedit
Joseph I of Portugal. Confronted with the Franco-Spanish "ultimatum" of 1762 to betray his alliance with Britain, he said "it would affect him less, though reduced to the last extremity, to let the last tile of his palace fall, and to see his faithful subjects spill the last drop of their blood, than to sacrifice, together with the honour of his crown, all that Portugal holds most dear..."[23]
Both Bourbon powers decided to force Portugal to join their Family Compact (the Portuguese king was married to a Bourbon, the Spanish king Charles's sister). Spain and France sent an ultimatum to Lisbon (1 April 1762) stating that Portugal had to:[24]
Close her ports to British ships and to interrupt all commerce with Great Britain both in Europe and within the Portuguese empire.
Declare war on Great Britain
Accept the occupation of Portuguese ports (including Lisbon and Oporto) by a Spanish army. Thus Portugal would be both "protected" and "liberated" from its British "oppressors".
Portugal was given four days to answer, after which the country would face an invasion by the forces of France and Spain. Both Bourbon powers hoped to benefit by diverting British troops from Germany to Portugal, while Spain hoped to seize Portugal and its empire.[25]
The Portuguese situation was desperate. The great Lisbon earthquake, tsunami and fire of 1755 had completely destroyed the Portuguese capital, killing tens of thousands and damaging most of the Portuguese fortresses. Rebuilding a new Lisbon left no money to sustain an army or navy; and even the military cadres who had died in the earthquake were not replaced by 1762. From 1750 onward the Brazilian gold supply (which made Portugal by far the largest gold owner on earth during the 18th century) started its irreversible decline, and the price of Brazilian sugar also fell as British and Dutch demand reduced.[26]
The 1755 Lisbon earthquake horrified Europe, sparking a debate about the nature of its causes among the main European philosophers, mainly between Voltaire and Rousseau: Providential or natural? The famous pamphlet A Spanish Prophecy, published in 1762 in Madrid, intended to prove that all the carnage suffered by the Portuguese during the earthquake, tsunami and ensuing fire, were divine punishment for their alliance with the British heretics.[27] British help included 6,000 barrels of meat, 4,000 of butter,1,200 sacks of rice, 10,000 quarters of flour and £100,000 for relief (while Spanish and French money offers were refused)[28]
The Portuguese navy – which had been powerful during the 15th century, was reduced to only three ships of the line and some frigates. The general picture of the Portuguese "army" was calamitous: The regiments were incomplete, the military warehouses were empty, and there were no military hospitals. By November 1761, the troops had not been paid for a year and a half (they received 6 months payment on the eve of war), and many soldiers lived from robbery, or "assassinating for a livelihood".[29] Military discipline was a distant memory and the greater part of the troops was "without uniforms and without arms".[30] When French Ambassador O'Dunne delivered the ultimatum to the Portuguese government (1 April 1762), a party of sergeants with a captain knocked on the door, begging for alms.[31] Recruitment often included trapping vagrants and transients during popular gatherings. The Count of Saint-Priest, French ambassador in Portugal, reported: "It was impossible to find an army in greater disorder than in Portugal. When the Count of Lippe [the supreme allied commander, sent by England] arrived, the army had as Field Marshal the Marquis de Alvito, who had never learned to shoot a rifle or command a regiment, even in peacetime. The colonels, mostly great Lords, placed as officers in their regiments their valets. It was very common to see soldiers, mostly ragged, begging for alms [even the sentinels of the royal palace]. This state of disorder had just finished shortly before I arrived. We need to be fair. The Count of Lippe established discipline, forced officials to choose between the position in the regiment or his previous condition as valets. (...).With the aid of some foreign officials, military bodies were disciplined and when I arrived, were already trained."[32]
To reinforce their ultimatum and press the Portuguese government, Spanish and French troops started gathering on the Portuguese northern frontiers since 16 March 1762, alleging it was merely a "preventive army". The Portuguese government declared its intention of defending to the last. As soon as news of the entry of Spanish troops into the North of the kingdom reached the Court, Portugal declared war both on Spain and France (18 May 1762), asking for British financial and military assistance. Spain and France declared war on 15 and 20 June, respectively.
Invasionsedit
First invasion of Portugal (Trás-os-Montes)edit
On 30 April 1762 a Spanish force penetrated into Portugal through the province of Trás-os-Montes and posted a proclamation entitled "reasons for entering Portugal", in which the Spaniards declared that they were coming not as enemies, but as friends and liberators who came to free the Portuguese people from the "heavy shackles of England",[33] the "tyrant of the seas".
On 5 May, the Marquis of Sarria, leading an army of 22,000 men started the real invasion.[34] Portugal declared war on both Spain and France (18 May 1762).
The region of Trás-os-Montes was the main theater of operations during the first Franco-Spanish invasion of Portugal (May–June, 1762).
Miranda, the only fortified and provisioned fortress of the province, was besieged on 6 May 1762, but an accidental and huge powder explosion (20 tons) killed four hundred and opened two breaches in the ramparts, forcing the surrender on 9 May 1762. Bragança (12 May), Chaves (21 May), and Torre de Moncorvo (23 May) were open cities without soldiers, and were occupied without firing a gun. There were neither fortresses with intact walls nor regular troops inside the entire province of Trás-os-Montes (neither powder nor provisions).[35] The Spanish general joked about the complete absence of Portuguese soldiers across the province: "I can not discover where these insects are."[36]
At first, the relationship of the invaders with the civil population was apparently excellent. The Spaniards paid double for the provisions they acquired, and there wasn't a single shotgun.[37] But Madrid had committed a double error: since the Spaniards believed that the simple show of power would be enough to induce Portugal to submission, they entered the country almost without provisions, which would undermine the entire campaign.[34] They also assumed that the country could provide them all the necessary food. When this proved an illusion, the Spanish army imposed forced requisitions of provisions to the populations. These were the trigger for a popular revolt, with war for food feeding war.[38]
The "Portuguese ulcer"edit
Victory seemed a matter of time, and in Madrid, it was confidently expected that the fall of Oporto was imminent, but suddenly the invaders were confronted with a national rebellion, which spread around the Provinces of Trás-os-Montes and Minho. Francisco Sarmento, the governor of Trás-os-Montes, posted a declaration ordering the people to resist the Spaniards or be branded rebels. The Spaniards were confronted by deserted villages with neither food nor peasants to build roads for the army. Together with some militias and ordnances (respectively a kind of Portuguese military institution of 2nd and 3rd line), gangs of civilians armed with sickles and guns attacked the Spanish troops, taking advantage of the mountainous terrain.[39] The Spaniards suffered heavy losses and high rates of disease. Several reports on the ground (published in the British press in 1762) confirm this: "[Province of] Beira. Almeida, June 12, (...) the Enemy [Spaniards], to the number of eight thousand has entered the frontier... several parties have rallied forth from the camp, and had pillaged the villages upon that frontier, and had not even spared the churches; but that these parties had been driven back by the Portuguese militia, who had killed and taken prisoners upwards of two hundred Spaniards (...). [Province of] Minho...June 20...those [Spaniards] who retired from Villa Real and Mirandela towards Miranda, were attacked upon their march by the militia... who killed some of the Spaniards, and took twenty odd prisoners...we have advice of the 22d [June], that a convoy of sixty mules, laden with provisions, had been taken from the enemy about two leagues from Chaves."[40]
According to a French contemporary source, more than 4,000 Spaniards died in the hospital of Braganza,[41] both from wounds and disease. Many others were killed by the guerrillas, taken prisoners, or died from starvation – which was becoming a growing problem. The Portuguese nationalism and the atrocities committed by the Spanish army against peasant villages – mainly during food expeditions – were the fuel for the revolt. Even the King of Spain Charles III, in his declaration of war to Portugal (15 June 1762) – one month and a half after the start of the invasion and almost one month after the Portuguese declaration of war on Spain – complained that many Portuguese populations, conducted by undercover officers, had treacherously killed several Spanish detachments.[42] In another example, the Portuguese Corregidor of Miranda reported in August 1762 that the invading forces in the north had
"experienced a mortal hatred from the countrymen, who have made them war, and do not spare neither soldiers nor sutlers...and initially even killed defectors, accusing them of being spies. No countrymen take groceries to the stronghold... and sutlers don't dare seeking them out without an escort of more than 30 men, because of fewer, none of them comes back to the fortress."[43]
The invaders were forced to split their forces in order to protect conquered strongholds, find food, and escorting convoys with supplies. The food for the army had to come from Spain itself, which made it vulnerable to attacks. Unless the Spanish army could quickly take Oporto, starvation would make their situation untenable.
Oporto: the decisive campaignedit
A Spanish force of 3,000 to 6,000 men led by O'Reilly left Chaves, and advanced towards Oporto. This caused great alarm among the British in the city, where their community had many stores with provisions and 30,000 pipes of wine waiting shipment. Measures for evacuating them were initiated by the British Admiralty, while the Portuguese governor of Oporto was ordered to leave the city (which he did not).[44] But when the Spaniards tried to cross the River Douro between Torre de Moncorvo and Vila Nova de Foz Côa, they met O'Hara and his Portuguese force of hundreds of peasants with guns and some Ordinances, helped by women and children in the hills of the southern margin (25 May). In the battle that followed, the Spanish assaults were completely beaten off with losses.[44][45] Panic took possession of the invaders, who made a hasty retreat and were chased by the peasants until Chaves (the expedition's starting point). In the words of the contemporaneous French general Dumouriez, who went to Portugal in 1766 to study the campaign of 1762 in loco,[46] writing a famous report sent to the King of Spain and to the French foreign minister Choiseul:
"O'Reilly... turned back and made a very disorderly retreat; at Villa Pouca, and as far as Chaves, the peasants harassed him exceedingly, and had the glory of driving him back with loss and disgrace, though their number did not exceed 600, nor had they a single military man with them. This feat was highly celebrated in Portugal, and the particulars of it repeated with great pride. The failure in this operation occasioned the retreat of the Spanish army [from Portugal] to Zamora [Spain] (pp. 18–19).[47] (...). He owed this defeat to the appearance of fair (p.249) ..."[48]
— In An Account of Portugal, as it Appeared in 1766 to Dumouriez.
On 26 May, another part of the Spanish army that had marched from Chaves towards the province of Minho (Oporto being the final goal), engaged in battle with the Portuguese ordnances at the mountains of Montalegre and the outcome was similar: the Spaniards had to retreat with losses.
"... After having become masters of Miranda, Bragança and Chaves, places with no garrisons or walls, the Spanish detached 12 thousand men, part on Montalegre, part on Vila Real. The division which went on Montalegre was strong of 4,000 combatants; however burghers, most of whom had neither rifles nor swords, with some companies of the King's troops, routed this body and caused it to lose many people.[49]
— Contemporary account of the Battle of Montalegre in the jornal Le Nouvelliste Suisse , July 1762.
An army of 8,000 Spaniards sent towards Almeida (in the province of Beira) also suffered defeat: the invaders were driven back after suffering 200 casualties inflicted by the militias,[40] and 600 dead in a failed assault to the fortress of Almeida (according to contemporary British sources)[50]
Finally, reinforcements were sent to Oporto and the province of Trás-os-Montes, who occupied the passes and defiles, endangering the Spanish withdrawal, and at the same time, making it inevitable.[51] Letters published in the British press few days later added: "This is all the information we have had to this day, May 29 [1762]. The officers cannot find terms to express the courage of the militia and the zeal and eagerness which the people show to be engaged with the enemy."[52]
"The campaign had been commenced by the Spaniards on the side of Tras os Montes, in which province Miranda, Braganza, and some other towns, had fallen into their hands. They next resolved to proceed against Oporto, but this design was frustrated by the bravery of the peasants, who took possession of the defiles, and compelled the Spanish army to a disorderly retreat. Disappointed in this quarter the enemy turned their steps towards the province of Beira [abandoning Trás-os-Montes] ..."[53]
— Orderly book of Lieut. Gen John Burgoyne
The outcome of the battle of Douro proved crucial for the failure of the Spanish invasion,[54] because as Dumouriez explained: "Portugal was at that time without troops and planet-struck; had the [Spanish] army advanced rapidly upon Oporto it must have taken it without firing a gun. Great resources would have been found there, both in money, stores and provisions, and an excellent climate; the Spanish troops would not have perished as they did, with hunger and want of accommodations; the face of affairs would have been totally changed."[55]
The city of Oporto, on the north bank of the Douro River. Its fate was decided at the Battle of Douro (25 May 1762).
Spanish withdrawaledit
In addition to these setbacks, and similarly to the Napoleonic soldiers a few decades later, the Spaniards were experiencing carnage. A contemporary document notes that it was impossible to walk in the mountains of the province of Trás-os-Montes because of the nauseating odour of countless Spanish corpses, which the peasants refused – motivated by pure hate – to bury.[56] Even inside the occupied cities the invaders were not safe: of about half a thousand miqueletes who entered Chaves (21 May 1762), only eighteen were still alive by the end of June.[57] According to the Spanish military historian José Luis Terrón Ponce, the total Spanish casualties during the first invasion of Portugal (caused by the guerrillas, diseases and desertion) was over 8,000 men.[58] (In 1766, Dumouriez had evaluated this number at 10,000 losses, and he recommended the Spaniards to avoid this province of Trás-os Montes in a future invasion).[59]
Having failed the main military target of the campaign (Oporto, the second city of the kingdom), suffering terrible losses from famine and the guerrillas (who cut off their food supplies), and eventually threatened by the advancing Portuguese regular army at Lamego – which could split the two wings of the Spanish army (the force trying to reach the south bank of the Douro and the other aiming Oporto through the mountains)[60][61] the diminished and demoralized Spanish army was forced to withdraw towards Spain (end of June 1762), abandoning all their conquests with the only exception of the city of Chaves (in the frontier).[62][63][64] As a French military put it:
"The Spaniards have always been unhappy in their expeditions against the Province of Trás-os-Montes. During the war of 1762, they were repulsed by the peasants alone, after experiencing great losses."[65]
— Cited in Lettres Historiques et Politiques sur le Portugal
The first invasion had been defeated by the peasants alone, virtually without Portuguese regular troops or British troops,[66] and very soon the Marquis of Sarria, the Spanish commander, would be replaced by Count of Aranda.[67] In order to save his and Charles III's face, Sarria "asked" to be removed for "reasons of health" immediately after the conquest of Almeida and after receiving the Order of the Golden Fleece: "The old Marquis of Sarria was rewarded for his failure with the Order of the Golden Fleece, and his 'voluntary resignation' was accepted."[68] Spain had lost the opportunity of defeating Portugal before the arrival of British troops and their assembling with the Portuguese regular forces.
Spanish atrocitiesedit
Many civilians were killed or transferred into Spain, together with the silver of the churches and the horses of the villages. A contemporary account published in British press during this invasion is quite revealing:
"The Spaniards, instead of advancing boldly to face their enemies, content themselves with dispatching flying parties from their camp, who commit unheard of barbarities among the small villages; robbing and murdering the inhabitants; setting fire to their crops, and not even sparing the sacred furniture belonging to their chapels. On their retreat from Braganza [at the end of the invasion], they plundered the college and church, as well as the houses of several of the principal people; whom, together with several priests, they carried with them into Spain. They also killed several peasants of that neighbourhood in cold blood."[69]
— The Gentleman's and London Magazine: Or Monthly Chronologer, 1741–1794
Reorganisation of Portuguese armyedit
William, Count of Schaumburg-Lippe, allied supreme commander, and one of the best soldiers of his time.[70][71] Outnumbered in a proportion of three to one, he successfully met the challenge.[72] He trained intensively the Portuguese army in a record time, and chose to use small units against the flanks and rear of the invader's big battalions (taking advantage of the mountainous terrain). He destroyed the enemy's will to fight by starvation, the bleeding of his forces in a guerrilla warfare, and by an exhausting war of marches and counter marches (the so-called "Fantastic War").[73][74]
Meanwhile, a British expeditionary force landed: the 83rd, 91st regiments of infantry, together with the major portion of the 16th light dragoons (all led by Major General George Townshend) arrived at Lisbon in May; while the 3rd, 67th, 75th, and 85th regiments of foot along with two Royal Artillery companies (the main force) only landed from Belle-Isle, in July 1762. The total number of this force is known with exactitude (from official documents): 7,104 officers and men of all arms.[3] Great Britain also sent provisions, ammunition and a loan of £200,000 to the Portuguese ally.
There was some friction between both allies, caused by problems of language, religion and envy; the Portuguese officers felt uncomfortable with being commanded by strangers, and especially with the salaries of their British peers, which was double theirs (so that British officers could keep the salary they had in the British army). In addition to the difficulty of feeding British troops in Portugal, Lippe successfully faced another huge problem: the recreation of the Portuguese army and its integration with the British one. La Lippe selected only 7,000 to 8,000 men out of the 40,000 Portuguese soldiers who were submitted to him, and dismissed all the others as useless or unfit for military service.[75]
Thus, the complete allied army in campaign was about 15,000 regular soldiers (half Portuguese and half British). The militias and ordnances (respectively a kind of Portuguese military institution of 2nd and 3rd line, around 25,000 men in total) were only used to garrison the fortresses whilst some regular troops (1st line) remained in the north of Portugal to face the Spanish troops of Galicia. These 15,000 men had to face a combined army of 42,000 invaders (of whom were 30,000 Spaniards led by Count of Aranda, and 10,000 to 12,000 French commanded by Prince de Beauvau).
Lippe would eventually be successful both in the integration of the two armies as well as in the final action. As noted by historian Martin Philippson:[76] "The new leader was able, in a short time, to reorganize the Portuguese army, and with it, re-enforced by the English, he drove the Spaniards, in spite of their superiority in numbers, across the frontiers, (...)"[77]
Aborted Spanish invasion (Alentejo)edit
The Franco-Spanish army had been divided into three divisions:[78] the Northeast Division, in Galicia, invaded the northeast Portuguese provinces of Trás-os-Montes and Minho with Oporto as its ultimate goal (first invasion of Portugal, May–June 1762); the central division (reinforced by French troops and the remnants of the northeast division) – which afterwards invaded the Portuguese province of Beira (centre of Portugal) towards Lisbon (second invasion of Portugal, July–November 1762); and finally a southern army's corps (near Valencia de Alcántara), designed to invade the province of Alentejo, in the south of Portugal.
The successes of the Franco-Spanish army in the beginning of the second invasion of Portugal (Beira) caused such alarm that Joseph I pressured his commander, Count of Lippe, for an offensive campaign. Since the enemy was gathering troops and ammunitions in the region of Valencia de Alcántara, near Alentejo – preparing a third Spanish invasion – Lippe chose to take preemptive action by attacking the invader on his own ground, in Estremadura. The troops around Valencia de Alcántara were the advanced lines of the Spanish third corps (southern division), and this city was a main supply depôt, containing magazines and a park of artillery. The allies had the surprise factor on their side as the disparity of numbers and resources was so great that the Spaniards did not expect such a risky operation: they had neither barricades nor advanced piquets, or even guards, except in the city's great square.
On the morning of 27 August 1762, a force of 2,800 Anglo-Portuguese under Burgoyne attacked and took Valencia de Alcántara, defeated one of the best Spanish regiments (the Seville's regiment), killed all the soldiers that resisted, captured three flags and several troops and officers – including the Major-General Don Miguel de Irunibeni, responsible for the invasion of Alentejo, and who had come into the city the day before (along with two colonels, two captains and seventeen subaltern officers). Many arms and ammunition were captured or destroyed.
The Battle of Valencia de Alcántara not only galvanized the Portuguese army at a critical phase of the war (in beginning of the second invasion), but also prevented a third invasion of Portugal by the Alentejo,[79] a plain and open province, through which the powerful Spanish chivalry could march towards the vicinity of Lisbon without opposition.
Burgoyne was rewarded by the King of Portugal, Joseph I, with a large diamond ring, together with the captured flags, while his international reputation skyrocketed.
Second invasion of Portugal (Beira)edit
The Province of Lower Beira was particularly devastated during the second Franco-Spanish invasion of Portugal (July–November, 1762). A self-destructive scorched earth strategy was the price of the Portuguese victory.[80]
After being defeated in the province of Trás-os-Montes,[81] Sarria's shattered army returned into Spain by Ciudad Rodrigo and gathered with the centre's army. Here, the two Spanish corps were joined by a French army of 12,000 men, led by Prince de Beauvau, putting the total number of the Bourbon invaders at 42,000 men.
Illusion of victoryedit
The original plan to converge on Oporto through Trás-os Montes was abandoned and replaced by a new one:[82] this time Portugal would be invaded through the province of Beira, in the east centre of the country, and the target would be Lisbon. Sarria was replaced by the Count of Aranda, while the Spanish minister Esquilache went to Portugal to support and organize the logistic of the Spanish army so that it had food for 6 months.[83]
Considering the complete unpreparedness of the Portuguese army, and the huge disparity of forces (30,000 Spaniards plus 12,000 French versus 7,000–8,000 Portuguese plus 7,104 British),[1][6][7] the Marquis of Pombal assembled twelve ships in the Tagus estuary prepared, if necessary, to transfer the Portuguese king and court into Brazil.
In the beginning of the second invasion, A British observer – after describing the Portuguese soldiers as the "wretched troops" he ever saw, who were "often five days together without bread, and the horses without forage" – wrote he was apprehensive that Lippe, overwhelmed by difficulties, ended up asking for resignation.[84] Indeed, at first the Franco-Spanish army occupied several fortresses with ruined walls and without regular troops:[85]Alfaiates, Castelo Rodrigo, Penamacor, Monsanto, Salvaterra do Extremo, Segura (17 September 1762), Castelo Branco (18 September), and Vila Velha (2 October) surrendered practically without firing a gun, as lamented by the allied commander, Lippe. After the war, several fortresses governors would be tried and convicted for treason and cowardice.
Almeida, the main fortress of the Province, was in such a state that O'Hara,[86] the British officer who led the guerrilleros and militias at the battle of Douro, advised the stronghold 's commander to take his garrison out of the fortress and put it in nearby country where defence could be much more easily sustained.[87] (The commander responded that he could not do that without superior orders). Its garrison, consisting only in two regular regiments and three militia regiments (totalling 3,000 to 3, 500 men), experienced a drastic reduction in their numbers for desertion, during the enemy's approaching and siege.[88][89] Facing an overwhelming combination of 24,000 Spanish and 8,000 French,[90] and poorly commanded by an incompetent, the octogenarian Palhares (whose substitute sent by the government did not arrive on time), the remaining 1, 500 men surrendered with honours of war,[91] after a symbolic resistance of nine days (25 August).
According to Dumouriez, the garrison had fired only 5 or 6 artillery shots – disobeying Palhares's prohibition of firing on the enemy – and had suffered only two dead. Having capitulated on condition of not serving against Spain for six months, they were allowed to go free, carry their guns and luggage, and join the Portuguese garrison of Viseu: The Bourbon allies were so amazed with such a hasty proposal for surrender (Palhares would die in a Portuguese prison), that they conceded all demanded.
The capture of Almeida (with 83 canons and 9 mortars) was publicly celebrated in Madrid as a great victory and represented the peak of the initial Spanish predominance. This auspicious beginning led to the impression that the Bourbons were winning the war, but in reality, the occupation of these strongholds would prove to be not only useless, but also harmful to the invaders, as pointed by historian George P. James:
"when these places were taken, the Spanish forces were in a somewhat worse situation than they were before; for penetrating into the wild and uncultivated districts of Beira, with scarcely any road, and, neither abundance of food nor water, they lost more men by disease than all the forces of Portugal would have destroyed ..."[92]
In addition to this, a new popular revolt exponentially worsened the situation of the invaders.
Like Napoleon during the Peninsular War, the Franco-Spaniards of Aranda would learn in 1762 – at their own expense – that the (brief) occupation of several strongholds, although greatly praised by Spanish historiography, was irrelevant to the ultimate outcome of a war of guerrilla and movements.
The initial Franco-Spanish success in Beira benefited from the strong popular opposition to the regime of the Marquis of Pombal,[93] the ruthless Portuguese prime minister; but the massacres and plunder perpetrated by the invaders – especially by the French – soon incurred the peasants' odium. Having penetrated so deeply into the mountainous interior of Portugal, the Franco-Spanish rows find themselves harassed and decimated in ambushes by guerrilleros, who cut their lines of communication and supplies behind them. As Napoleonic general Maximilien Sébastien Foy put it:
"It was nevertheless that indocile host of ordinances rather than the secrets of strategy, which in 1762 paralyzed the Count d'Aranda's Spaniards, and the Prince of Beauvau's Frenchmen. The most skilful general will not long maintain himself in mountains, where the inexhaustible energy of an armed population is interposed between the acting army and its base of operations".[94]
— In History of the War in the Peninsula, Under Napoleon.
Several French participants in the campaign stated that the most feared fighters were the guerrilleros of Trás-os-Montes and Beira.[95] The inhabitants of the province of Beira wrote to the Portuguese prime minister informing him that they did not need regular soldiers, and were going to fight alone.[96] As explained by Spanish prime minister Godoy:
All the Portuguese, in accordance with the fundamental laws of the country, were soldiers and defenders of the realm until 60 years of age...poured into the roughs, in the heights, in the ravines ... waged a war of guerrilla, causing many more losses on the enemy than the regular [Anglo-Portuguese] troops. The war of positions, marches and counter-marches, imposed upon us by the Count of Lippe, in which we suffered countless losses, was mainly sustained by the armed peasantry.[97]
Sometimes the guerrilleros tortured their numerous prisoners, which in turn generated retaliations upon the civilians, in an endless spiral of violence.[98] But while the peasant's casualties could be absorbed by their inexhaustible numbers, the same was not true for the invaders. Even in the occupied cities and villages, the populations defied and rebelled against the Franco-Spaniards, according to a letter sent by D`Aranda to Lippe, asking him to put a stop to it.[99] Many of them were executed.
Abrantes: turning pointedit
Instead of trying to defend the extensive Portuguese frontier, Lippe retreated into the mountainous interior to defend the line of the River Tagus, which was equivalent to a forward defence of Lisbon. Lippe's main goals consisted in avoiding at all cost a battle against such a superior enemy (disputing instead the gorges and mountain passes, while attacking the enemy flanks with small units),[100] and also preventing the Franco-Spaniards from crossing the formidable barrier represented by the river Tagus. If the Bourbon armies could cross this river, they would reach the fertile province of Alentejo, whose plains would allow their numerous cavalry to reach easily the region of Lisbon. Indeed, immediately after the capture of Almeida, Aranda marched with the intention of crossing the Tagus into the Alentejo at the most propitious point: Vila Velha, where the Spanish army of Philip V of Spain had crossed the river, during the war of the Spanish succession some years before. Lippe, however, anticipated this movement and moved faster. He got to Abrantes and posted a detachment under Burgoynne at Niza and another one under the Count of Santiago near Alvito, to obstruct the passage of the river Tagus at Vila Velha; so that when the invading army came up, they found all these strategic positions occupied (and all boats taken or destroyed by the Portuguese). Therefore, and as Lippe had predicted, the invaders had only two options: return into Spain, to cross the Tagus at Alcántara (which they considered dishonourable since this would imply to withdraw before inferior forces), or go straight to Lisbon through the mountains at the north of the capital, in the "neck" of the "peninsula" containing this city (defined by the river Tagus and the Atlantic).[101] In order to induce the enemy to choose the second route, Lippe placed some forces in these mountains but left some passages open.[101] Since Lisbon was the main goal, Aranda advanced, while the allied forces fortified their excellent positions on the heights that cover Abrantes, halfway between Lisbon and the border (the region among the rivers Tagus, Zêzere and Codes). These mountains presented steep slopes on the side of the invaders (acting as a barrier for them), but were very soft on the side of the allies – which allowed them great freedom of movement and facilitated the reinforcements.[102] Finally, the Anglo-Portuguese army managed to halt the advance of the Bourbon armies toward Lisbon.[103] It was the turning point of the war.
Joshua Reynolds' depiction of Brigadier-General John Burgoyne. Leading an allied force of 3,000 cavalry, two-thirds of whom were Portuguese,[104] he was decisive in the defeat of the Franco-Spanish troops in Europe,[105][106] during the Seven Years' War: "French and Spanish armies overran Portugal... The British and Portuguese under Count de la Lippe Buckeburgh and Burgoyne defeated them and drove them into Spain."[107]
In order to break this deadlock, the Spaniards went on the offensive towards Abrantes, the allied Headquarters. They took the little castle of Vila Velha (north bank of the Tagus, 3 October 1762) and forced the defiles of St. Simon, near the River Alvito, launching a large force in pursuit of the detachment of Count of Santiago through the mountains. This detachment was very near being entirely cut off, with two Spanish bodies marching upon their front and rear. But la Lippe sent an immediate reinforcement to Count de Santiago, and the combined allied force under Loudoun defeated the chasing Spanish troops at the River Alvito (3 October 1762), and escaped to Sobreira Formosa.[108] But while, the Spaniards were chasing the Count of Santiago's force through the mountains, they weakened their force in Vila Velha. On 5 October 1762, the Anglo-Portuguese commanded by Lee attacked and completely routed the Spaniards at Vila Velha.[109] Several Spaniards were killed (including a general, who died trying to rally his troops), and among the prisoners there were 6 officers. 60 artillery-mules were captured, the artillery and magazines destroyed. Moreover, in the very some day (5 October 1762) the Portuguese of Townshend defeated a French force escorting a convoy at Sabugal, capturing a large quantity of precious supplies.
The invaders did not pass and the offensive was a failure. The tide of the war had reversed and Abrantes proved to be "the key of Portugal" in the River Tagus,[110] for its strategic position.
Scorched earth tacticsedit
Both armies remained immobilized at Abrantes, facing each other. But while the Anglo-Portuguese continuously reinforced their positions and received provisions,[111] the Bourbon armies had their line of supply and communication virtually cut off by the armed peasants, militia and ordinances in their rear. Worse than this, they were being starved by a deadly tactic of scorched earth. This tactic would be used again in 1810–11 against the French of Masséna, who, similarly to the invaders of 1762 were stopped in their march on Lisbon, being starved and attacked by guerrillas. As noted by the eminent British military historian Sir Charles Oman:
"Throughout Portuguese history the summons to the levy en masse had always been combined with another measure, from which indeed it could not be disentangled-the order to the whole population to evacuate and devastate the land in face of the advancing enemy. The use of the weapon of starvation... the plan for defeating the enemy by the system of devastation...was an ancient Portuguese device, practised from time immemorial against the Castilian invader, which had never failed of success. (...) When Spain had made her last serious assault on Portugal in 1762... the plan had work[ed] admirably..."[112]
Indeed, the Portuguese soldiers and peasants turned the Province of Beira into a desert: populations abandoned villages, bringing with them everything that was edible. The crops and all that could be useful to the enemy was burned or taken. Even the roads and some houses were destroyed.[113][114]
Thus, the exhausted Franco-Spanish army was forced to choose between staying in front of Abrantes and starve, or withdraw, while still possible, closer to the border.[115]
The allied plan proved almost perfect as it was based in two realities. First, to conquer Portugal the Franco-Spaniards had to take Lisbon. Second, Lisbon could only be attacked from the mountainous North (prevented by the allied defensive system of Abrantes) since Lisbon is protected by the Atlantic Ocean at the West and by the great River Tagus at the South and East, being inside a kind of "peninsula".[116][117][118] It exploited to the full both the Portuguese capital's geographical situation (which could always receive provisions by sea), and the erosion of the Franco-Spanish army through starvation caused by a scorched earth strategy and the collapse of its logistic lines[119] (attacked by the guerrilla and other irregular forces).
The Duke of Wellington. In 1810, during his campaign against Masséna in Portugal, a British observer noted that "Wellington is acting upon the plans of Comte La Lippe".[120] Several modern historians like Guedela note that "... Count Lippe's methods of making war in 1762 wouldn't be forgotten by Wellington in 1810–11: Wellington had previously read about the Ordenanca and the 1762 war between Portugal and Spain. The King of Portugal ordered his people to attack the Spanish invaders. The inhabitants of villages fled as the Spaniards approached, in the same scorched earth methods used by Wellington in 1810."[121]
The invading army was suffering terrible losses inflicted by the guerrillas, hunger, desertions, and disease; its situation becoming more and more untenable. Sooner or later, the Franco-Spanish army would have to retreat in a very shattered condition:
"... the embarrassment of the enemy: they were reduced to a forced inaction, while the difficulties of subsistence, desertion and disease, decimated them, and the horses died for want of fodder (p. 47)[122]... things being in this situation... the enemy... quickly realized that, far from conquering Portugal, this plan would lead his army to ruin (p. 48)."[123]
— Allied commander Lippe in Mémoire de la Campagne de Portugal de 1762.
Then Lippe, seeing that the enemy's situation was desperate, completed it with an audacious move,[124] which decided the campaign: when the Portuguese force of General Townshend – spreading the rumour that was part of a large British force of 20,000 newly landed men- performed an encirclement manoeuvre towards the rear of the demoralized invading army, it withdrew towards Castelo Branco, (from 15 October onwards), which was nearer the frontier and where the new Spanish headquarters were established.[125][126]
It was then that the allied army left their defensive positions and pursued the (now diminished)[127] Spanish army,[128][129] attacking its rear, taking many prisoners,[130] and recovering almost all the towns and fortresses previously taken by the Spaniards -which had given Charles III so many hopes.[131] On 3 November 1762, during the reconquest of Penamacor and Monsanto, the Portuguese of Hamilton routed a retreating Spanish cavalry force at Escalos de Cima, while the British of Fenton swept another retreating Spanish corps from Salvaterra.[132] The Spaniards, who had entered Portugal as conquerors, taking provisions by force and torching those villages which refused to supply them,[133] saw themselves now implacably chased in a devastated enemy territory. The nature of the war had reversed: the hunter had become the prey.
Collapse of Franco-Spanish armyedit
During the retreat, the Franco-Spanish army – weakened by hunger,[134] disease, and torrential rains – collapsed. Thousands defected (the Portuguese government was offering 1, 600 reis for each Spanish soldier who deserted and 3,000 reis to those who enlisted in the Portuguese Army),[135] while their stragglers and wounded suffered a slaughter at the hands of the peasants:
General Dumouriez, French hero who, in 1792, defeated the Prussians at the battle of Valmy and the Austrians at the battle of Jemappes. He was also the main Bourbon chronicler of the Franco-Spanish invasion of 1762:[46][136] "It is with astonishment we read in the page of History that the Spaniards have almost always been beat by the Portuguese...this contempt [toward the Portuguese]...is itself the fundamental cause of that continual disgrace which the Spaniards have suffered whenever they have carried their arms into Portugal."[137]
"... Yesterday and the day before, I spent passports to 45 [Spanish] deserters; and taking into consideration what they tell us, the Spanish army fell into the abyss; they talk of 7,000 deserters, 12 000 men sick in hospitals, in addition to the many who have died (letter of 27 October) ... and [the number of deserters] would be higher, they say, if they were not afraid of [being killed by] our irregulars (letter of 31 October)."[138]
— (letters sent by Miguel de Arriaga – the army's secretary – to the Portuguese prime minister, Marquis of Pombal, during the chase of the remnants of the Franco-Spanish army).
The Scottish Colonel John Hamilton wrote in a letter dated 24 October 1762, that the army of Charles III was in a "most ruinous shattered condition",[139] while Lippe would add in his Mémoir (1770) that the Bourbon army was "decimated by starvation, desertion and disease",[140] his cavalry suffering a "debacle".[141] The total losses of the Franco-Spanish army during the first two invasions of Portugal - according to a report of British ambassador in Portugal, Edward Hay, to Pitt's successor, the 2nd Earl of Egremont (8 November 1762) -, was around 30,000 men (half of them deserters, many of whom became prisoners), representing almost three-quarters of the initial invading army.[142] These figures are corroborated by sources close to the Spanish crown: both the Austrian ambassador, Count of Rosenberg, and the Secretary of the Danish embassy, Federico de Goessel, sent independent reports to their governments estimating that - excluding the prisoners and deserters (which were not included in the following number) - Spain had suffered 12,000 deaths in the war against Portugal.[143] The death toll of the French has not been estimated.
More recently, French historian Isabelle Henry wrote about these losses: "Disappointed, facing incredible resistance and losing everything in the field, the Spaniards abandoned the fight and left behind twenty-five thousand men ..."[144]
For its part, the American historian Edmund O'Callaghan estimated that the Spanish army had already lost half of their men even before withdrawing: "Harassed, dispirited, and reduced to almost one half of their original numbers, the Spanish troops retired within their own frontier".[145]
Spanish military historian José Tertón Ponce wrote that since the beginning of the first invasion of Portugal up to the middle of the second invasion – immediately before the Bourbon retreat from Abrantes – the invading army had already suffered 20,000 casualties.[146] There were additional losses during the retreat and third invasion.
Dumouriez, who traveled into Portugal and Spain, collecting testimonies from participants in the invasion of 1762,[46] reported to Madrid and Paris, in 1766, that the Spaniards had lost 15,000 men during the second invasion of Portugal (province of Beira),[147] plus 10,000 soldiers during the first invasion of Portugal (Province of Trás-os-Montes),[59] of whom 4,000 died in the Hospital of Braganza of injuries and sickness.[41] This chronicler makes no estimate of the Spanish casualties in the third invasion of Portugal (province of Alentejo). The Franco-Spanish disaster was summarily captured in these much quoted contemporary words:
"... the Court of Spain ordered 40,000 men to march into Portugal (p. 247)[148]... The Spanish forces, when they arrived at the frontier, were reduced to 25,000 men, and never did troops experience a more horrible campaign [2nd invasion]. The sick and the stragglers were almost all of them massacred by the peasants ... the ill-success of the campaign in Portugal; it covered Spain with dishonour, and exhausted her to such a degree as to keep her quiet till the peace (p. 254)."[149]
— (Excerpt from the report of French General Dumouriez, who came to Portugal to study the causes of the Franco-Spanish defeat and develop an effective new plan to attack Portugal.[150] His report was presented to the Spanish king in November 1766 by the French ambassador Ossun, who omitted the passages of the text that mentioned the effectiveness of the Portuguese guerrillas over the Spaniards.[151][152] It was also sent to the French foreign minister Choiseul).
Napoleon's withdrawal from Russia, a painting by Adolph Northen. The Russians in 1812, similarly to the Anglo-Portuguese in 1762, did not need to win one single battle to defeat the invading army -Indeed, they lost all the battles and all the main cities of the Russian empire (including Moscow).Yet, and again like the Anglo-Portuguese in 1762 and 1810,[153][154] the Russians, using a scorched-earth policy and the guerrillas to disrupt the enemy's supply lines, compelled Napoleon to retreat with an even greater proportional loss than that experienced by Aranda in Portugal in 1762.
Comparatively, during the Napoleonic campaign to conquer Portugal a few years later, in 1810–1811, the French army of Massena lost 25,000 men (of whom 15,000 dead from starvation and disease plus 8,000 deserters or prisoners) to the Anglo-Portuguese of Wellington and guerrillas.[155] The similarities between the two invasions of Portugal (respectively in 1762 and 1810–11) go far beyond the coincidence of the number of casualties suffered by the invaders in both situations.[156] Historian Esdaile wrote that Wellington's "...plan [of 1810–11] was one of the most perfect schemes of defence that have ever been devised... It exploited both the Portuguese capital's geographical situation and the poverty of the Portuguese countryside to the full, whilst at the same time bringing into play traditional responses to invasion in the Form of the ordinances and the devastation of the countryside in a scorched- Earth policy (a similar tactic had actually been Employed against the Spaniards as recently as 1762)."[157]
Only in the first days of July 1762, the total number of Spanish deserters who had entered the Portuguese army allowed creating 2 new full regiments, besides the many who boarded British and Dutch ships. This suggests a brutal defection rate, since the bulk of defections would only occur from mid-October onwards, during the retreat of the invaders, and most of the deserters who survived the Peasants were not incorporated into the Portuguese army, merely being used as informants or scouts. The Bourbon losses were simply devastating.[158] Comparatively, the British losses were vastly inferior: fourteen soldiers were killed in combat and 804 men died from other causes, especially disease.[12]
The tactic of destroying the opponent without fighting and attacking only when he withdraws was the key to victory:
"... the main central attack on Portugal [second invasion] failed utterly ... partly through the skilful measures of the prince of Lippe, who had been placed in charge of the Portuguese army, and strengthened by 7,000 British troops, partly through the bold partisan enterprises carried out against their line of communications by General Burgoyne [and the guerrillas] ... But mainly the invasion failed through the absolute lack of munitions and food; the Portuguese – as was their wont – had swept the country side clean [a deadly scorched earth strategy], (...). After starving for some weeks in a roadless wilderness, the Spanish army retired into Estremadura [Spain] in a sad state of dilapidation. Next spring Charles III sued for peace."[159]
— Journal of the Royal United Service Institution
Fall of Spanish headquartersedit
Portrait of Count of Aranda, by Francisco Jover y Casanova. A brilliant Spanish statesman, whose experience as ambassador in Lisbon and writings about the inevitability of invading Portugal would grant him the command of that disastrous invasion: "The autumnal rains now setting in, D'Aranda found himself harassed on all sides by the peasantry, his provisions exhausted;...he dismantled the few fortresses that he had taken, and made a hasty retreat into Spain. This campaign was humiliating enough..."[160]
Nothing better symbolizes the Anglo-Portuguese victory than the final conquest of the Spanish headquarters in Castelo Branco itself.[161] When the allied army began a second encirclement movement to cut off the Spanish forces inside and around Castelo Branco, they fled to Spain, abandoning to their fate all their countless wounded and sick, accompanied by a letter addressed to Townshend, commander of the Portuguese force, in which the Count of Aranda demanded human treatment for their captured men (2 November 1762).[131]
The number of Spaniards taken can be deduced from a letter sent by the Secretary of the Portuguese army to the Portuguese prime minister (six days before the fall of Castelo Branco, 27 October), stating that according to Spanish deserters, the total number of sick men laying in Spanish hospitals was 12,000.[138] By the ends of October, the invading army was concentrated almost entirely in the region around Castelo Branco (out of it, there were only little garrisons in the cities of Almeida and Chaves). This number was exceptionally high, since besides the wounded, there were also many sick: the Spanish army, concentrated around Castelo Branco, was suffering a terrible epidemic. This epidemic was transmitted to the Portuguese population itself, when it returned to the city, shortly after the flight of the Spaniards. Thus, the joy of victory was overshadowed by the grief and mourning of many residents.[162]
American historian Lawrence H. Gipson (winner of the Pulitzer Prize for History):
"Lippe meanwhile had concentrated fifteen thousand British and Portuguese Troops at Abrantes, called 'the Pass to Lisbon'. With the coming of the autumnal rains and with his army not only ravaged by disease and other ills but greatly reduced as the result of desertions, General Aranda found it impossible to remain in the desolate mountainous country that he was confined. He therefore began to withdraw his 'half-starved, half naked' troops, to Spain, and so precipitously, as to leave, according to reports, his sick and incapacitated behind. (...) The Portuguese war had really ended –and as ingloriously as it had auspiciously begun. But this was not the only humiliation suffered by the Spaniards before the year 1762 came to a close."[163]
The defeat of Spain in Portugal was accompanied and aggravated by setbacks in her empire and in the sea: "In one short year the unfortunate Spaniards saw their armies beaten in Portugal, Cuba and Manila torn from their grasp, their commerce destroyed, and their fleets annihilated".[164]
Meanwhile, admirers of Aranda anticipated his victory -taken for granted-, such as the humanist and reformer Stanislaw Konarski, who, writing from distant Poland, and ignoring the Franco-Spanish disaster, composed an ode in Latin in his honor, praising the generosity and humanism of the winner of Portugal towards the inhabitants of Lisbon surrendered to his feet.[165]
La Lippe rewardededit
Thus, except for two frontier strongholds (Chaves and Almeida),[166] all the occupied territory was liberated.[167][168][169]
The city of Castelo Branco, used by the Bourbons as Headquarters and Hospital site. Fleeing before an inferior enemy, and leaving behind all their many wounded and sick in the hands of the Anglo-Portuguese, represented a severe blow in Spain's prestige, as well as the end of the second invasion of Portugal.
The remnants of the invading armies were expelled and chased to the border, and even within Spain itself, as would happen in Codicera, where several Spanish soldiers were imprisoned: "Portugal had not accepted the invitation to join France and Spain in this alliance and the latter powers... invaded Portugal. England sent a fleet promptly to Lisbon with 8,000 soldiers who helped drive the invaders back and followed them into Spain herself... The blows she had received were staggering..."[170]
At the end of the war, La Lippe was invited by the Portuguese prime minister Pombal to stay in Portugal, in order to reorganize and modernize the Portuguese army (which he accepted).[171] When Lippe eventually returned to his own country – praised by Voltaire in his famous Encyclopedia, and covered with prestige in Britain, and all Europe – the King of Portugal offered him six cannons of gold (each weighing 32 pounds), a star studded with diamonds, among other gifts, as a sign of gratitude for the man who had saved his throne.[171] The King determined that, even absent of Portugal, La Lippe retained nominal command of the Portuguese army, with the rank of Marshal General. And he was also given the title of "Serene Highness" (25 January 1763).
On the other hand, British government rewarded him with the title of "honorary Field Marshal".
Third invasion of Portugal (Alentejo)edit
The third invasion of Portuguese territory was stimulated by the peace negotiations between France and Great Britain and rumours of a general peace (the preliminary Treaty of Fontainebleau was signed on 3 November, one day after the fall of the Spanish Headquarters in Portugal). Indeed, after her defeat in the last invasion, Spain felt compelled to reorganize her troops in order to conquer a portion of Portuguese territory that could be changed by her huge colonial losses at the hands of the British.[172] This would reinforce her position and bargaining power during the peace talks, which would culminate in the Treaty of Paris, on 13 February 1763.
Surprise Factoredit
High Alentejo, where the third failed Bourbon invasion occurred.
Since the remnants of the Bourbon troops were settled into winter quarters inside Spain (after crossing the river Tagus at Alcántara), the allied army did the same in Portugal. By then, the French army was practically out of action because in addition to the many dead, deserters and prisoners, there were 3,000 French lying in the hospital of Salamanca.[173]
Yet Aranda correctly assumed that if he attacked first (before next year's spring, when the new campaign was supposed to start), Portuguese garrisons would be completely taken by surprise. This time, the flatness of the terrain in the province of Alentejo, would give full advantage to the Spanish cavalry, instead of what happened in the two previous invasions.
He knew that the Portuguese fortresses were only manned by second line troops (militia), and recent experience proved that siege operations were their Achilles' heel. Besides, the poor state of the Portuguese fortresses in the Alentejo was almost an invitation for invasion: during an inspection to the strongholds of Alentejo, British Brigadier-General Charles Rainsford recommended to remove some of their larger guns to prevent their capture.[174]
However, Lippe had taken preventive measures by strengthening the garrisons of the Alentejo's fortresses near the border (Elvas, Marvão, Ouguela, Arronches, Alegrete and Campo Maior), while transferring some regiments from North to South of the riverTagus, in Alentejo, where they continued in winter quarters (but closer to the gravity center of the next campaign). He also created a reserve force consisting in all the British regiments and some Portuguese troops, near Sardoal. At last, some British officers were sent to command Portuguese garrisons in key strongholds: Field Marshal Clark into Elvas, Colonel Wrey into Alegrete, Colonel Vaughan into Arronches, Captain Brown into Marvão, keeping the Portuguese commanders of Ouguela (Captain Brás de Carvalho) and Campo Maior (Governor Marquis do Prado). This set of measures would prove decisive.
Offensiveedit
For this campaign, the Spaniards assembled three big divisions around Valencia de Alcántara. This time, unlike the two previous invasions, the Spaniards split their army in several corps, with each one attacking one target.
A Spanish force of 4,000 or 5,000 attempted to takeMarvão with a frontal attack. The terrorized population pressed for surrender, but the firmness of Captain Brown prevailed and he opened fire against the attackers. The Spaniards were defeated with many losses and fled.
Another Spanish force of four squadrons attacked Ouguela (12 November 1762), whose walls were ruined. Its tiny garrison, formed by some armed irregulars and fifty riflemen, routed the enemy, who fled leaving many dead behind. The King of Portugal promoted Captain Brás de Carvalho and the other Ouguela's officers to a higher rank. The assault on Campo Maior also failed because the Spanish unit from Badajoz was not supported by the Spanish unit of Albuquerque. The latter fled to Spain when part of the Portuguese garrison of Campo Maior tried to intercept it.
Third retreat, second chaseedit
Burgoyne's 16th Light Dragoon (British). The British decisively stiffened the resistance of the Portuguese army: "The Count of Lippe, assisted by the energy of the Portuguese Minister, quickly formed the Portuguese troops into a disciplined army".[175]
Eventually Lippe mobilized the entire allied army – finishing its winter quarters (12 November 1762) – and moving all units into south of the river Tagus (near Portalegre), as soon as news of the enemy's offensive became known.
The Spaniards were demoralized by these failures: during the two previous invasions not even one stronghold had resisted (a success rate of one hundred percent); while this time not even one fortress had been taken,[176] giving the Portuguese time to assemble troops. The Portuguese army was now disciplined and well commanded. This renewed army – which initial unpopularity led some men to mutilate themselves to avoid conscription – saw their prestige and numbers skyrocket with volunteers.[177] On the Contrary, the Franco-Spanish army was greatly diminished after the losses suffered during three failed invasions. Once again – for the third time – the Spanish army was compelled to retreat (15 November 1762) and for the second time, it was chased by Anglo-Portuguese detachments,[129] which took many prisoners.[178] A few more prisoners were even taken inside Spain, when the Portuguese garrison of Alegrete, led by colonel Wrey, made a successful raid on La Codosera (19 November).[179]
Spain seeks a truceedit
On 22 November 1762, seven days after the beginning of the definitive Spanish retreat from Portugal, and three days after the Portuguese incursion in Spain (Codicera), the commander-in-chief of the Franco-Spanish army (Count of Aranda) sent Major-General Bucarelli to the Anglo-Portuguese headquarters at Monforte, with a Peace proposal: the suspension of hostilities. It was accepted and signed 9 days later, on 1 December 1762.[180]
However, the Bourbon commander would try one last move to save his face: on the very same day Aranda sent a proposal to the Portuguese for the suspension of hostilities (22 November), he also sent a force of 4,000 men to seize the Portuguese town of Olivença. But the Spaniards withdrew as soon as they discovered that the garrison had just been reinforced shortly before. Lippe informed Aranda that such behaviour was odd for someone well-intentioned and eager for peace. (The Spanish commander answered that there had been an error of communication with the leader of that expedition).
A preliminary peace treaty had been signed at Fontainebleau, but the definitive treaty was only signed on 10 February 1763 in Paris,[166] with the presence of the Portuguese representative, Martinho de Melo e Castro, among all the other. By this treaty, Spain was obliged to return to Portugal the small cities of Almeida and Chaves (in the Hispano-Portuguese frontier), and Colonia del Sacramento in South America (which had been taken to the Portuguese together with part of the Rio Grande do Sul in 1763), besides large concessions to the British: "The Spaniards, having failed the campaign of Portugal, had to return Colonia del Sacramento, renounce claims on their fishing rights in Newfoundland, recognize the legality of the British settlements on the coast of Honduras, cede Florida to England, and confirm all the privileges that British commerce held before the war started."[181]
Meanwhile, Portugal also captured Spanish territories in South America (1763). The Portuguese won most of the valley of the Rio Negro, in the Amazon Basin, after dislodging the Spaniards from S. José de Marabitanas and S. Gabriel (1763),[182][183] where they built two fortresses. The Portuguese, commanded by Rolim Moura, also successfully resisted a Spanish army sent from Santa Cruz de la Sierra (Bolívia) to dislodge them from the right bank of the Guaporé River (Fortress of S. Rosa or Conceição), the "gate" for the gold-rich Province of Mato Grosso (1763).[184] The besieging Spanish army, reduced to less than half by disease, starvation and desertions, had to retreat, leaving the Portuguese in possession of the disputed territory and all its artillery (both the outcome and strategy resembling the misfortunes of the Spanish army in Portugal).[185]
This way, the confrontation between Portugal and Spain in South America, during the Seven Years' War, ended in a tactical stalemate. However, while the Spaniards lost to the Portuguese nearly all the territory conquered during the conflict (Colonia do Sacramento was given back by treaty, and Rio Grande do Sul would be retaken from the Spanish army during the undeclared war of 1763–1777),[186][187][188][189] Portugal retained all its conquests in the Rio Negro Valley (S. José de Marabitanas and S. Gabriel) and the Guapore's right bank (Mato Grosso). The only lands that Portugal conquered and returned to Spain were the territories of San Martin and San Miguel (whose Spanish property had always been recognized by the Portuguese).[190]
Aftermathedit
Reasons for Spanish failureedit
Spanish Prime Minister Manuel Godoy, Prince of the Peace (1767–1851), credited the Franco-Spanish defeat of 1762 mainly to the peasant uprising, caused by the excesses of the invaders: "The war of 62 alternated between defeats and disgraces; forty thousand Spanish soldiers and twelve thousands French only managed to take Almeida and penetrate some leagues inland, and then were defeated in the mountains with very little honour to the Spanish and French arms... the country was trampled, the people subjected to violence and repression. And the peasantry rebelled."[191]
It was a war without formal battles, of marches and counter-marches, and s it is called the Fantastic War in Portuguese historiography. It represented a victory of strategy over numbers, since the Bourbon armies failed to reach all their stated goals and had to retreat, with huge casualties, before an advancing and inferior enemy, who chased them out of Portugal.
The mountainous nature of the terrain and the collapse of logistic lines, respectively, well used and caused by the allies, were determinant.
Eventually, the genius of Count Lippe,[192] and the discipline of British troops, whose officers managed to reorganize the whole Portuguese army in record time while taking advantage of its bravery,[193][a] explain a Portuguese victory that many observers considered impossible at the time:[6]
"when Spain declared war against Portugal in 1762, the nominal [Portuguese] army consisted of 17,000 men... of which, not more than half could be mustered, and these without artillery or engineers. The talents of the German Count de La Lippe who commanded them, and the assistance of the British, enabled this force to resist the Spanish army, who retired at the close of the campaign, after sustaining considerable loss as well as from the regulars as the peasants".[194]
— W. Bradford in Sketches of Military Costume in Spain and Portugal.
Most decisive of all were the hatred and resistance of rural populations to the foreign invader:[195][196][197] "The Franco-Spanish army, commanded by Prince Beauvau and Count of Aranda, acted softly inside Portugal, who revolted against foreign invasion in the same way that Spain will do in 1808 [against Napoleon], and was aided in its resistance by a body of 8,000 British landed in Lisbon. [The invaders] had to retreat by the valley of the Tagus".[198]
The Spaniards also made several errors, such as changing plans three times (the main objective being successively Oporto, Lisbon, and Alentejo, during the three invasions) and replacing the army's commander at a critical moment. Their relationship with the French was poor: Aranda even wrote to the Spanish court, complaining of the atrocities committed by French troops against the Portuguese villages. In addition, the large Spanish fleet sent to America not only diverted resources and logistics from the army aimed to conquer Portugal, but also prevented Spain from attacking Portugal by sea.[citation needed]
Besides, the Bourbon numerical superiority was mainly apparent as they had to split their forces in order to sustain the conquered strongholds, look for food, chase the guerrillas, escort supply convoys from Spain, and build roads.[199] The remaining troops available for main military operations were very few, starved, and demoralized.[citation needed]
Loss of Spanish prestigeedit
Charles III of Spain. He wrote to his Plenipotentiary Grimaldi during the peace negotiations in Paris, end of 1762: "I'd rather lose my dignity than to see my people suffer".[200] It was during the invasion of Portugal -the main Spanish contribution to the Seven Years' War-[9][201] that Spain suffered the highest human toll (around 25,000 soldiers).[14] The surrender of Havana, represented 11,670 losses, including 5,000 of the garrison captured before being deported back to Spain.
According to several contemporaries, the huge human losses experienced by the Spaniards during the invasion of Portugal, contributed to discredit Spain:[202]
Contemporary General Dumouriez (French), 1766: "The preservation [independence] of Portugal cost Spain its glory, its treasure, and an army."[203]
Contemporary anonymous Spanish author, 1772: "...the discrediting and destruction of a splendid army in the last entry [invasion of Portugal], persuaded Europe that our power was more imaginary than real. With odious comparisons with what we [the Spaniards] were in other times." (in Military-Historical reflections on why Portugal remains independent of Spain and why our wars against it usually end in disgrace, which will continue until we take other dispositions. [in Spanish]).[204]
Contemporary Spanish Satire, mocking about the destruction of a Spanish army in Portugal and a navy in Cuba –in just 6 months:
"Through a Compact Family / the sword he drew / thus, it was believed that the world he was going to conquer. / But he sheathed his sword again / having lost a splendid army / an excellent navy, money and a lot of men / and his honor in Havana / in six months alone."[205] (The invasion of Portugal took six months while the siege of Havana lasted two months).
José Cornide (Spaniard), who went to Portugal in 1772 to study the reasons of the Franco-Spanish defeat, and elaborated a military report of that country: "The war against the Kingdom of Portugal...its bad outcome, and the loss of a considerable number of troops and even civilians... that were contaminated by the retreating troops (...). Merely in Galicia (about which I can speak with some knowledge) more than 60,000 people were lost as a consequence of the war of [17]62 ... whenever we adopt... the tactics of the war of 1762, the result will always be so disgraceful as then."[206]
Duke of Choiseul, French Foreign Minister, in a letter to king Louis XV: "It is not my fault ... that the Spaniards have made such an unbelievable campaign [in Portugal]." Apparently, he devalued French responsibility in the Franco-Spanish defeat.[207]
Far from saving France from defeat, Spain shared it, and indeed made it worse.[208] However, after the war Spain would commit to peace,[209] embracing a successful process of reforms and modernization.[210][211]
Trials in Spainedit
After the end of the Seven Years' War, there was a war council in Spain to judge the military leaders involved in the fall of Havana at British hands, mainly Juan de Prado y Portocarrero (governor of Cuba) and the Marquis of the Royal Transportation. The Count of Aranda was the President of this council. The punishments were generally very severe, and Aranda was particularly active asking inclusively the death sentence for the former Viceroy of Peru, Count of Superunda– whose only crime had been to be in the wrong place at the wrong time (he was returning to Spain after serving the Crown in Peru for 16 years, when he was caught in the Havana's siege).
Portrait of Voltaire, who like other contemporary intellectuals, criticized the invasion of 1762. He attributed the Anglo-Portuguese victory over the Franco-Spaniards entirely to the genius of Count Lippe. He classified the Spanish Attempt of defeating Britain by invading Portugal, as "the greatest political stroke that modern history records".[212]Adam Smith, in its turn, considered the invasion a biased economical tactic, since it was based on the premise that England would not survive without the gold of Portugal.
The devastating defeat caused great commotion in the Spanish public opinion,[213] who demanded scapegoats. But, ironically, it would be the loser of the Portuguese campaign of 1762 who would judge the loser of Cuba. Spanish historian José de Urdañez pointed out that:
"as the best biographers of the Aragonese count [Aranda] have explained, 'under the cover of rigor, the material and moral failure that this war had been to Spain was camouflaged before the people.' (...). However, it was still amazing that the leader of the defeated army in Portugal was the fierce accuser of the defenders of Havana..."[214]
— In Víctimas Ilustradas del Despotismo. El Conde de Superunda, Culpable y Reo, ante el Conde de Aranda .
Stalemate in South Americaedit
The Spanish invasion of Portugal in Europe which absorbed the lion's share of the Spanish war effort, also saw a resurgence of border skirmishes between the Portuguese colony of Brazil and adjacent Spanish territories that ended with a mixed result.
River Plate
the Spanish Cevallos expedition (3,900 men)[215] was successful capturing the crucially placed River Plate Portuguese port town of Colónia do Sacramento (with 767 defenders),[216] where 27 British merchantmen with their cargo loaded on board were captured in the harbour.[217]The Attack on Nova Colonia in the River Plate in 1763, under the command of Captain John MacnamaraWhen a small Company-Portuguese fleet under privateer John McNamara tried to retake Colonia do Sacramento in 1763, it was beaten off, with the East India Company losing one fourth-rate ship of the line, the Lord Clive along with another ship, the 40-gun Ambuscade suffering structural damage. The Portuguese frigateGloria of 38 guns also suffered damage. The fleet retreated after the loss of their largest ship.
Cevallos advanced North with a Hispano-Indian army of 6,000 men and reached an even greater victory when he conquered most of the vast and rich territory of the so-called "Continent of S. Peter" (the present day Brazilian state of Rio Grande do Sul), where the Portuguese had only up to 1,000 men (soldiers and militia).[221]São José do Norte and the capital –S. Pedro do Sul- were abandoned without a fight.
However, the Spaniards were defeated by the Portuguese at the Battle of Santa Bárbara (1 January 1763),[222] when an invading army of 500 Spaniards and 2,000 Indians,[223] in cooperation with Cevallos, tried to conquer Rio Pardo, almost the only remaining Portuguese territory in Rio Grande do Sul: seven cannons,[224] 9,000 heads of cattle and 5,000 horses were captured.[225] This huge territory would be completely retaken by the Portuguese during the so-called "deaf war" (1763–1777).[186][187][188][189]
Rio Negro (Amazonia, North Brazil)
Portugal conquered the valley of the Rio Negro (1763), in the Amazon Basin, after dislodging the Spaniards from Marabitanas and San Gabriel (1763).[182]
[183] There they raised two fortresses, using Spanish cannons.
Mato Grosso (western Brazil)
the Portuguese, commanded by Rolim Moura, also successfully resisted a Spanish army sent from Santa Cruz de la Sierra (Bolívia) to dislodge them from the right bank of the Guaporé River (Fortress of S. Rosa or Conceição), the gate for the gold-rich Province of Mato Grosso (1763), which the Spanish crown intended to recover. The Portuguese not only used biological warfare (according to the Spanish commander, the Governor of Santa Cruz de la Sierra) but also captured and occupied – until the end of the war – the reductions of S. Miguel and S. Martin, which were main sources of Spanish supply and were located on the Spanish side of the river Guaporé (left bank).[184] Thus the besieging Spanish army, reduced to less than half by disease, starvation and desertions, had to retreat, leaving the Portuguese in possession of the disputed territory and all its artillery.[185] Rolim de Moura would be rewarded for his victory with the Viceroyalty of Brazil. A second Spanish attack 3 years after the end of the seven years' war, failed again (1766). [citation needed]
This way, if the confrontation between Portugal and Spain in South America, during the Seven Years' War, ended in a tactical stalemate, it represented also a Portuguese strategic victory in the short run: the Spaniards would lose to the Portuguese nearly all the territory they had conquered during the conflict (Colonia do Sacramento was given back by the treaty of Paris, which ended the war, and Rio Grande do Sul would be retaken from the Spanish army during the undeclared war of 1763–1777),[186][187][188][189] while Portugal retained all its conquests in the Rio Negro Valley (S. José de Marabitanas and S. Gabriel) and the Guapore's right bank/Mato Grosso. The only lands that Portugal conquered and returned to Spain were the territories of San Martin and San Miguel missions (whose Spanish property had always been recognized by the Portuguese).[190]
Invasion in literatureedit
Curiously, the Franco-Spanish invasion of Portugal is almost a forgotten episode in Portuguese History text books. And for Portuguese literature, it is like a blind spot (with a few exceptions: Hélia Correia's "Lillias Fraser" and Mário de Carvalho's "A paixão do conde de Fróis").
However, in English literature, there is at least a book on the subject: Absolute honour, whose hero is an Englishman (Jack Absolute) that lives adventures during the Bourbon invasion of Portugal in 1762. Naturally, and for understandable reasons, this campaign is also almost absent from Spanish literature. There is, nevertheless, a high qualified exception -the great Novelist and Dramaturge Benito Pérez Galdós, who wrote a tale about the battle of Bailén, where a personage, D. Santiago Fernández, describes sarcastically his participation in the campaign of 1762, fiercely defending his master, the marquis of Sarria: "... There was no other Sarria born after Alexander the Macedonian (...). That was a great campaign, yes sir; we entered Portugal, and although we had to withdraw shortly after, because the English appeared before us (...). The Marquis of Sarria was a supporter of the Prussian tactic, which is to be quiet and wait for the enemy to advance wildly, thus rapidly being tired and defeated. In the first battle fought with the Portuguese villagers, everyone began to run when they saw us, and the general ordered the cavalry to take possession of a herd of sheep, which was achieved without bloodshed."[226]
Referencesedit
Notesedit
^A few years after the 1762 invasion, during the Peninsular war (1808–1814), the prestige of the Portuguese soldier remained: "There are countless comments from British officers praising the bravery, steadfastness and skill of their Portuguese comrades [the Duke of Wellington used to call them the 'fighting roosters' of his Anglo-Portuguese army and asked Portuguese troops to reinforce his army in Belgian, during the Waterloo campaign. The French who fought against them agreed. General Hugo and his son new, from experience, that the Portuguese line was capable of withstanding the attacks of the best French regiments. Later on Baron Marbot, Marshal Massena's ADC, concurred, adding that they had not been given proper credit for the part they played in the [Peninsular War]. (...)", in Chartrand, Rene The Portuguese Army of the Napoleonic Wars vol. 3, Osprey Publishing, New York, 2001, p. 41
Note A: "The Iberian war of 1762 is an anomaly within the Seven Years' war. Yet its less-than dramatic conduct should not overshadow its importance. As part of a larger campaign it was born of an illusion imagined by the Bourbon powers. ... These illusions... set the stage for the war's final Bourbon disaster. (p. 429) ... A reported 4,000 Spanish troops died in the hospital at Bragança, and it was estimated that of the 40,000 who invaded Portugal... only 25,000 returned the following spring... Bourbon casualties mounted because the Portuguese peasantry waged a relentless war of revenge against deserters and retreating soldiers who they captured and massacred in large numbers. (p. 452) The Portuguese campaign, indeed the entire Spanish war, lay in ruins." (p. 521)". In Danley Mark and Patrick Speelman – The Seven Years' War: Global Views, Brill, 2012, chapter 16 (pp. 429–460)
"... with the help of a small British expeditionary force, Portugal repulsed the Spanish attack." In Dull, Jonathan- The Age of the Ship of the Line: the British and French navies, 1650–1851. University of Nebraska Press, 2009, p. 88.
"As for Spain, the expulsion of her troops from Portugal, the loss of Cuba and the Philippines, twelve ships and more than 100 million, made her deeply regret her involvement in the war." In Roujoux and Alfred Mainguet – Histoire d`Angleterre (in French), Vol. II, Paris, Charles Hingray, Libraire-Éditeur, 1845, p. 404
"Portugal had not accepted the invitation to join France and Spain in this alliance and the latter powers ...invaded Portugal. England sent a fleet promptly to Lisbon with 8,000 soldiers who helped drive the invaders back and followed them into Spain herself... The blows she had received were staggering..." in Hart, Francis Russel – The Siege of Havana: 1762, Houghton Mifflin, 1931, p. 52
"...the annoyance given by the peasantry, checked the progress of the Spaniards. Accordingly ...the invaders retired within their own frontiers, evacuating all their conquests. This campaign constituted nearly the whole of the Spanish share of the Seven Years' War in Europe." In Busk, M. M. – The History of Spain and Portugal from B.C. 1000 to A.D. 1814, Vol. 25, Baldwin and Cradock, Paternoster-Row, London, 1833, page 204
Note C: Reports sent by Miguel de Arriaga (the army's secretary) to the Portuguese prime minister, during the chase of the remnants of the Franco-Spanish army: "... Yesterday and the day before, I spent passports to 45 [Spanish] deserters; and taking into consideration what they tell us, the Spanish army fell into the abyss; they talk of 7,000 deserters, 12 000 men sick in hospitals, in addition to the many who have died (letter of 27 October)... and [the number of deserters] would be higher, they say, if they were not afraid of [being killed by] our irregulars (letter of 31 October)." In SALES, Ernesto Augusto- O Conde de Lippe em Portugal, Vol 2, Publicações de Comissão de História Militar, Minerva, 1936, page 29
Citationsedit
^ ab"The army was in no better shape. Only 8,000 effective [Portuguese] soldiers stood in the face of the coming Spanish onslaught. They wore 'rags and patches' and begged in the streets, as they received little or no pay from the central government." In Speelman, Patrick and Danley, Mark – The Seven Years' War: Global Views 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, 2012, p. 436 11 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine.
^Between 7,000 and 8,000 Portuguese in Chagas, Pinheiro- História de Portugal, vol. VII, Lisboa, 1902, p. 40.
^ ab"The British troops which embarked for Lisbon under their veteran commander consisted of 7, 104 officers and men of al arms [official figures when boarding in Britain]. This force had been dispatched in consequence of the threatening attitude of France and Spain towards Portugal, whose monarch had declined to enter into an alliance with the above two powers in order to 'curb the pride of the British nation which aspired to become despotic over the sea'." In Dalton, Charles- 1714–1727 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Vol. II, 1912, p. 31 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine
^"All told the British forces in Portugal numbered roughly 7,000 men." In Speelman, Patrick and Danley, Mark – The Seven Years' War: Global Views 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, 2012, p. 440 12 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine.
^Selvagem, Carlos- Portugal Militar (in Portuguese), Imprensa Nacional-Casa da Moeda, Lisboa, 2006, p. 475.
^ abcdLetter XLIV, from a British captain: "Lisbon, 1779... Dear brother (p. 409)... after comparing every thing, after visiting the frontiers of the two kingdoms, (as I have endeavoured to do with something of a critical eye) to me it appears that a successful invasion of Portugal from Spain, at least as circumstances at present stand, would be so exceedingly probable, or rather certain, that I find it very difficult to account for the miscarriage of their last attempt upon it in 1762 (page 415)... an army consisting of at least 30,000 men, with 10 or 12,000 French auxiliaries, and a large park of artillery...collected at a great expense from Catalonia and the farthest parts of the Kingdom...establishing large magazines in different parts of the frontiers...it is astonishing that with such a shadow of an army to oppose them (p. 416)...", in Costigan, Arthur W. – Sketches of Society and Manners in Portugal 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, vol. II, London, 1787, pp. 409–416.
^ abc30,000 Spaniards, according to a letter of Charles III to Count of Gazola in December of 1761 plus 10,000 French in 12 battalions who joined them on 12 June 1762. All these informations in Mourinho, António- Invasão de Trás-os-Montes e das Beiras na Guerra dos Sete Anos Pelos Exércitos Bourbónicos, em 1762, através da Correspondência Oficial (in Portuguese)..., Series II, Vol 31, Anais da Academia Portuguesa de História, Lisboa, 1986, pp. 380 and 395.
^Selvagem, Carlos- Portugal Militar (in Portuguese), Imprensa Nacional-Casa da Moeda, Lisboa, 2006, p. 476.
^ ab"This operation was without doubt the greatest mobilisation of troops on mainland Spain throughout the whole eighteenth century, and the figures themselves bear witness to the government's interest in the operation...and meant leaving the rest of mainland Spain largely unguarded...by way of comparison, the battle of Almansa of 1707...involved a Spanish-French army of over 25,000 men...while the famous attack on Algiers in 1775 involved a mobilisation of little more than 19,000 infantry and cavalry men..." in Enciso, Agustín González (Spanish) – "Mobilising Resources for War: Britain and Spain at Work During the Early Modern Period" 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Eunsa, Ediciones Universidad de Navarra, S.A., Spain, 2006, p. 159 21 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine, ISBN9788431323844.
^"In this offensive would participate the most distinguished of the Bourbon army, newly reformed; and, as officers, the brightest students graduated from the modern military academies established a few decades ago in Barcelona, Segovia and Madrid, following the dictates of the enlightened science of the time (...)." See «De Espanha, nem bom vento nem bom casamento». La guerra como determinante de las difíciles relaciones entre las dos Coronas Ibéricas en la Península y en América. 1640–1808 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine (in Spanish, pp. 29–111) in Anais de História de além-mar, Vol X, Juan Marchena Fernandez, 2009, Anais de História de além-mar, p. 71.
^"A Campaign won without the major casualties of battle or incurring many losses other than those of sickness." In Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, vol. 59, London, 1981, p. 25 8 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine
^ ab"British casualties were light overall – there were fourteen combat deaths compared to 804 from other means..." In Speelman, Patrick and Danley, Mark – The Seven Years' War: Global Views 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, 2012, p. 448 29 October 2018 at the Wayback Machine
^Eduard Hay, British ambassador in Portugal (letter to the 2nd Earl of Egremont, 8 November 1762) reported a total of 30,000 Franco-Spanish casualties during the first two invasions of Portugal (half of them deserters, many of whom became prisoners), representing almost three-quarters of the initial invading army. See British Scholar C. R. Boxer in Descriptive List of the State Papers Portugal, 1661–1780, in the Public Record Office, London: 1724–1765 6 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Vol II, Lisbon, Academia das Ciências de Lisboa, with the collaboration of the British Academy and the P.R.O., 1979, p. 415. See also COSTA, Fernando Dores- Nova História Militar de Portugal 20 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Círculo de Leitores, Vol. II, Coordinator: António Hespanha, 2004, p. 358, footnote 280.
^ ab"Disappointed, facing incredible resistance and losing everything in the field, the Spaniards abandoned the fight and left behind twenty-five thousand men ..." In Henry, Isabelle – Dumouriez: Général de la Révolution (1739–1823) 8 March 2021 at the Wayback Machine, L'Harmattan, Paris, 2002, p. 87 8 August 2017 at the Wayback Machine.
^Corroborated by two sources close to the Spanish crown: both the Austrian ambassador, Count of Rosenberg, and the Secretary of the Danish embassy, Federico de Goessel, sent independent reports to their governments estimating that - excluding the prisoners and deserters (which were not included in this number) - Spain had suffered 12,0000 death in the war against Portugal. The death toll of the French has not been estimated. See Count of Rosenberg to Kaunitz, Escorial, letter of November 18, 1762, and Goessel to Bernstorff, Madrid, letter of January 3, 1763. Cited by Olaechea, Rafael- Contribución al estúdio del «Motín contra Esquilache» (1766) 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, in Tiempos Modernos 8 (2003), p. 9, footnote nr. 40.
^In Morell, Thomas – Studies in History, vol. II, London, 1821, p. 373 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine.
^"Boscawen had defeated the French fleet off the Portuguese coast. The French commander took refuge in Lagos after losing five of his ships on the coast of the Algarve. The French at once began to demand satisfaction, and Pitt sent Lord Kinnoull on a special mission to Lisbon to offer apologies." In Livermore, H. V. – A New History of Portugal 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Cambridge University Press, London, 1969, p. 234.
^José Hermano Saraiva (coordinator) – História de Portugal, vol. VI, Quidnovi, 2004, p. 63.
^"France's Foreign Minister, the Duc de Choiseul, had pressured Charles III of Spain to declare war against Britain, even as he was beginning secret negotiations with London to end the fighting". In York, Neil Longley – Turning the World Upside Down: The War of American Independence and the Problem of Empire, Praeger, London, 2003, p. 33.
^"Spanish invasion of Portugal, an effort to block the British in Europe, also resulted in defeat for Spain." In Altagracia Ortiz – Eighteenth Century Reforms in the Caribbean 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press, 1983. p. 216, footnote 16.
^Pack, S. W. – Sea Power in the Mediterranean: A Study of the Struggle for sea power in the Mediterranean from the Seventeenth Century to the Present Day, Arthur Barker Limited, 1971, p. 68 21 March 2017 at the Wayback Machine.
^In Carnota, John Smith A. – The Marquis of Pombal 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, 2nd edition, Longmans, Green, Reader, and Dyer, London, 1871. p. 187.
^Carvalhosa, Manuel F. Barros (Viscount of Santarém) – Quadro Elementar das Relações Políticas e Diplomáticas de Portugal, Tome VI, Paris, 1850, p. XVI.
^"One of the main aims of the two great Bourbon powers, in the making of the Family Compact, had been to attack Portugal, in order either to compel England to send a large part of its troops to that country, or to take possession of it..."; in Philippson, Martin – The Age of Frederick the Great 19 August 2017 at the Wayback Machine, vol. XV, Lea Brothers and & company, Philadelphia, 1905, p. 103. 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine
^Livermore, H. V. – A New History of Portugal, Cambridge University Press, London, 1966, p. 232.
^Clark, Edward – Letters concerning the Spanish nation 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, London, 1763, p.353.
^Livermore, H. V. – A History of Portugal 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Cambridge University Press, London, 1947, p. 359 6 September 2017 at the Wayback Machine.
^According to Dumouriez in An Account of Portugal, as it Appeared in 1766 to Dumouriez, Lausanne (1775), and London (1797), p. 103.
^According to Dumouriez in An Account of Portugal, as it Appeared in 1766 to Dumouriez 13 December 2014 at the Wayback Machine, Lausanne (1775), and London (1797), p. 244 13 December 2014 at the Wayback Machine.
^Azevedo, J. Lúcio de – O Marquês de Pombal e a sua época, 2nd edition, Annuário do Brasil, Rio de Janeiro, p. 237 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine.
^In Dellon, Gabriel (and other authors)– Portugal nos Séculos Dezassete e Dezoito: Quatro Testemunhos 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Lisóptima Edições, 1989, p. 157. (in Portuguese).
^Shaw, L. M. – The Anglo-Portuguese alliance and the English merchants in Portugal, 1654–1810, Ashgate, 1998, p. 193 . Archived from the original on 14 August 2021. Retrieved 4 July 2014.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link).
^ abSpeelman, Patrick and Danley, Mark – The Seven Years' War: Global Views 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, 2012, p. 438 30 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine.
^"The Province was absolutely defenceless without soldiers, arms, powder, ball or provisions, and it was impossible to paint the scandalous conditions of the defences." In Francis, Alan David – Portugal 1715–1808 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Tamesis Books Limited, London, 1985, p.150 13 September 2018 at the Wayback Machine.
^Dumouriez, Charles – An Account of Portugal, as it Appeared in 1766 to Dumouriez, Lausanne (1775), and London (1797), p. 249 30 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine.
^Francis, Alan David, Portugal 1715–1808 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, 1985, p. 150.
^Speelman, Patrick and Danley, Mark- The Seven Years' War: Global Views 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, 2012, p. 439.
^Maxwell, Kenneth – Pombal, Paradox of the Enlightenment 6 May 2021 at the Wayback Machine, University Press, Cambridge, 1995, p. 113 5 May 2021 at the Wayback Machine.
^ abMartin, Benjamin – Miscellaneous Correspondence 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, vol. IV, London, 1764, p. 904.
^ abSee Dumouriez, Charles – An Account of Portugal, as it Appeared in 1766 to Dumouriez 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Lausanne (1775), and London (1797), p. 18.
^Lafuente, Modesto – Historia General de España 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, tome XX, third part, 8th book, Madrid, 1858, p. 55.
^Monteiro, Nuno Gonçalo – D. José: na sombra de Pombal, Temas e Debates, 2008, p. 198 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine.
^ abSpeelman, Patrick and Danley, Mark – The Seven Years' War: Global Views 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, 2012, p. 439.
^* The British Chronologift 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine: "Battle, at the river Douro, when the Portuguese defeated the Spaniards, May 25, 1762". London, 1789, Index to vol.III (1748–1762), p. 482.
Green, William – Chronological History of the Reign of George the Third 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, London, 1826, page 10: "The French and Spaniards enter Portugal; reinforcements sent to assist the Portuguese. May 25. The Portuguese beat the Spaniards on the River Douro."
^ abcJournal of the Society for Army Historical research, vol. 59, London, 1981, p. 25 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine.
^Dumouriez, Charles – An Account of Portugal, as it Appeared in 1766 to Dumouriez, Lausanne (1775), and London (1797), chapter 3, p.p 18-19.
^Dumouriez, Charles – An Account of Portugal, as it Appeared in 1766 to Dumouriez 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Lausanne (1775), and London (1797), Chapter VIII, p. 249.
^In Le Nouvelliste Suiss 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, July 1762, Newchatel, p. 277 29 July 2018 at the Wayback Machine.
^The London Chronicle for The Year 1762 . Archived from the original on 14 August 2021. Retrieved 3 August 2014.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link), Vol. XII (from 30 June, to 31 December), number 86 (from 29 June to 1 July), p. 6.
^The London Chronicler, or Universal evening Post 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine (for the year of 1762), vol. XII, nr. 86 (from Tuesday, 29 June, to Thursday, 1 July 1762), London, p. 6 22 December 2014 at the Wayback Machine.
^In The London Chronicler 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, 1762, (from 29 June to 1 July).
^O'Callaghan, Edmund Bailey – Orderly Book of Lieut. Gen. Burgoyne, New York, 1860, Introduction, p. XIV.
^"The Spanish failure in 1762 to exploit their early successes by a march to capture Oporto, the major town in Northern Portugal, proved operationally decisive." In Black, Jeremy – European Warfare in a Global Context, 1660–1815 9 September 2018 at the Wayback Machine, Routledge, 2007, p. 41.
^Dumouriez, Charles – An Account of Portugal, as it Appeared in 1766 to Dumouriez 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Lausanne (1775), and London (1797), chapter 3, p. 20.
^Serrão, Joaquim Veríssimo – História de Portugal: O Despotismo Iluminado (1750–1807) 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, vol. VI da História de Portugal, Editorial Verbo, 1977, p.61.
^Serrão, Joaquim Veríssimo – História de Portugal: O Despotismo Iluminado (1750–1807) 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, vol. VI da História de Portugal, Editorial verbo, 1977, p.61.
^Ponce, José Luis Terrón – La Casaca y la Toga: Luces y sombras de la reforma militar en el reinado de Carlos III Archived 2014-07-07 at archive.today, Institut Menorquí d'Estudis, Mahón, 2011, Chapter 2: La campaña de Portugal en 1762, pp.11–21 2014-07-14 at the Wayback Machine, p. 13.
^ ab"This province [of Trás-os Montes] is not worth an attack in a war between Spain and Portugal; it is even dangerous for the Spaniards to penetrate into it, as they found to their cost in the late war; 40,000 men advanced to Chaves, Bragança and Miranda...and about a fourth of their number died there..." In Dumouriez, Charles – An Account of Portugal, as it Appeared in 1766 to Dumouriez 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Lausanne (1775), and London (1797), p. 20 12 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine.
^"...it was found that the Marquis of Marialva and the Field-Marshals Count of Angeja, Count of Arcos and José Leite de Sousa were approaching Lamego with 7 regiments, British forces and militias. If this force entered Trás-os Montes, it could divide the two wings of the Spanish army – that trying to reach Oporto through the mountains, and that trying to reach the left bank of the Douro – which was a huge risk." in Barrento, António – Guerra Fantástica, Portugal, o Conde de Lippe e a Guerra dos Sete Anos 8 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Tribuna, Lisboa, 2006, pp. 55–56.
^"(...). In fact they made a very good effort; the Trás-os Montes invasion was turned back" (p. 150 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine) "... On the South Bank [of the river Douro] O'Hara was at Lamego, where a considerable Portuguese regular force was mobilizing, and in the mountains near Vila Real the enemy were afraid of being cut off by the auxiliaries there and found it prudent to retire. (p. 151 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine)" in Francis, Alan Davis – Portugal 1715–1808 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Tamesis Book Limited, London, 1985.
^Academia Portuguesa da História- Anais 19 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine, 1986, p. 396.
^«De Espanha, nem bom vento nem bom casamento». La guerra como determinante de las difíciles relaciones entre las dos Coronas Ibéricas en la Península y en América. 1640–1808 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine (in Spanish, pp. 29–111) in Anais de História de além-mar, Vol X, Juan Marchena Fernandez, 2009, Anais de História de além-mar, p. 71.
^Masséna's Aide-de-camp (1810), cited in Pecchio, Giuseppe – Lettres Historiques et Politiques sur le Portugal, 1830, p. 303 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine.
^"In April, because the war with Portugal was going badly for the Spanish troops, he [Count of Aranda] was ordered to return to Spain..." in María-Dolores, Albiac Blanco – El Conde de Aranda: los Laberintos del Poder 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Caja de Ahorros de la Inmaculada de Aragón, 1998, p. 67.
^Alonso, José Ramon – Historia Política del Ejército Español, Editora Nacional, 1974, p. 49 28 November 2017 at the Wayback Machine.
^The Gentleman's and London Magazine: Or Monthly Chronologer, 1741–1794 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, year of 1762, p. 483.
^"Count La Lippe, who was placed at the head of the allied forces, was one of the best soldiers of the age, and the Portuguese furnished a good raw material, although wretchedly equipped and officered. Nevertheless the heterogeneous body of English, Germans, and Portuguese collected under La Lippe made a very good fight of it, and Burgoyne, now a brigadier at the head of 3,000 cavalry, mostly Portuguese, distinguished himself...", in Cook, John D. and others – The Saturday Review of Politics, Literature, Science and Art 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Vol. 41, John W. Parker and Son, 1876, p. 369.
^"... he was a man born to command, of eccentric character but highly educated, and one of the most renowned engineer officers: he soon established an order and discipline amongst the Portuguese troops, which gave them the ability to contend successfully with the Spaniards in this campaign, and which entitles him to distinction in all military annals. The Citadel of Elvas still perpetuates his name to Portuguese gratitude, Fort Lippe...", in Cust, Edward- Annals of the Wars of the Eighteen Century 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Vol. III (1760–1783), London, 1858, p.74.
^"As Commander-in-Chief of the effete Portuguese army... he had repelled, in the brilliant peninsular campaigns of 1761–3, superior Franco-Spanish Forces." In Prothero, George Walter – The Quarterly Review 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, vol. 221, John Murray, 1914, p. 394.
^"The [Anglo-Portuguese] allies won by adroit marches and counter-marches, so that although...the enemy, by superior numbers, could possibly have won, they were always confronted by defenders in a good position and never dared to risk an all-out attack. A Campaign won without the major casualties of battle [for the Anglo-Portuguese]". In Journal of the Society for Army Historical research 8 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine, vol. 59, London, 1981, p. 25 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine.
^"... The movements of the Anglo-Portuguese troops forced the Spanish army of General Aranda to withdraw." In Mendes, J. Caria- John Hunter in Portugal 10 February 2020 at the Wayback Machine, 1963, page 61 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine (originally published in Semana Médica, nr. 91, 22 January 1961 and translated by Dr. Guerra of the Wellcome Medical Library).
^Azevedo, J. Lúcio de – O Marquês de Pombal e a sua época, 2nd edition, Annuário do Brasil, Rio de Janeiro, p. 239.
^"In 1762 he was chosen to command the united English and Portuguese army in a victorious war against the Spanish". In Radant, Friedhelm – From Baroque to Storm and Stress, 1720–1775, Vol. IV of Literary History of Germany, Croom Helm, 1977, p. 137 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine.
^Philippson, Martin – The Age of Frederick the great 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, vol. 15, Lea Brothers & Company, 1905, p. 103 4 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine.
^"The Bourbons... planned the invasion in three divisions: the first, in the north of Portugal, between the Minho and the Douro; the second, in the middle, between the Douro and the Tagus; and the third, to the south of the Tagus, to co-operate on that side with the middle corps in its attempt upon Lisbon. The northern division... commenced hostilities; entered the Portuguese province of Trás-os-Montes and..." in Bisset, Robert – The History of the Reign of George III 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Vol. I, Philadelphia, 1822, p. 188.
^Speelman, Patrick and Danley, Mark – The Seven Years' War: Global Views . Archived from the original on 14 August 2021. Retrieved 4 July 2014.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link), 2012, p. 447 . Archived from the original on 14 August 2021. Retrieved 6 September 2014.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link).
^"... In testimony to the cruel reality were the devastated fields, by order of the government, to embarrass the invasion by hunger, and along roadsides, the bones of the Spaniards slaughtered by the rural people..." In Azevedo, J. Lúcio de – O Marquês de Pombal e a sua época (in Portuguese), 2nd edition, Annuário do Brasil, Rio de Janeiro, p. 241 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine.
^"the Spanish invaded Tralos Montes, and had to retreat with 'loss'..." in Neale, John Mason – A History of Portugal 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Joseph Masters, London, 1846, p. 220.
^Stein, Stanley and Stein, Barbara – Apogee of Empire: Spain and New Spain in the Age of Charles III, 1759–1789 26 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine, Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004, chapter Imperilled Colonies and Spain's Response . Archived from the original on 14 August 2021. Retrieved 4 July 2014.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link).
^Sir Charles Grey to Shelburne, cited in Nelson, Paul David – Sir Charles Grey, First Earl Grey, Royal Soldier, family Patriarch 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Associated University Presses, USA, 1996, p. 26.
^"Spanish successes in overrunning poorly defended Portuguese fortresses led to urgent Portuguese requests for British troops, and these helped to turn the side." Cambridge illustrated Atlas, Warfare: Renaissance to Revolution, 1492–1792, vol. II, 1996, p. 127.
^"Almeida, a key frontier town whose possession could open up the route to Lisbon, was in chaos. Its fortifications were second rate and its inhabitants terrified of Spanish aggression." In Speelman, Patrick and Danley, Mark – The Seven Years' War: Global Views 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, 2012, p. 437 20 December 2014 at the Wayback Machine.
^Francis, Alan David, Portugal 1715–1808 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, 1985, p. 150.
^Costa, Fernando Dores – Nova História Militar de Portugal 20 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Círculo de Leitores, Vol. II, Coordinator: António Hespanha, 2004, p. 339.
^Speelman, Patrick and Danley, Mark – The Seven Years' War: Global Views . Archived from the original on 14 August 2021. Retrieved 4 October 2014.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link), 2012, p. 446 29 October 2018 at the Wayback Machine.
^"Aranda...attacked Almeida, and after a siege of nine days, forced the garrison of fifteen hundred men to surrender." In Coxe, William – España Bajo el Reinado de la Casa de Borbon 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Tome IV, Establecimiento Tipográfico, Madrid, 1847, p. 122.
^James, George – Lives of the most eminent foreign statesmen 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, vol. V, 1838, p.135.
^"Although this war was undertaken entirely in the national interests, nay, in defence of the very existence of Portugal, it was viewed with disfavour by an influential if not a large portion of the population...Colonel Anderson, belonging to the British contingent, and serving on the staff of the Count of Santiago, writes to Burgoyne: -'you may depend upon receiving the best of intelligence of the enemy's motions; but hitherto the Conde de Santiago has found it very difficult to get good intelligence. It's odd, you'll say, when every peasant might reasonably be supposed to be a spy for him. These do not look on the Spaniards as their enemy; they think their cause the cause of the Jesuits and the cause of God. The people of condition, the Excellencies and the hidalgos have so insuperable a hatred to the minister, as to sacrifice their king, their country, and even their honour, to feed it. I have, however, the happiness here to be under as honest a man as ever lived [Portuguese commander Count of Santiago], with as good a heart as it is possible to imagine.'" In Edward Barrington de Fonblanque – Political and military episodes in the latter half of the nineteenth century 4 April 2017 at the Wayback Machine, Macmillan and Co., London, 1876, pp. 36–37 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine.
^Foy, Maximilien – History of the War in the Peninsula, Under Napoleon 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, vol. I, London, 1827, p. 255.
^In Azevedo, J. Lúcio de – O Marquês de Pombal e a sua época, 2nd edition, Annuário do Brasil, Rio de Janeiro, p. 241.
^Francis, Alan David, Portugal 1715–1808 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, 1985, p. 150.
^Godoy, Manuel – Memorias 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Emilio La Parra López, Elisabel Larriba (editors), Publicaciones Universidad de Alicante, 2008, p. 756.
^"These peasants they [the Spaniards] hanged and shot whenever they fell into their hands; and their incensed comrades committed, in return, the most merciless barbarities on their prisoners". In Cassel, John; Smith, John and Howitt, William – John Cassel's Illustrated History of England 20 June 2018 at the Wayback Machine, vol. 5, London, 1861, p. 17 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine.
^Academia Portuguesa da História- Anais 19 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine, 1986, p. 401.
^Speelman, Patrick and Danley, Mark – The Seven Years' War: Global Views . Archived from the original on 14 August 2021. Retrieved 4 October 2014.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link), 2012, p. 446 29 October 2018 at the Wayback Machine.
^ abSee Lippe, Mémoire de la Campagne de Portugal de 1762 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, 1770, pp. 25–28.
^Lippe – Mémoire de la Campagne de Portugal de 1762 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine. 1770, pages 44–45.
^"... Portugal concentrated 15, 000 men [the complete Allied army consisted of 7,000 to 8,000 Portuguese plus 7,104 British] at the city of Abrantes and effectively barred the Spanish thrust. Then... the Spaniards` supply system failed, causing the troops to go hungry." In Santiago, Mark – The Red Captain: The Life of Hugo O'Conor, Commandant Inspector of the Interior Provinces of New Spain 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Arizona historical Society, 1994, p. 14.
^"To Burgoyne, who had embarked for the Tagus with his light horse, early in May, and who now held the local rank of Brigadier-General, the organization of his brigade of 3,000 men, of whom nearly two-thirds were Portuguese, must, in spite of his love of soldiering, have been an irksome task, (...)", in Political and military episodes in the latter half of the nineteenth century 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Macmillan and Co., London, 1876, p.35 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine.
^"... mainly owing to the brilliant services of Brigadier-General Burgoyne, the Spaniards were defeated at Valencia de Alcántara and Vila Velha, and peace was made on 10th February 1763." In Encyclopædia Britannica: A-ZYM 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine (William Smith, Day Kellogg, Thomas Baynes), vol. XIX, 1903, p. 550.
^"... Burgoyne's successful leadership brought the Portuguese campaign to a victorious end by the time the Autumnal rains commenced in November 1762. The Seven Years' War was virtually over." In Hargrove, Richard – General John Burgoyne 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, University of Delaware Press, 1983, p. 38.
^Jeudwine, John – Religion, commerce, liberty: a record of a time of storm and change, 1683–1793 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Longmans, Green, 1925, p. 160.
^Letter from the Allied commander (Earl of Loudoun) to the Earl of Egremont, Mação, 9 October 1762: "As soon as the enemy perceived our intention of drawing back, they pushed a corps over the river Alvito, to harass our rearguard, which was composed of the four English regiments, six companies of Portuguese grenadiers, a few of our light dragoons, and a regiment of Portuguese cavalry, with the four British field-pieces...but upon my ordering one of the guns to be brought up, which Major M. Bean conducted so effectually that hardly any shot was fired that did not take place among the enemy, they thought proper to retire...the country-people report, that they have buried 40 of the enemy. I can not omit mentioning to your Lordship that the Portuguese grenadiers showed upon this occasion, not only a very good countenance, but the utmost readiness and alertness in forming upon all the different occasions where it was necessary." In Boswell, James – The Scots Magazine, vol. XXIV, Edinburgh, 1762, p.551 11 September 2017 at the Wayback Machine.
^"The attack was led by Lt. col. Charles Lee of the Dragoons of whom some, perhaps the majority, were Portuguese." In Francis, Alan David – Portugal 1715–1808 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Tamesis Books Limited, London, 1985, p.158 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine.
^Encyclopédie du dix-neuvième siècle . Archived from the original on 14 August 2021. Retrieved 21 September 2014.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link), vol I, Paris, 1858, page 106.
^Lippe – Mémoire de la Campagne de Portugal de 1762 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine. 1770, pages 46- 47.
^"Lippe had directed the Count St. João to drive the country during his retreat to the Lower Beira, and every thing that could not been carried off was destroyed: so that the enemy now found himself in a desert, without being able to procure either provisions, care, or peasants to assist them; the inhabitants had abandoned their villages, and carried off every thing (...)", in The Royal Military Chronicle, vol V, London, 1812, pp. 50–51.
^"... lower Beira could not provide for the enemy neither food, nor chariots nor peasants to build roads: the Count of Santiago had been ordered... to make disappear from this province everything that could be eaten or used as road; but what mainly contributed to the scarcity in the province was the cruel procedure of the enemy against the inhabitants, many of whom were killed, and their villages were looted and torched in revenge for the deaths caused by the peasants... thus, many inhabitants in order to escape the atrocities of the enemy, had left their homes, taking with them their cattle, food and whatever they could carry...", in Lippe, Count of – Mémoire de la Campagne de Portugal de 1762 . Archived from the original on 14 August 2021. Retrieved 24 October 2014.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link), 1770, pp. 39–41.
^"Lippe executed forty years before Lord Wellington, a similar manoeuvre to that in which the distinct English General took shelter behind the Lines of Torres Vedras, thereby opposing an invincible barrier to the army of Massena. Count of Aranda found himself in the same position as Marshal Prince d'Essling, or perhaps in an even more critical situation. In fact, as the Napoleon's general, Aranda was forced to retreat or starve in Beira. (...) ", In Chagas, Pinheiro- História de Portugal, vol. VII, Lisboa, 1902, pp. 46–47.
^Sardinha, António – A Questão Ibérica . Archived from the original on 14 August 2021. Retrieved 8 November 2014.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link), Almeida, Miranda & Sousa, 1916, p. 274.
^Crowe Eyre Evans – The History of France . Archived from the original on 14 August 2021. Retrieved 8 November 2014.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link), vol. IV, 1866, p. 286.
^A study on some of these defensive constructions can be found in Monteiro, Mário; Pereira, André – O Forte das Batarias Sobre a Ribeira do Alvito 21 December 2014 at the Wayback Machine, AÇAFA On Line, nr. 1, 2008 Associação de Estudos do Alto Tejo.
^Aspinall, Arthur – The Correspondence of George, Prince of Wales, 1770–1812 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Oxford University Press, 1971, p. 12.
^Weller, Jac; Uffindell, Andrew – On Wellington: the Duke and his art of War 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Greenhill Books, 1998, p.99.
^Mémoire de la Campagne de Portugal de 1762, 1770, Page 47 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine.
^Mémoire de la Campagne de Portugal de 1762 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, 1770, page 48.
^Count of Lippe in his own words: "The Count Marshal, in order to embarrass the enemy... and to force its retreat back into Spain, risked ordering Townshend... to join the troops commanded by Lord Lenox... and after the junction...to take Penamacor in order to cut off the communication of the enemy army with... Ciudad Rodrigo ... [Spain] the arriving of this [combined] troops over the enemy's right and its rearguard... Townshend...suddenly reappeared in [the Province of] Beira by a counter march of forty leagues through the most rude mountains of Portugal: (...) thanks both to Townshend's skill and to the admirable perseverance of the Portuguese soldier... who left the traces of their bleeding feet in the sharp rocks...", in Lippe, Count of – Mémoire de la Campagne de Portugal de 1762 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine. 1770, pages 41–43 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine.
^The Royal Military Chronicle . Archived from the original on 14 August 2021. Retrieved 7 October 2014.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link), vol V, London, 1812, p. 51.
^"Lippe... withdraws to Abrantes, which was strengthened to preclude the passage of the Aranda's army [toward Lisbon], while at the same time, orders General Townshend... to cut off the retreat of the enemy army by occupying Penamacor and Monsanto... threatened with destruction as Count of Lippe moves its forces... Aranda retreats to Castelo Branco...the lower Beira is released, while Aranda, systematically harassed and threatened in the rear, eventually withdraws [back into Spain]". In Lousada, Abílio – Exército, jornal do (Army, journal of the) 5 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine, nr. 598 (August – September, 2010), Peres-Soctip Indústrias Gráficas SA, suplemento (chapter) "Schaumburg-Lippe e a Guerra Fantástica", p. 153. ISSN 0871-8598.
^"And Aranda... ingloriously withdrew his discouraged and diminished army...", in Ward, Sir Adolphus and others – The Cambridge Modern History 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, vol. 6, 1909, p. 369.
^"the Bourbon army began withdrawing back into Spain via Valencia, even though rearguard detachments harassed the advancing allied units." In Speelman, Patrick and Danley, Mark – The Seven Years' War: Global Views 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, 2012, p. 452 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine.
^ abSpeelman, Patrick and Danley, Mark: "... the Spanish troops had retired to Spain as British detachments closely followed them to the frontier." In The Seven Years' War: Global Views 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, 2012, p. 448
^"The frontier filled with Spanish deserters eager to be captured ...", in Speelman, Patrick and Danley, Mark – The Seven Years' War: Global Views 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, 2012, p. 452 29 October 2018 at the Wayback Machine.
^ abThe Royal Military Chronicle . Archived from the original on 14 August 2021. Retrieved 14 August 2021.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link), vol V, London, 1812, pp. 52, 53.
^Speelman, Patrick and Danley, Mark: "Captain John Fenton of the Buffs led a detachment that overtook the Spanish rearguard... and seized control of the Portuguese border town of Salvaterra." In The Seven Years' War: Global Views, 2012, p. 448.
^Speelman, Patrick and Danley, Mark – The Seven Years' War: Global Views . Archived from the original on 14 August 2021. Retrieved 24 July 2014.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link), 2012, p. 452.
^"In the campaign of 1704... the combined forces of France and Spain were palsied in the midst of their success by topographical obstacles and the want of provisions. In 1762, on the same ground, the same obstacles stopped the Spanish army under the orders of Count d'Aranda, and the auxiliary corps, commanded by the Prince de Beauvau, and compelled them to retreat before troops inferior both in quality and numbers." In Foy, Maximilien Sébastian – History of the War in the Peninsula, under Napoleon, Vol. II, London, 1827, p.21.
^See Arenas, Mar García – Los Proyectos del General Dumouriez Sobre la Invasión de Portugal in El Equilibrio de los Imperios: de Utrecht a Trafalgar 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine, Actas de la VIII Reunión Científica de la Fundación Española de Historia Moderna (Madrid, 2–4 de Junio de 2004), vol. II, Fundación Española de Historia Moderna, 2005, p. 544.
^His report on Portugal earned Dumouriez the rank of colonel in the French army (1772), a reward of 18,000 francs (1768), the rank of Aide-Maréchal-Général of the French invading army sent to Corsica (1768) and he received the personal thanks of French foreign minister, Choiseul, in a public audience (1768). He was also rewarded with the rank of lieutenant-colonel of a Spanish corps (called the "foreign legion") by Charles III of Spain (which he rejected). Later, his military information about Portugal would be used by Junot (first Napoleonic invasion of Portugal, 1807) and Soult (Second Napoleonic invasion of Portugal, 1809). See FEller, François-Xavier – Dictionnaire Historique 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, vol. VI, Paris, 1827, p. 169 4 June 2018 at the Wayback Machine; see also Arenas, Mar García – Los Proyectos del General Dumouriez Sobre la Invasión de Portugal in El Equilibrio de los Imperios: de Utrecht a Trafalgar 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine, Actas de la VIII Reunión Científica de la Fundación Española de Historia Moderna (Madrid, 2–4 de Junio de 2004), vol. II, Fundación Española de Historia Moderna, 2005, p. 550.
^Dumouriez, Charles – An Account of Portugal, as it Appeared in 1766 to Dumouriez 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Lausanne (1775), and London (1797), chapter 5, pp. 134–135.
^ abSales, Ernesto Augusto – O Conde de Lippe em Portugal 21 March 2017 at the Wayback Machine, Vol 2, Publicações de Comissão de História Militar, Minerva, 1936, page 29 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine.
^Letter of John Hamilton to Townsend, Alpedrinha, 24 October 1762, cited by Speelman, Patrick and Danley, Mark – The Seven Years' War: Global Views 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, 2012, p. 448.
^Lippe, Mémoire de la Campagne de Portugal de 1762 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, 1770, Page 47 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine and page 48.
^Lippe, Mémoire de la Campagne de Portugal de 1762 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, 1770, p. 53
^Eduard Hay reporting to the Earl of Egremont. See British Scholar C. R. Boxer in Descriptive List of the State Papers Portugal, 1661–1780, in the Public Record Office, London: 1724–1765 6 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Vol II, Lisbon, Academia das Ciências de Lisboa, with the collaboration of the British Academy and the P.R.O., 1979, p. 415. See also Costa, Fernando Dores – Nova História Militar de Portugal 20 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Círculo de Leitores, Vol. II, Coordinator: António Hespanha, 2004, p. 358, footnote 280.
^Count of Rosenberg to Kaunitz, Escorial, letter of November 18, 1762, and Goessel to Bernstorff, Madrid, letter of January 3, 1763. Cited by Olaechea, Rafael- Contribución al estúdio del «Motín contra Esquilache» (1766) 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, in Tiempos Modernos 8 (2003), p. 9, footnote nr. 40.
^Henry, Isabelle – Dumouriez: Général de la Révolution (1739–1823) 8 March 2021 at the Wayback Machine, L'Harmattan, Paris, 2002, p. 87 8 August 2017 at the Wayback Machine.
^O'Callaghan, Edmund Bailey – Orderly Book of Lieut. Gen. Burgoyne, New York, 1860, Introduction, p. XVII.
^"Altogether, it was possible to collect an army of 40,000 men (p. 11)... With the army, by then reduced to 20,000 men... completely devoid of food, [Aranda] could do little (p.14)." In Ponce – La Casaca y la Toga: Luces y sombras de la reforma militar en el reinado de Carlos III Archived 2014-07-07 at archive.today, Institut Menorquí d'Estudis, Mahón, 2011, Chapter 2: La campaña de Portugal en 1762, pp.11–21 2014-07-14 at the Wayback Machine.
^"... Spain ordered 40,000 men to march into Portugal (page 247) 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine ... The Spanish forces, when they arrived at the frontier, were reduced to 25,000 men, (...). This war, which might have crushed Portugal, gave it a degree of vigour and elasticity ... and produced a military spirit (page 254) 16 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine ...", in Dumouriez, Charles – An Account of Portugal, as it Appeared in 1766 to Dumouriez 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Lausanne (1775) and London (1797).
^General Dumouriez, Charles – An Account of Portugal, as it Appeared in 1766 to Dumouriez 2 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Lausanne (1775), and London (1797), p. 247.
^See Dumouriez, Charles – An Account of Portugal, as it Appeared in 1766 to Dumouriez 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Lausanne (1775), and London (1797), p.254.
^"... because the precedent disaster in the Fantastic War -as the invasion of 1762 is known in Portuguese historiography- should have been a lesson... Dumouriez's mission was to study the campaign of 1762, find the reasons of the failure; and through a detailed observation in situ of the geography and military state of the Portuguese crown, to devise an effective plan of campaign for a future war." In Arenas, Mar García. Los Proyectos del General Dumouriez Sobre la Invasión de Portugal In El Equilibrio de los Imperios: de Utrecht a Trafalgar 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine, Actas de la VIII Reunión Científica de la Fundación Española de Historia Moderna (Madrid, 2–4 de Junio de 2004), vol. II, Fundación Española de Historia Moderna, 2005, p. 541.
^"The opinion of Dumouriez... was omitted in the copy that was to be delivered to the office of Charles III, by order of the French ambassador Ossun...since it could hurt Spanish susceptibility." See Arenas, Mar García – Los Proyectos del General Dumouriez Sobre la Invasión de Portugal in El Equilibrio de los Imperios: de Utrecht a Trafalgar 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine, Actas de la VIII Reunión Científica de la Fundación Española de Historia Moderna (Madrid, 2–4 de Junio de 2004), volumen II, published in 2005, page 548 (see also p. 541).
^Here are the omitted references (disclosing that the Portuguese guerrillas were worsting the Spanish army): "The peasantry also form a militia..., who serve without pay, but engage with great fury, and are very formidable to the Spaniards, by their manner of fighting; as from the ignorance of their Generals, the neglect of their officers, and the want of discipline in the soldiers, the latter are ever exposed to ambuscades, assassinations, and sudden attacks." In An Account of Portugal, as it Appeared in 1766 to Dumouriez, Lausanne (1775), and London (1797), p.109 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine; and also: García Arenas (2004), pp. 41, 73 and 74.
^"The Russian strategy 'was learned from British military leader Wellington, who, in alliance with Portuguese guerrilla forces' had resisted French invasion in the Peninsular War in a similar manner two years earlier." In Hough, Peter – Environmental Security 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Routledge, New York, 2014, p. 58.
^"... his 'Grand Army' of French and allied troops was annihilated by the terrible winter, disease (typhus), and the stamina of the Russian guerrillas, using 'tactics similar' to those of Spain and Portugal." In Greer, Thomas; Lewis, Gavin – A Brief History of the Western World 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, 9th edition, Thomson wadsworth, 2004, p. 470 3 May 2018 at the Wayback Machine.
^"For the next four months, the [French] army of Portugal maintained its vigil at a cost of more than twenty five thousand men. Of these, only two thousand were killed in action, and nearly eight thousand were captured or deserted, while the rest fell to disease and starvation." In Moon, Joshua – Wellington's Two- Front War: The Peninsular Campaigns, at Home and Abroad, 1808–1814 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, University of Oklahoma Press, USA, 2012, p. 73.
^"... Wellington did not attempt to hold the Portuguese border. Instead, he ordered the entire countryside between the border and Lisbon to be laid waste and the inhabitants to take refuge in the mountains... Meanwhile, he had completed the construction of two formidable lines of fortification, the Lines of Torres Vedras, across the neck of the Lisbon peninsula...Masséna advanced deep into Portugal. At Bussaco he came upon the retreating Anglo-Portuguese army, attacked it, and was repulsed with heavy losses. Nevertheless, Wellington continued to retreat...and...slipped through the Lines of Torres Vedras, accompanied by most of the population of the Portuguese Province of Northern Estremadura...Masséna reached the Lines... For four months... the two armies remained in that position, facing each other without fighting. Yet whereas Lisbon was well supplied, the French were starving. Their marauding columns either found no food or were ambushed... Masséna ordered a retreat; one month later, his army reached its starting point, ciudad Rodrigo, reduced by one-third of its strength. Hunger, disease, and the guerrillas had taken at least twenty thousand French lives. As for the victors, their army had suffered no losses, but their victory had been won at the price of whole provinces destroyed and thousands of civilians starved, tortured, killed, or destitute. No phase of the Peninsular War was waged with more ferocity, and yet not a single major battle was fought." In Herold, J. Christopher – The Age of Napoleon, Mariner books, 2002, p. 226.
^Esdaile, Charles – The Peninsular War: a New History 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Penguin Books, London, 2003, chapter 12 27 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine.
^Historian Lawrence H. Gipson uses the expression "the disintegration of the Spanish army" (see The British Empire before the American Revolution: the great war for the Empire: the culmination, 1760–1763 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Knopf, 1954, p. 260); while Portuguese historian Fernando Dores Costa wrote about the Spanish army's "spectrum of decomposition" (see Nova História Militar de Portugal 20 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine, vol. II, Círculo de Leitores, Coordinator: António Hespanha, 2004, p. 358, footnote 280.). Also Portuguese historian Nuno Monteiro wrote that "... although there have been no battles in this strange war, severe losses occurred [on the Spanish side]" (see D. José: na sombra de Pombal 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Temas e Debates, 2008, p. 198 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine).
^Journal of the Royal United Service Institution, Whitehall Yard, Vol. 63, W. Mitchell, United Kingdom, 1918, p. 196 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine.
^Cassel, John; Smith, John and Howitt, William – John Cassel's Illustrated History of England 20 June 2018 at the Wayback Machine, vol. 5, London, 1861, chapter I (Reign of George III), p. 20 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine.
^See The Annual Register 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Burke, Edmund, London, 1784 (General Index): "Castel Branco, defeat of the Spaniards in the Territory of,"
^Academia Portuguesa da História- Anais . Archived from the original on 14 August 2021. Retrieved 14 August 2014.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link), 1969, p. 132.
^Gipson, Lawrence – The British Empire before the American Revolution: the great war for the Empire: the culmination, 1760–1763, vol. 8, Knopf, 1954, p. 260 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine.
^Prowse, D. W. – A History of Newfoundland: from the English, Colonial and Foreign Records 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Heritage Books Inc., 2007, p. 311 27 November 2016 at the Wayback Machine.
^Úrdañez, José Luis Gómez – Víctimas Ilustradas del Despotismo. El Conde de Superonda, Culpable y Reo, ante el Conde de Aranda 14 July 2014 at the Wayback Machine, Universidad de la Rioja, 2009, p. 8 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine (part of the investigation project El Imperio Español, Desde la Decadencia a la España Discreta..., HAR 2009-13824).
^ ab"... by mid 1762, [the allied commander, Lippe] had delivered the Lusitanian territory from the Spanish invaders, who kept only two borderland fortresses, and quickly celebrated the triumph of concluding such an honourable peace for Portugal, as the Peace of Hubertusburg was for Frederick the Great." In Medina, Eduardo de – Revista europea 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Vol. 11, Madrid, 1878, p. 280.
^"In the opening of the campaign, success attended the arms of the invaders: they took Miranda, Braganza, and Almeida. Here their triumphs ceased. (...) Lippe arrived from Germany, and assumed the command. In his operations he was well assisted by General Burgoyne, and they had soon the glory of freeing the Portuguese soil from the Bourbon army." In Dunham, Samuel A. – "The History of Spain and Portugal" 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, vol. 5, London, 1832, "pp.258–59".
^"... The Spaniards who had passed the mountains in three divisions [North, centre and South of Portugal] ...after having taken many places, now imagined that they would soon become masters of the whole kingdom, found themselves under the necessity of abandoning their conquests, and of evacuating Portugal." In Beaumont, Alexander – "The History of Spain" 21 November 2017 at the Wayback Machine, London, 1809, p. 458
^"... The Portuguese, with the aid of their allies, had driven the Spaniards out of their country." In "Collections of the New York Historical Society: The John watts De Peyster publication fund series, vol. 7", The Society, 1875, p.213 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine.
^Hart, Francis Russel – The Siege of Havana: 1762 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Houghton Mifflin, 1931, p. 52 9 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine.
^ ab"Lippe deserves far more than the eight miniature gold cannon mounted on silver carriages [or six, according to other sources], 80,000 gold moidares, and numerous diamonds given to him by the Portuguese King upon his departure. So impressed was Oeiras that he retained Lippe's services so he could reform the Portuguese army and modernize the kingdom's defenses." In Speelman, Patrick and Danley, Mark – The Seven Years' War: Global Views 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, 2012, p. 457 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine.
^Black, Jeremy – America or Europe? British Foreign Policy, 1739–63 . Archived from the original on 14 August 2021. Retrieved 30 July 2014.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link), University of Exeter, UCL Press, 2002, pp. 26–27.
^"In September [this number increasing during the Bourbon retreat, in October], 3,000 French soldiers lay sick at Salamanca. (...)", in Danley Mark and Patrick Speelman – The Seven Years' War: Global Views 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Brill, 2012, p. 452 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine.
^See Journal of the Society for Army Historical research 8 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine, vol. 59, London, 1981, p.40.
^Stephens, Henry – The History of Portugal 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, G. P. Putnam's sons, 1891, p. 363.
^"In November the enemy attacked two small places, Marvão and Ouguela, but the long record of shameful capitulations at last ended. Ouguela was successfully held by a Portuguese commander, and Marvão... was defended by captain Brown of Armstrong's with a British detachment and some Portuguese. He replied to the summons with a reminder of the recent fall of Havana and dispersed the assailants with a burst of shellfire." In Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, vol. 59, London, 1981, p. 40 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine.
^"A new wind swept the military [Portuguese] forces... Volunteers showed up to fight under his [Lippe's] command, and the Portuguese forces increased both quantitatively and qualitatively (page 129 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine) ... In November... the [Franco-Spanish] allies had lost most of their infantry men and artillery, [while] Portuguese forces continued to grow up (page 131 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine)". In Daehnhardt, Rainer- Segredos da História Luso-Alemã, Publicações Quipu, Lisboa, 1998, ISBN9728408072.
^"Our detachments pursued their rear-guard and took several prisoners. (...)", the allied commander Count of Lippe in Mémoire de la Campagne de Portugal de 1762 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine. 1770, page 65 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine.
^"This German officer [La Lippe], who had learned the war in the school of Frederick the Great of Prussia, repelled the invasion and forced the [Bourbon] allies to sign an armistice on the 1st December 1762. (...) ", in Legrand, Théodoric – Histoire du Portugal 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine (in French), Payot, 1928, p. 82 1 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine.
^Tandeter, Enrique (coordinator): Germán Carrera Damas- Historia General de América Latina: processos americanos hacia la redefinición colonial 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine (in Spanish), vol. 4, UNESCO, 2000, p. 22.
^ ab"The land on their own side [Portuguese side of the river Guaporé] afforded nothing on which they could rely, whereas the country of the [Spanish] Missions [left bank of the Guaporé] abounded with cattle... The Spaniards... designed... to intercept the communication [of the Portuguese in S. Rosa] with Para... and... Villa Bella. This blockade might be easily maintained, because they drew their supplies from the reductions; whereas the garrison [of S. Rosa], being confined to their own shore, would be distressed for food... and might thus be reduced without a blow. (...). The Portuguese...made an expedition against the Reduction of S. Miguel, which had been removed from the right Bank [to the left bank of the river Guaporé, in 1760, in accordance to the Treaty of Madrid, 1750]... they got possession of supplies which were intended for the [Spanish] army at Itanomas... the Portuguese kept possession of the territory of S. Miguel, which abounded with kine, horses and pigs... the Reduction of S. Martin voluntarily offered submission...D. António ventured to attack the Spaniards in their camp...the estacade was found too strong; but the boldness of this measure, thought unsuccessful, discouraged the Spaniards... they soon removed from their station... the encampment on the Mamoré was abandoned also: shortly after they fell back to S. Pedro: the Spaniards then returnrd to S. Cruz, and the expedition was broken up. The Portuguese then withdrew from the left shore." In Southern, Robert – History of Brazil 25 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine, part third, London, 1819, p. 584 14 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine.
^ ab"... disease [caused by tropical conditions and the use of biological warfare by the Portuguese, according to the Spanish commander] and desertion had trimmed Verdugo [the Spanish Governor of Santa Cruz de la Sierra]'s levies from 610 to 303 by the time they reached San Pedro [head of the missions in Moxos, Bolivia, to where the Spanish remnants retreated]. (...) after two months on the Guaporé, the governor returned to Santa Cruz [Bolivia], leaving behind a skeleton force (...). In 1763 Moura retired from Mato Grosso the victor. He had advanced to the Guaporé [and beyond it, occupying Spanish territory in the left bank of this river until the end of the war: the territory of the Missions of S. Miguel and S. Martin, main sources of supply to the Spanish army.], fortified Portuguese positions on the river, and remained in the field as his rival retired. Moura's service earned him a hero's welcome from his commanders, a Knighthood, and eventually the office of Viceroy of Brazil." In Block, David – Mission Culture on the Upper Amazon: native Tradition, Jesuit enterprise and Secular Policy in Moxos, 1660–1880 8 March 2021 at the Wayback Machine, University of Nebraska Press, 1994, p. 51 12 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine.
^ abcMarley, David- Wars of the Americas: a chronology of armed conflict in the New World, 1492 to the present 7 May 2021 at the Wayback Machine, vol. II, ABC-CLIO, USA, 2008, p. 449 6 May 2021 at the Wayback Machine and p. 450 22 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine
^ abcBento, Cláudio Moreira- Brasil, conflitos externos 1500–1945 14 January 2012 at the Wayback Machine (electronic version), Academia de História Militar Terrestre do Brasil, chapter 5: As guerras no Sul 1763–77.
^ abcRicardo Lesser- Las Orígenes de la Argentina, Editorial Biblos, 2003, see chapter El desastre 22 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine, see pp. 63–72.
^ abcBento, Cláudio Moreira- Rafael Pinto Bandeira in O Tuiuti 22 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine, nr. 95, Academia de Historia Militar Terrestre do Brasil, 2013, pp. 3–18.
^ abPereira, Ione Aparecida- Guerra nas Missões de Mojos: uma análise do conflito luso-espanhol pela posse da antiga Missão Jesuítica de Santa Rosa de Mojos no rio Guaporé (1760–1764) 12 February 2019 at the Wayback Machine, in the magazine Memória Americana [electronic version], Vol. 25, nr. 2, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, diciembre 2017, ISSN 1851-3751.
^Godoy, Manuel (2008), La Parra López, Emilio; Larriba, Elisabel (eds.), , Publicaciones Universidad de Alicante, p. pp. 781–782, archived from the original on 14 August 2021
^Speelman, Patrick and Danley, Mark – The Seven Years' War: Global Views 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, 2012, p. 457.
^Henriques, Mendo C. – Vitória e Pirinéus, 1813: O Exército Português na Libertação de Espanha, Tribuna, Lisboa, 2008, p.35], inured to hardships, they were pre-eminently excellent on the march. Finally, the militia was very well adapted..." in The United Service 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, vol.132–139, American Periodical Series, 1850–1900, Lewis R. Hamersly & Company, 1904, p. 692.
^Bradford in 1814, cited in Pivka, Otto Von – The Portuguese Army of the Napoleonic Wars 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Osprey Publishing, New York, 1977, p. 19[permanent dead link].
^"It was believed that Portugal, which had been thrown into the utmost disorder by a vicious court, would prove an easy conquest, and a united Spanish and French army at first met with little resistance; but the Portuguese people soon rose to defend their homes with such vigour, that all Choiseul's hopes in that quarter were extinguished" In Wright, Thomas – The History of France 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, vol. II, London, 1858, p. 354.
^Société d` Histoire Générale et d`Histoire Diplomatique – Revue d`Histoire Diplomatique 7 May 2021 at the Wayback Machine, vol. 37, Éditions A. Pedone, Paris, 1969, p. 195 6 May 2021 at the Wayback Machine.
^"... in 1762 Portugal was invaded by Franco-Spanish troops, which were checked by the resistance of rural populations." In Alegria, José A. and Palais des beaux-arts – Triomphe du Baroque 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, RTBF, Brussels, 1991, p.29 16 September 2018 at the Wayback Machine.
^Guillon, Maxime – Port Mahon; La France a Minorque sous Louis XV (1766–1763) 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, E. Leroux, 1894, p. 107.
^Spanish Chief minister Ricardo Wall in a letter to Tanucci, 12 October 1762: "the circumstance of having to make war on a sterile country, and where each civilian is an enemy, makes it necessary to bring the supplies from Castile [Spain]... employing many troops to keep the conquered and to protect the [food] convoys...thus, the army possibly will not reach Lisbon before the Winter... contrary to what was planned [this prediction would prove prophetic since three days later the Franco-Spanish army initiated its disastrous retreat]". In Alarcia, Diego T. – El ministerio Wall: la "España discreta" del "ministro olvidado" 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, 2012, p. 155 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine.
^Monglave, Eugène – Histoire de l'Espagne, Chez Raymond Éditeur, Paris, 1825, p. 271 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine.
^"Preparations the Spanish Government made for war after signing the compact with France focused more on Portugal than the colonies. (...)", In Greentree, David – A Far-Flung Gamble – Havana 1762, Osprey Publishing, Oxford, 2010, p. 30 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine.
^Albistur, Rafael Olachea – Estudios sobre el siglo XVIII . Archived from the original on 14 August 2021. Retrieved 16 August 2014.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) (in Spanish), edited by Vicente Palacio Atard, Instituto Jeronimo Zurita C.S.I.C., Madrid, Anexos de la revista Hispania, nº 9, 1978, p. 201 19 November 2017 at the Wayback Machine. Albistur, Rafael – Estudios sobre el siglo XVIII . Archived from the original on 14 August 2021. Retrieved 16 August 2014.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link), 1978, p. 201.
^Dumouriez, Charles – An Account of Portugal, as it Appeared in 1766 to Dumouriez 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Lausanne (1775), and London (1797), p. 247 7 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine.
^Reflexiones Histórico-Militares que manifiestan los Motivos Porque se Mantiene Portugal Reino Independiente de España y Generalmente Desgraciadas Nuestras Empresas y que Lo Serán Mientras No se Tomen Otras Disposiciones, Borzas, 28 November 1772; cited in José Tertón Ponce – La Casaca y la Toga: Luces y sombras de la reforma militar en el reinado de Carlos III Archived 2014-07-07 at archive.today, Institut Menorquí d'Estudis, Mahón, 2011, La campaña de Portugal en 1762, pp.11–21 29 January 2016 at the Wayback Machine, p.21.
^Cited in José Tertón Ponce – La Casaca y la Toga: Luces y sombras de la reforma militar en el reinado de Carlos III Archived 2014-07-07 at archive.today, Institut Menorquí d'Estudis, Mahón, 2011, Chapter 2: La campaña de Portugal en 1762, pp.11–21 2014-07-14 at the Wayback Machine, p.21.
^Cornide, José (published by Juan M. Rosario Cebrián) – Los Viajes de José Cornide por España y Portugal de 1754 a 1801 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Real Academia de la Historia, Madrid, 2009, pp. 847–848 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine.
^Dziembowski, Edmond- La Guerre de Sept Ans (1756-1763) 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Perrin, Ministère de la Defense, 2015, subchapter La France et l`Espagne Jouent et Perdent, in chapter 13, electronic book without numbered pages.
^"But this Spanish navy, beaten everywhere, allows the British conquest of the Antilles, part of the Philippines and even Belle Isle-en-Mer. On land, defeat in Portugal (...). (...) the fateful pact did nothing but aggravate the situation, already so disastrous." In Lauvriére, Émile – Histoire de Louisiane Française : 1673–1939 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, G.-P. Maisonneuve, 1940, p. 395.
^"Spain's Charles III, following the military episode with Portugal, was increasingly reluctant to risk repeating his misfortunes of 1762–63... he wanted to have peace until the end of his reign..." In Brecher, Frank W.- Securing American Independence: John Jay and the French Alliance 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Praeger Publishers, USA, 2003, pp. 50–51.
^Ponce, José Luis Terrón – Ejército y Política en La España de Carlos III Archived 2014-07-07 at archive.today, vol. 37, de Collectión Adalid, Ministerio de Defensa, Secretaria General Técnica, 1997, p. 23 or page 5 . Archived from the original on 14 August 2021. Retrieved 5 October 2014.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) of chapter La Monarquia Militar, part I: El Hecho Militar Durante El Reinado De Carlos III, La Situación del Ejército Y Su Reforma (in the electronic edition).
^"... for it was from the trauma and humiliation suffered in the conflict that the third of its Bourbon kings, Charles III, and his ministers derived the sense of purpose and direction required for the formulation and implementation of the all – embracing process of modernization which historians refer to as the 'Bourbon reforms' ". In Fisher, John Robert – Bourbon Peru, 1750–1824 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Liverpool University Press, UK, 2003, p. 28 4 April 2017 at the Wayback Machine.
^Carnota, John Smith A. – The Marquis of Pombal 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, 2nd edition, Longmans, Green, Reader, and Dyer, London, 1871, p.182 8 June 2018 at the Wayback Machine.
^Abbot Béliardi, the agent of Choiseul at Madrid, writing on 18 October 1762: "(...) news of the taking of Havana has gravely upset the Spanish nation... there is no consolation for the irreparable loss of one third of Spain's naval forces, surrendered without a cannon shot." In Stein, Stanley and Stein, Barbara – Apogee of Empire: Spain and New Spain in the Age of Charles III, 1759–1789 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004, chapter "Imperiled Colonies and Spain's Response".
^Úrdañez, José Luis Gómez – Víctimas Ilustradas del Despotismo. El Conde de Superunda, Culpable y Reo, ante el Conde de Aranda 14 July 2014 at the Wayback Machine, Universidad de la Rioja, 2009, pp. 14–15 (part of the investigation project El Imperio Español, Desde la Decadencia a la España Discreta..., HAR 2009-13824).
^700 regular infantry troops, 200 dragoons, 1,800 militiamen and 1200 Indians. See Marley, David- Wars of the Americas: a chronology of armed conflict in the New World, 1492 to the present, vol. II, ABC-CLIO, USA, 2008, p. 441.
^"The 400 Portuguese infantry men, 40 troopers, 32 gunners, 230 militiamen ... are reinforced from Rio de Janeiro by a 10-ship convoy ... although conveying only 65 soldiers... ", in Marley, David- Wars of the Americas: a chronology of armed conflict in the New World, 1492 to the present 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, vol. II, ABC-CLIO, USA, 2008, p. 441-442 18 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine.
^" (...) and the taking of Sacramento to the Portuguese, with the capture of 27 richly loaded English ships". In Altamira, Rafael- Historia de España y de la Civilización Española, Librería de Juan Gili, 1911, p. 52.
^" [Portuguese colonel] Osório built a small fort which he called Santa Teresa, where he took shelter with 400 men and little artillery (January 1763). Next April, Ceballos, who had gathered in Maldonado a well provisioned army of more than 3,000 men with much artillery, invested the Lusitanian position. After a weak resistance, Osório surrendered with the remaining 130 men. All the other had deserted." In Instituto Histórico e Geográfico do Rio Grande do Sul- Revista do Instituto Histórico e Geográfico do Rio Grande do Sul 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Edições 132–134, Brazil, 1998, p. 12.
^"Four days later, the small fort of San Miguel fell into the hands of Cevallos, abandoned by the garrison of 30 men which stayed there under cap. João Teixeira.", In Instituto Histórico e Geográfico do Rio Grande do Sul- Revista do Instituto Histórico e Geográfico do Rio Grande do Sul 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Edições 132–134, Brazil, 1998, p. 12.
^"In the whole region of the Rio Grande, the Portuguese government did not have more than 1,000 soldiers, including regular and militia troops, spread over several trims." In Instituto Histórico e Geográfico do Rio Grande do Sul- Revista do Instituto Histórico e Geográfico do Rio Grande do Sul 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Edições 132–134, Brazil, 1998, p. 12.
^"(...). In this 'race for the Rio Grande [territory]', the border of Rio Pardo was the only one who resisted the Spanish invasion, thanks to Barreto Pereira Pinto courage and, above all, Francisco Pinto Bandeira, which shattered the army of captain Antonio Cattani on January 1, 1763. Pinto Bandeira, with only 230 dragoons and adventurers of St. Paul, fell like a hurricane over the 2,500 enemy soldiers. 'Never saw this territory such a stampede.' (...). Cattani's troops disbanded in panic. The commander, no time to put on the uniform, fled in underwear." In Barbosa, Fidélis D.- História do Rio Grande do Sul 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Edições Est, 4th edition, Porto Alegre, 1976, p. 60 18 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine.
^"While the Spanish army advanced along the coast, fully reaching their goals, another enemy column, consisting of five hundred militiamen from the Corrientes Province and about 2,000 Guaranis came from the Misiones Orientales against Rio Pardo, under lieutenant colonel Antonio Cattani and fortified next to the stream of Santa Barbara..." in Vellinho, Moysés- Fronteira, Editora Globo, 1975, p. 105.
^Branco, José-Obras do Barão do Rio Branco 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, vol. VI, Ministério das Relações exteriores, Brazil, p.3 18 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine.
^Flores, Moacyr- Dicionário de história do Brasil, Edipucrs, 2004, p. 80. ISBN9788574302096
^Galdós, Benito – Guerra de la Independencia 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine, vol I, Algaba Ediciones, Madrid, 2008, pp. 427–428.
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Petrie, Sir Charles. King Charles III of Spain. Constable, 1971.
April 09, 2024
spanish, invasion, portugal, 1762, also, anglo, spanish, 1762, 1763, also, fantastic, part, fantastic, warwilliam, count, schaumburg, lippe, generalissimus, anglo, portuguese, forces, that, thrice, defeated, spanish, french, offensives, against, portugal, pain. See also Anglo Spanish War 1762 1763 See also Fantastic War Spanish invasion of Portugal 1762 Part of the Fantastic WarWilliam Count of Schaumburg Lippe generalissimus of the Anglo Portuguese forces that thrice defeated the Spanish and French offensives against Portugal Painting by Joshua Reynolds Date5 May 24 November 1762LocationNorth and East Portugal SpainResultPortuguese and English victory Note A Invasion thrice defeated Note B Destruction of the Spanish and French forces Note C BelligerentsPortugal Great BritainSpain FranceCommanders and leadersCount of Lippe Bras de Carvalho Count of Santiago Earl of Loudoun George Townshend John BurgoyneCount of Aranda Marquis of Sarria Alejandro O Reilly Prince de BeauvauStrength8 000 Portuguese 1 2 7 104 British 3 4 5 infantry regiments 1 dragoon regiment amp 8 artillery companies 5 30 000 Spaniards94 cannons 6 7 10 12 000 French 12 battalions 6 7 Total 42 000 8 largest Spanish military mobilisation of the eighteenth century 9 10 Casualties and lossesVery low 11 14 British soldiers killed in combat 804 by disease or accidents 12 Portuguese losses low 25 30 000 13 14 Thousands of prisoners Thousands of deserters 12 000 Spaniards killed 15 The Spanish invasion of Portugal 1762 between 5 May and 24 November was a military episode in the wider Fantastic War in which Spain and France were defeated by the Anglo Portuguese Alliance with broad popular resistance It involved at first the forces of Spain and Portugal until France and Great Britain intervened in the conflict on the side of their respective allies The war was also strongly marked by guerrilla warfare in the mountainous country which cut off supplies from Spain and a hostile peasantry which enforced a scorched earth policy as the invading armies approached that left the invaders starving and short of military supplies and forced them to retreat with heavy losses mostly from starvation disease and desertion During the first invasion 22 000 Spaniards commanded by Nicolas de Carvajal Marquis of Sarria entered the Province of Alto Tras os Montes in the northeast of Portugal with Oporto their ultimate goal After occupying some fortresses they were confronted with a national uprising Taking advantage of the mountainous terrain the guerrilla bands inflicted heavy losses on the invaders and practically cut off their communication lines with Spain causing a shortage of essential supplies Near starvation the Spaniards tried to conquer Oporto quickly but were defeated in the Battle of Douro and the Battle of Montalegre before they retreated to Spain After that failure the Spanish commander was replaced by Pedro Pablo Abarca de Bolea Count of Aranda Meanwhile 7 104 British troops landed in Lisbon leading a massive reorganization of the Portuguese army under Wilhelm Count of Schaumburg Lippe the supreme commander in chief of the allies During the second invasion of Portugal Province of Beira an army 42 000 French Spanish soldiers under Aranda took Almeida and several other strongholds and the Anglo Portuguese army stopped another Spanish invasion of Portugal by the province of Alentejo and won the Battle of Valencia de Alcantara Spanish Extremadura where a third Spanish corps was assembling for an invasion The allies managed to stop the invading army in the mountains east of Abrantes where the slope of the heights facing the Franco Spanish army was abrupt but very soft on the side of the allies which facilitated the supply and movements of the allies but acted as a barrier for the Franco Spaniards The Anglo Portuguese also prevented the invaders from crossing the river Tagus and defeated them at the Battle of Vila Velha The Franco Spanish army which had their supply lines from Spain cut off by the guerrillas was virtually destroyed by a deadly scorched earth strategy Peasants abandoned all nearby villages and took with them or destroyed the crops food and all else that could be used by the invaders including the roads and houses The Portuguese government also encouraged desertion among the invaders by offering large sums to all deserters and defectors The invaders had to choose between stay and starve or withdraw The outcome was the disintegration of the Franco Spanish army which was compelled to retreat to Castelo Branco closer to the frontier when a Portuguese force under Townshend made an encircling movement towards its rearguard According to a report sent to London by the British ambassador in Portugal Edward Hay the invaders suffered 30 000 losses almost three quarters of the original army mainly caused by starvation desertion and capture during the chase of the Franco Spanish remnants by the Anglo Portuguese army and peasantry Finally the allies took the Spanish headquarters Castelo Branco capturing a large number of Spaniards wounded and sick who had been abandoned by Aranda when he fled to Spain after a second allied encircling movement During the third invasion of Portugal the Spaniards attacked Marvao and Ouguela but were defeated with casualties The allies left their winter quarters and chased the retreating Spaniards They took some prisoners and a Portuguese corps entered Spain took more prisoners at La Codosera On 24 November Aranda asked for a truce which was accepted and signed by Lippe on 1 December 1762 Contents 1 Overview 2 Background 2 1 Portuguese and Spanish neutrality in the Seven Years War 2 2 The Franco Spanish Ultimatum 3 Invasions 3 1 First invasion of Portugal Tras os Montes 3 1 1 The Portuguese ulcer 3 1 2 Oporto the decisive campaign 3 1 3 Spanish withdrawal 3 1 4 Spanish atrocities 3 1 5 Reorganisation of Portuguese army 3 2 Aborted Spanish invasion Alentejo 3 3 Second invasion of Portugal Beira 3 3 1 Illusion of victory 3 3 2 People in arms 3 3 3 Abrantes turning point 3 3 4 Scorched earth tactics 3 3 5 Collapse of Franco Spanish army 3 3 6 Fall of Spanish headquarters 3 3 7 La Lippe rewarded 3 4 Third invasion of Portugal Alentejo 3 4 1 Surprise Factor 3 4 2 Offensive 3 4 3 Third retreat second chase 3 4 4 Spain seeks a truce 4 Aftermath 4 1 Reasons for Spanish failure 4 2 Loss of Spanish prestige 4 3 Trials in Spain 4 4 Stalemate in South America 4 5 Invasion in literature 5 References 5 1 Notes 5 2 Citations 5 3 Bibliography 6 External linksOverview editThe 1762 Bourbon invasion of Portugal was actually a succession of three military campaigns in different places and times with similar results The first object of the allied governments of Spain and France was to invade Portugal the ancient ally of Great Britain which was supposed to be wholly incapable of defending itself against so formidable a confederacy that feeble and defenceless kingdom was invaded shortly afterwards at three distinct points by three Spanish armies such was the spirit of patriotism awaked among the peasantry by a few British officers that the invaders were repulsed and ultimately driven back in disgrace 16 Studies in historyBackground editPortuguese and Spanish neutrality in the Seven Years War edit During the Seven Years War a British fleet under Admiral Boscawen defeated a French fleet in Portuguese waters in front of Lagos Algarve in 1759 Three French ships of the line were captured and two were destroyed Portugal though an old ally of Britain had stated her neutrality in this war and accordingly the Portuguese prime minister Pombal demanded satisfaction from Great Britain The British government apologized to the Portuguese king Jose I by sending a special delegation to Lisbon 17 yet the captured vessels were not returned as demanded by France Pombal had previously informed Pitt that he did not expect it 18 The Portuguese government materially assisted the French garrisons that had taken refuge in Lagos after the battle The French king Louis XV thanked Jose I for all the assistance given to the French sailors although claiming for the navies The case seemed settled but Spain and France would use it as a pretext to invade Portugal four years later Portugal was having increasing difficulties in maintaining its neutrality in the Seven Years War because of outbreaks of minor incidents between British and French on one occasion the British consul in Faro instructed British frigates to enter the city s harbour and prevent a French warship from unloading and in Viana do Minho British businessmen armed themselves and boarded a boat recapturing a captured British merchant ship from a French corsair Despite these incidents the king and government of Portugal were strongly committed to keep the country out of the war On their part the French were pressuring a reluctant Spain to enter the war on their side while beginning secret negotiations with Great Britain to end it 19 Both countries eventually signed the third Family Compact 15 August 1761 a continental system mainly designed to isolate Britain in Europe 20 However British ships intercepted official correspondence from Spain to France and learned that there was a secret clause providing that Spain should declare war on Britain on 1 May 1762 21 22 The British anticipated Spain declaring war first on 2 January 1762 The Franco Spanish Ultimatum edit nbsp Joseph I of Portugal Confronted with the Franco Spanish ultimatum of 1762 to betray his alliance with Britain he said it would affect him less though reduced to the last extremity to let the last tile of his palace fall and to see his faithful subjects spill the last drop of their blood than to sacrifice together with the honour of his crown all that Portugal holds most dear 23 Both Bourbon powers decided to force Portugal to join their Family Compact the Portuguese king was married to a Bourbon the Spanish king Charles s sister Spain and France sent an ultimatum to Lisbon 1 April 1762 stating that Portugal had to 24 Terminate the Anglo Portuguese Alliance replacing it with a new alliance with France and Spain Close her ports to British ships and to interrupt all commerce with Great Britain both in Europe and within the Portuguese empire Declare war on Great Britain Accept the occupation of Portuguese ports including Lisbon and Oporto by a Spanish army Thus Portugal would be both protected and liberated from its British oppressors Portugal was given four days to answer after which the country would face an invasion by the forces of France and Spain Both Bourbon powers hoped to benefit by diverting British troops from Germany to Portugal while Spain hoped to seize Portugal and its empire 25 The Portuguese situation was desperate The great Lisbon earthquake tsunami and fire of 1755 had completely destroyed the Portuguese capital killing tens of thousands and damaging most of the Portuguese fortresses Rebuilding a new Lisbon left no money to sustain an army or navy and even the military cadres who had died in the earthquake were not replaced by 1762 From 1750 onward the Brazilian gold supply which made Portugal by far the largest gold owner on earth during the 18th century started its irreversible decline and the price of Brazilian sugar also fell as British and Dutch demand reduced 26 nbsp The 1755 Lisbon earthquake horrified Europe sparking a debate about the nature of its causes among the main European philosophers mainly between Voltaire and Rousseau Providential or natural The famous pamphlet A Spanish Prophecy published in 1762 in Madrid intended to prove that all the carnage suffered by the Portuguese during the earthquake tsunami and ensuing fire were divine punishment for their alliance with the British heretics 27 British help included 6 000 barrels of meat 4 000 of butter 1 200 sacks of rice 10 000 quarters of flour and 100 000 for relief while Spanish and French money offers were refused 28 The Portuguese navy which had been powerful during the 15th century was reduced to only three ships of the line and some frigates The general picture of the Portuguese army was calamitous The regiments were incomplete the military warehouses were empty and there were no military hospitals By November 1761 the troops had not been paid for a year and a half they received 6 months payment on the eve of war and many soldiers lived from robbery or assassinating for a livelihood 29 Military discipline was a distant memory and the greater part of the troops was without uniforms and without arms 30 When French Ambassador O Dunne delivered the ultimatum to the Portuguese government 1 April 1762 a party of sergeants with a captain knocked on the door begging for alms 31 Recruitment often included trapping vagrants and transients during popular gatherings The Count of Saint Priest French ambassador in Portugal reported It was impossible to find an army in greater disorder than in Portugal When the Count of Lippe the supreme allied commander sent by England arrived the army had as Field Marshal the Marquis de Alvito who had never learned to shoot a rifle or command a regiment even in peacetime The colonels mostly great Lords placed as officers in their regiments their valets It was very common to see soldiers mostly ragged begging for alms even the sentinels of the royal palace This state of disorder had just finished shortly before I arrived We need to be fair The Count of Lippe established discipline forced officials to choose between the position in the regiment or his previous condition as valets With the aid of some foreign officials military bodies were disciplined and when I arrived were already trained 32 To reinforce their ultimatum and press the Portuguese government Spanish and French troops started gathering on the Portuguese northern frontiers since 16 March 1762 alleging it was merely a preventive army The Portuguese government declared its intention of defending to the last As soon as news of the entry of Spanish troops into the North of the kingdom reached the Court Portugal declared war both on Spain and France 18 May 1762 asking for British financial and military assistance Spain and France declared war on 15 and 20 June respectively Invasions editFirst invasion of Portugal Tras os Montes edit On 30 April 1762 a Spanish force penetrated into Portugal through the province of Tras os Montes and posted a proclamation entitled reasons for entering Portugal in which the Spaniards declared that they were coming not as enemies but as friends and liberators who came to free the Portuguese people from the heavy shackles of England 33 the tyrant of the seas On 5 May the Marquis of Sarria leading an army of 22 000 men started the real invasion 34 Portugal declared war on both Spain and France 18 May 1762 nbsp The region of Tras os Montes was the main theater of operations during the first Franco Spanish invasion of Portugal May June 1762 Miranda the only fortified and provisioned fortress of the province was besieged on 6 May 1762 but an accidental and huge powder explosion 20 tons killed four hundred and opened two breaches in the ramparts forcing the surrender on 9 May 1762 Braganca 12 May Chaves 21 May and Torre de Moncorvo 23 May were open cities without soldiers and were occupied without firing a gun There were neither fortresses with intact walls nor regular troops inside the entire province of Tras os Montes neither powder nor provisions 35 The Spanish general joked about the complete absence of Portuguese soldiers across the province I can not discover where these insects are 36 At first the relationship of the invaders with the civil population was apparently excellent The Spaniards paid double for the provisions they acquired and there wasn t a single shotgun 37 But Madrid had committed a double error since the Spaniards believed that the simple show of power would be enough to induce Portugal to submission they entered the country almost without provisions which would undermine the entire campaign 34 They also assumed that the country could provide them all the necessary food When this proved an illusion the Spanish army imposed forced requisitions of provisions to the populations These were the trigger for a popular revolt with war for food feeding war 38 The Portuguese ulcer edit Victory seemed a matter of time and in Madrid it was confidently expected that the fall of Oporto was imminent but suddenly the invaders were confronted with a national rebellion which spread around the Provinces of Tras os Montes and Minho Francisco Sarmento the governor of Tras os Montes posted a declaration ordering the people to resist the Spaniards or be branded rebels The Spaniards were confronted by deserted villages with neither food nor peasants to build roads for the army Together with some militias and ordnances respectively a kind of Portuguese military institution of 2nd and 3rd line gangs of civilians armed with sickles and guns attacked the Spanish troops taking advantage of the mountainous terrain 39 The Spaniards suffered heavy losses and high rates of disease Several reports on the ground published in the British press in 1762 confirm this Province of Beira Almeida June 12 the Enemy Spaniards to the number of eight thousand has entered the frontier several parties have rallied forth from the camp and had pillaged the villages upon that frontier and had not even spared the churches but that these parties had been driven back by the Portuguese militia who had killed and taken prisoners upwards of two hundred Spaniards Province of Minho June 20 those Spaniards who retired from Villa Real and Mirandela towards Miranda were attacked upon their march by the militia who killed some of the Spaniards and took twenty odd prisoners we have advice of the 22d June that a convoy of sixty mules laden with provisions had been taken from the enemy about two leagues from Chaves 40 According to a French contemporary source more than 4 000 Spaniards died in the hospital of Braganza 41 both from wounds and disease Many others were killed by the guerrillas taken prisoners or died from starvation which was becoming a growing problem The Portuguese nationalism and the atrocities committed by the Spanish army against peasant villages mainly during food expeditions were the fuel for the revolt Even the King of Spain Charles III in his declaration of war to Portugal 15 June 1762 one month and a half after the start of the invasion and almost one month after the Portuguese declaration of war on Spain complained that many Portuguese populations conducted by undercover officers had treacherously killed several Spanish detachments 42 In another example the Portuguese Corregidor of Miranda reported in August 1762 that the invading forces in the north had experienced a mortal hatred from the countrymen who have made them war and do not spare neither soldiers nor sutlers and initially even killed defectors accusing them of being spies No countrymen take groceries to the stronghold and sutlers don t dare seeking them out without an escort of more than 30 men because of fewer none of them comes back to the fortress 43 The invaders were forced to split their forces in order to protect conquered strongholds find food and escorting convoys with supplies The food for the army had to come from Spain itself which made it vulnerable to attacks Unless the Spanish army could quickly take Oporto starvation would make their situation untenable Oporto the decisive campaign edit A Spanish force of 3 000 to 6 000 men led by O Reilly left Chaves and advanced towards Oporto This caused great alarm among the British in the city where their community had many stores with provisions and 30 000 pipes of wine waiting shipment Measures for evacuating them were initiated by the British Admiralty while the Portuguese governor of Oporto was ordered to leave the city which he did not 44 But when the Spaniards tried to cross the River Douro between Torre de Moncorvo and Vila Nova de Foz Coa they met O Hara and his Portuguese force of hundreds of peasants with guns and some Ordinances helped by women and children in the hills of the southern margin 25 May In the battle that followed the Spanish assaults were completely beaten off with losses 44 45 Panic took possession of the invaders who made a hasty retreat and were chased by the peasants until Chaves the expedition s starting point In the words of the contemporaneous French general Dumouriez who went to Portugal in 1766 to study the campaign of 1762 in loco 46 writing a famous report sent to the King of Spain and to the French foreign minister Choiseul O Reilly turned back and made a very disorderly retreat at Villa Pouca and as far as Chaves the peasants harassed him exceedingly and had the glory of driving him back with loss and disgrace though their number did not exceed 600 nor had they a single military man with them This feat was highly celebrated in Portugal and the particulars of it repeated with great pride The failure in this operation occasioned the retreat of the Spanish army from Portugal to Zamora Spain pp 18 19 47 He owed this defeat to the appearance of fair p 249 48 In An Account of Portugal as it Appeared in 1766 to Dumouriez On 26 May another part of the Spanish army that had marched from Chaves towards the province of Minho Oporto being the final goal engaged in battle with the Portuguese ordnances at the mountains of Montalegre and the outcome was similar the Spaniards had to retreat with losses After having become masters of Miranda Braganca and Chaves places with no garrisons or walls the Spanish detached 12 thousand men part on Montalegre part on Vila Real The division which went on Montalegre was strong of 4 000 combatants however burghers most of whom had neither rifles nor swords with some companies of the King s troops routed this body and caused it to lose many people 49 Contemporary account of the Battle of Montalegre in the jornal Le Nouvelliste Suisse July 1762 An army of 8 000 Spaniards sent towards Almeida in the province of Beira also suffered defeat the invaders were driven back after suffering 200 casualties inflicted by the militias 40 and 600 dead in a failed assault to the fortress of Almeida according to contemporary British sources 50 Finally reinforcements were sent to Oporto and the province of Tras os Montes who occupied the passes and defiles endangering the Spanish withdrawal and at the same time making it inevitable 51 Letters published in the British press few days later added This is all the information we have had to this day May 29 1762 The officers cannot find terms to express the courage of the militia and the zeal and eagerness which the people show to be engaged with the enemy 52 The campaign had been commenced by the Spaniards on the side of Tras os Montes in which province Miranda Braganza and some other towns had fallen into their hands They next resolved to proceed against Oporto but this design was frustrated by the bravery of the peasants who took possession of the defiles and compelled the Spanish army to a disorderly retreat Disappointed in this quarter the enemy turned their steps towards the province of Beira abandoning Tras os Montes 53 Orderly book of Lieut Gen John Burgoyne The outcome of the battle of Douro proved crucial for the failure of the Spanish invasion 54 because as Dumouriez explained Portugal was at that time without troops and planet struck had the Spanish army advanced rapidly upon Oporto it must have taken it without firing a gun Great resources would have been found there both in money stores and provisions and an excellent climate the Spanish troops would not have perished as they did with hunger and want of accommodations the face of affairs would have been totally changed 55 nbsp The city of Oporto on the north bank of the Douro River Its fate was decided at the Battle of Douro 25 May 1762 Spanish withdrawal edit In addition to these setbacks and similarly to the Napoleonic soldiers a few decades later the Spaniards were experiencing carnage A contemporary document notes that it was impossible to walk in the mountains of the province of Tras os Montes because of the nauseating odour of countless Spanish corpses which the peasants refused motivated by pure hate to bury 56 Even inside the occupied cities the invaders were not safe of about half a thousand miqueletes who entered Chaves 21 May 1762 only eighteen were still alive by the end of June 57 According to the Spanish military historian Jose Luis Terron Ponce the total Spanish casualties during the first invasion of Portugal caused by the guerrillas diseases and desertion was over 8 000 men 58 In 1766 Dumouriez had evaluated this number at 10 000 losses and he recommended the Spaniards to avoid this province of Tras os Montes in a future invasion 59 Having failed the main military target of the campaign Oporto the second city of the kingdom suffering terrible losses from famine and the guerrillas who cut off their food supplies and eventually threatened by the advancing Portuguese regular army at Lamego which could split the two wings of the Spanish army the force trying to reach the south bank of the Douro and the other aiming Oporto through the mountains 60 61 the diminished and demoralized Spanish army was forced to withdraw towards Spain end of June 1762 abandoning all their conquests with the only exception of the city of Chaves in the frontier 62 63 64 As a French military put it The Spaniards have always been unhappy in their expeditions against the Province of Tras os Montes During the war of 1762 they were repulsed by the peasants alone after experiencing great losses 65 Cited in Lettres Historiques et Politiques sur le Portugal The first invasion had been defeated by the peasants alone virtually without Portuguese regular troops or British troops 66 and very soon the Marquis of Sarria the Spanish commander would be replaced by Count of Aranda 67 In order to save his and Charles III s face Sarria asked to be removed for reasons of health immediately after the conquest of Almeida and after receiving the Order of the Golden Fleece The old Marquis of Sarria was rewarded for his failure with the Order of the Golden Fleece and his voluntary resignation was accepted 68 Spain had lost the opportunity of defeating Portugal before the arrival of British troops and their assembling with the Portuguese regular forces Spanish atrocities edit Many civilians were killed or transferred into Spain together with the silver of the churches and the horses of the villages A contemporary account published in British press during this invasion is quite revealing The Spaniards instead of advancing boldly to face their enemies content themselves with dispatching flying parties from their camp who commit unheard of barbarities among the small villages robbing and murdering the inhabitants setting fire to their crops and not even sparing the sacred furniture belonging to their chapels On their retreat from Braganza at the end of the invasion they plundered the college and church as well as the houses of several of the principal people whom together with several priests they carried with them into Spain They also killed several peasants of that neighbourhood in cold blood 69 The Gentleman s and London Magazine Or Monthly Chronologer 1741 1794 Reorganisation of Portuguese army edit nbsp William Count of Schaumburg Lippe allied supreme commander and one of the best soldiers of his time 70 71 Outnumbered in a proportion of three to one he successfully met the challenge 72 He trained intensively the Portuguese army in a record time and chose to use small units against the flanks and rear of the invader s big battalions taking advantage of the mountainous terrain He destroyed the enemy s will to fight by starvation the bleeding of his forces in a guerrilla warfare and by an exhausting war of marches and counter marches the so called Fantastic War 73 74 Meanwhile a British expeditionary force landed the 83rd 91st regiments of infantry together with the major portion of the 16th light dragoons all led by Major General George Townshend arrived at Lisbon in May while the 3rd 67th 75th and 85th regiments of foot along with two Royal Artillery companies the main force only landed from Belle Isle in July 1762 The total number of this force is known with exactitude from official documents 7 104 officers and men of all arms 3 Great Britain also sent provisions ammunition and a loan of 200 000 to the Portuguese ally There was some friction between both allies caused by problems of language religion and envy the Portuguese officers felt uncomfortable with being commanded by strangers and especially with the salaries of their British peers which was double theirs so that British officers could keep the salary they had in the British army In addition to the difficulty of feeding British troops in Portugal Lippe successfully faced another huge problem the recreation of the Portuguese army and its integration with the British one La Lippe selected only 7 000 to 8 000 men out of the 40 000 Portuguese soldiers who were submitted to him and dismissed all the others as useless or unfit for military service 75 Thus the complete allied army in campaign was about 15 000 regular soldiers half Portuguese and half British The militias and ordnances respectively a kind of Portuguese military institution of 2nd and 3rd line around 25 000 men in total were only used to garrison the fortresses whilst some regular troops 1st line remained in the north of Portugal to face the Spanish troops of Galicia These 15 000 men had to face a combined army of 42 000 invaders of whom were 30 000 Spaniards led by Count of Aranda and 10 000 to 12 000 French commanded by Prince de Beauvau Lippe would eventually be successful both in the integration of the two armies as well as in the final action As noted by historian Martin Philippson 76 The new leader was able in a short time to reorganize the Portuguese army and with it re enforced by the English he drove the Spaniards in spite of their superiority in numbers across the frontiers 77 Aborted Spanish invasion Alentejo edit The Franco Spanish army had been divided into three divisions 78 the Northeast Division in Galicia invaded the northeast Portuguese provinces of Tras os Montes and Minho with Oporto as its ultimate goal first invasion of Portugal May June 1762 the central division reinforced by French troops and the remnants of the northeast division which afterwards invaded the Portuguese province of Beira centre of Portugal towards Lisbon second invasion of Portugal July November 1762 and finally a southern army s corps near Valencia de Alcantara designed to invade the province of Alentejo in the south of Portugal The successes of the Franco Spanish army in the beginning of the second invasion of Portugal Beira caused such alarm that Joseph I pressured his commander Count of Lippe for an offensive campaign Since the enemy was gathering troops and ammunitions in the region of Valencia de Alcantara near Alentejo preparing a third Spanish invasion Lippe chose to take preemptive action by attacking the invader on his own ground in Estremadura The troops around Valencia de Alcantara were the advanced lines of the Spanish third corps southern division and this city was a main supply depot containing magazines and a park of artillery The allies had the surprise factor on their side as the disparity of numbers and resources was so great that the Spaniards did not expect such a risky operation they had neither barricades nor advanced piquets or even guards except in the city s great square On the morning of 27 August 1762 a force of 2 800 Anglo Portuguese under Burgoyne attacked and took Valencia de Alcantara defeated one of the best Spanish regiments the Seville s regiment killed all the soldiers that resisted captured three flags and several troops and officers including the Major General Don Miguel de Irunibeni responsible for the invasion of Alentejo and who had come into the city the day before along with two colonels two captains and seventeen subaltern officers Many arms and ammunition were captured or destroyed The Battle of Valencia de Alcantara not only galvanized the Portuguese army at a critical phase of the war in beginning of the second invasion but also prevented a third invasion of Portugal by the Alentejo 79 a plain and open province through which the powerful Spanish chivalry could march towards the vicinity of Lisbon without opposition Burgoyne was rewarded by the King of Portugal Joseph I with a large diamond ring together with the captured flags while his international reputation skyrocketed Second invasion of Portugal Beira edit nbsp The Province of Lower Beira was particularly devastated during the second Franco Spanish invasion of Portugal July November 1762 A self destructive scorched earth strategy was the price of the Portuguese victory 80 After being defeated in the province of Tras os Montes 81 Sarria s shattered army returned into Spain by Ciudad Rodrigo and gathered with the centre s army Here the two Spanish corps were joined by a French army of 12 000 men led by Prince de Beauvau putting the total number of the Bourbon invaders at 42 000 men Illusion of victory edit The original plan to converge on Oporto through Tras os Montes was abandoned and replaced by a new one 82 this time Portugal would be invaded through the province of Beira in the east centre of the country and the target would be Lisbon Sarria was replaced by the Count of Aranda while the Spanish minister Esquilache went to Portugal to support and organize the logistic of the Spanish army so that it had food for 6 months 83 Considering the complete unpreparedness of the Portuguese army and the huge disparity of forces 30 000 Spaniards plus 12 000 French versus 7 000 8 000 Portuguese plus 7 104 British 1 6 7 the Marquis of Pombal assembled twelve ships in the Tagus estuary prepared if necessary to transfer the Portuguese king and court into Brazil In the beginning of the second invasion A British observer after describing the Portuguese soldiers as the wretched troops he ever saw who were often five days together without bread and the horses without forage wrote he was apprehensive that Lippe overwhelmed by difficulties ended up asking for resignation 84 Indeed at first the Franco Spanish army occupied several fortresses with ruined walls and without regular troops 85 Alfaiates Castelo Rodrigo Penamacor Monsanto Salvaterra do Extremo Segura 17 September 1762 Castelo Branco 18 September and Vila Velha 2 October surrendered practically without firing a gun as lamented by the allied commander Lippe After the war several fortresses governors would be tried and convicted for treason and cowardice Almeida the main fortress of the Province was in such a state that O Hara 86 the British officer who led the guerrilleros and militias at the battle of Douro advised the stronghold s commander to take his garrison out of the fortress and put it in nearby country where defence could be much more easily sustained 87 The commander responded that he could not do that without superior orders Its garrison consisting only in two regular regiments and three militia regiments totalling 3 000 to 3 500 men experienced a drastic reduction in their numbers for desertion during the enemy s approaching and siege 88 89 Facing an overwhelming combination of 24 000 Spanish and 8 000 French 90 and poorly commanded by an incompetent the octogenarian Palhares whose substitute sent by the government did not arrive on time the remaining 1 500 men surrendered with honours of war 91 after a symbolic resistance of nine days 25 August According to Dumouriez the garrison had fired only 5 or 6 artillery shots disobeying Palhares s prohibition of firing on the enemy and had suffered only two dead Having capitulated on condition of not serving against Spain for six months they were allowed to go free carry their guns and luggage and join the Portuguese garrison of Viseu The Bourbon allies were so amazed with such a hasty proposal for surrender Palhares would die in a Portuguese prison that they conceded all demanded The capture of Almeida with 83 canons and 9 mortars was publicly celebrated in Madrid as a great victory and represented the peak of the initial Spanish predominance This auspicious beginning led to the impression that the Bourbons were winning the war but in reality the occupation of these strongholds would prove to be not only useless but also harmful to the invaders as pointed by historian George P James when these places were taken the Spanish forces were in a somewhat worse situation than they were before for penetrating into the wild and uncultivated districts of Beira with scarcely any road and neither abundance of food nor water they lost more men by disease than all the forces of Portugal would have destroyed 92 In addition to this a new popular revolt exponentially worsened the situation of the invaders Like Napoleon during the Peninsular War the Franco Spaniards of Aranda would learn in 1762 at their own expense that the brief occupation of several strongholds although greatly praised by Spanish historiography was irrelevant to the ultimate outcome of a war of guerrilla and movements nbsp John Campbell 4th Earl of Loudoun 2nd in command to the Anglo Portuguese army Painting by Allan RamsayPeople in arms edit The initial Franco Spanish success in Beira benefited from the strong popular opposition to the regime of the Marquis of Pombal 93 the ruthless Portuguese prime minister but the massacres and plunder perpetrated by the invaders especially by the French soon incurred the peasants odium Having penetrated so deeply into the mountainous interior of Portugal the Franco Spanish rows find themselves harassed and decimated in ambushes by guerrilleros who cut their lines of communication and supplies behind them As Napoleonic general Maximilien Sebastien Foy put it It was nevertheless that indocile host of ordinances rather than the secrets of strategy which in 1762 paralyzed the Count d Aranda s Spaniards and the Prince of Beauvau s Frenchmen The most skilful general will not long maintain himself in mountains where the inexhaustible energy of an armed population is interposed between the acting army and its base of operations 94 In History of the War in the Peninsula Under Napoleon Several French participants in the campaign stated that the most feared fighters were the guerrilleros of Tras os Montes and Beira 95 The inhabitants of the province of Beira wrote to the Portuguese prime minister informing him that they did not need regular soldiers and were going to fight alone 96 As explained by Spanish prime minister Godoy All the Portuguese in accordance with the fundamental laws of the country were soldiers and defenders of the realm until 60 years of age poured into the roughs in the heights in the ravines waged a war of guerrilla causing many more losses on the enemy than the regular Anglo Portuguese troops The war of positions marches and counter marches imposed upon us by the Count of Lippe in which we suffered countless losses was mainly sustained by the armed peasantry 97 Manuel Godoy Prince of the Peace in Memorias Sometimes the guerrilleros tortured their numerous prisoners which in turn generated retaliations upon the civilians in an endless spiral of violence 98 But while the peasant s casualties could be absorbed by their inexhaustible numbers the same was not true for the invaders Even in the occupied cities and villages the populations defied and rebelled against the Franco Spaniards according to a letter sent by D Aranda to Lippe asking him to put a stop to it 99 Many of them were executed Abrantes turning point edit Instead of trying to defend the extensive Portuguese frontier Lippe retreated into the mountainous interior to defend the line of the River Tagus which was equivalent to a forward defence of Lisbon Lippe s main goals consisted in avoiding at all cost a battle against such a superior enemy disputing instead the gorges and mountain passes while attacking the enemy flanks with small units 100 and also preventing the Franco Spaniards from crossing the formidable barrier represented by the river Tagus If the Bourbon armies could cross this river they would reach the fertile province of Alentejo whose plains would allow their numerous cavalry to reach easily the region of Lisbon Indeed immediately after the capture of Almeida Aranda marched with the intention of crossing the Tagus into the Alentejo at the most propitious point Vila Velha where the Spanish army of Philip V of Spain had crossed the river during the war of the Spanish succession some years before Lippe however anticipated this movement and moved faster He got to Abrantes and posted a detachment under Burgoynne at Niza and another one under the Count of Santiago near Alvito to obstruct the passage of the river Tagus at Vila Velha so that when the invading army came up they found all these strategic positions occupied and all boats taken or destroyed by the Portuguese Therefore and as Lippe had predicted the invaders had only two options return into Spain to cross the Tagus at Alcantara which they considered dishonourable since this would imply to withdraw before inferior forces or go straight to Lisbon through the mountains at the north of the capital in the neck of the peninsula containing this city defined by the river Tagus and the Atlantic 101 In order to induce the enemy to choose the second route Lippe placed some forces in these mountains but left some passages open 101 Since Lisbon was the main goal Aranda advanced while the allied forces fortified their excellent positions on the heights that cover Abrantes halfway between Lisbon and the border the region among the rivers Tagus Zezere and Codes These mountains presented steep slopes on the side of the invaders acting as a barrier for them but were very soft on the side of the allies which allowed them great freedom of movement and facilitated the reinforcements 102 Finally the Anglo Portuguese army managed to halt the advance of the Bourbon armies toward Lisbon 103 It was the turning point of the war nbsp Joshua Reynolds depiction of Brigadier General John Burgoyne Leading an allied force of 3 000 cavalry two thirds of whom were Portuguese 104 he was decisive in the defeat of the Franco Spanish troops in Europe 105 106 during the Seven Years War French and Spanish armies overran Portugal The British and Portuguese under Count de la Lippe Buckeburgh and Burgoyne defeated them and drove them into Spain 107 In order to break this deadlock the Spaniards went on the offensive towards Abrantes the allied Headquarters They took the little castle of Vila Velha north bank of the Tagus 3 October 1762 and forced the defiles of St Simon near the River Alvito launching a large force in pursuit of the detachment of Count of Santiago through the mountains This detachment was very near being entirely cut off with two Spanish bodies marching upon their front and rear But la Lippe sent an immediate reinforcement to Count de Santiago and the combined allied force under Loudoun defeated the chasing Spanish troops at the River Alvito 3 October 1762 and escaped to Sobreira Formosa 108 But while the Spaniards were chasing the Count of Santiago s force through the mountains they weakened their force in Vila Velha On 5 October 1762 the Anglo Portuguese commanded by Lee attacked and completely routed the Spaniards at Vila Velha 109 Several Spaniards were killed including a general who died trying to rally his troops and among the prisoners there were 6 officers 60 artillery mules were captured the artillery and magazines destroyed Moreover in the very some day 5 October 1762 the Portuguese of Townshend defeated a French force escorting a convoy at Sabugal capturing a large quantity of precious supplies The invaders did not pass and the offensive was a failure The tide of the war had reversed and Abrantes proved to be the key of Portugal in the River Tagus 110 for its strategic position Scorched earth tactics edit Both armies remained immobilized at Abrantes facing each other But while the Anglo Portuguese continuously reinforced their positions and received provisions 111 the Bourbon armies had their line of supply and communication virtually cut off by the armed peasants militia and ordinances in their rear Worse than this they were being starved by a deadly tactic of scorched earth This tactic would be used again in 1810 11 against the French of Massena who similarly to the invaders of 1762 were stopped in their march on Lisbon being starved and attacked by guerrillas As noted by the eminent British military historian Sir Charles Oman Throughout Portuguese history the summons to the levy en masse had always been combined with another measure from which indeed it could not be disentangled the order to the whole population to evacuate and devastate the land in face of the advancing enemy The use of the weapon of starvation the plan for defeating the enemy by the system of devastation was an ancient Portuguese device practised from time immemorial against the Castilian invader which had never failed of success When Spain had made her last serious assault on Portugal in 1762 the plan had work ed admirably 112 Indeed the Portuguese soldiers and peasants turned the Province of Beira into a desert populations abandoned villages bringing with them everything that was edible The crops and all that could be useful to the enemy was burned or taken Even the roads and some houses were destroyed 113 114 Thus the exhausted Franco Spanish army was forced to choose between staying in front of Abrantes and starve or withdraw while still possible closer to the border 115 The allied plan proved almost perfect as it was based in two realities First to conquer Portugal the Franco Spaniards had to take Lisbon Second Lisbon could only be attacked from the mountainous North prevented by the allied defensive system of Abrantes since Lisbon is protected by the Atlantic Ocean at the West and by the great River Tagus at the South and East being inside a kind of peninsula 116 117 118 It exploited to the full both the Portuguese capital s geographical situation which could always receive provisions by sea and the erosion of the Franco Spanish army through starvation caused by a scorched earth strategy and the collapse of its logistic lines 119 attacked by the guerrilla and other irregular forces nbsp The Duke of Wellington In 1810 during his campaign against Massena in Portugal a British observer noted that Wellington is acting upon the plans of Comte La Lippe 120 Several modern historians like Guedela note that Count Lippe s methods of making war in 1762 wouldn t be forgotten by Wellington in 1810 11 Wellington had previously read about the Ordenanca and the 1762 war between Portugal and Spain The King of Portugal ordered his people to attack the Spanish invaders The inhabitants of villages fled as the Spaniards approached in the same scorched earth methods used by Wellington in 1810 121 The invading army was suffering terrible losses inflicted by the guerrillas hunger desertions and disease its situation becoming more and more untenable Sooner or later the Franco Spanish army would have to retreat in a very shattered condition the embarrassment of the enemy they were reduced to a forced inaction while the difficulties of subsistence desertion and disease decimated them and the horses died for want of fodder p 47 122 things being in this situation the enemy quickly realized that far from conquering Portugal this plan would lead his army to ruin p 48 123 Allied commander Lippe in Memoire de la Campagne de Portugal de 1762 Then Lippe seeing that the enemy s situation was desperate completed it with an audacious move 124 which decided the campaign when the Portuguese force of General Townshend spreading the rumour that was part of a large British force of 20 000 newly landed men performed an encirclement manoeuvre towards the rear of the demoralized invading army it withdrew towards Castelo Branco from 15 October onwards which was nearer the frontier and where the new Spanish headquarters were established 125 126 It was then that the allied army left their defensive positions and pursued the now diminished 127 Spanish army 128 129 attacking its rear taking many prisoners 130 and recovering almost all the towns and fortresses previously taken by the Spaniards which had given Charles III so many hopes 131 On 3 November 1762 during the reconquest of Penamacor and Monsanto the Portuguese of Hamilton routed a retreating Spanish cavalry force at Escalos de Cima while the British of Fenton swept another retreating Spanish corps from Salvaterra 132 The Spaniards who had entered Portugal as conquerors taking provisions by force and torching those villages which refused to supply them 133 saw themselves now implacably chased in a devastated enemy territory The nature of the war had reversed the hunter had become the prey Collapse of Franco Spanish army edit During the retreat the Franco Spanish army weakened by hunger 134 disease and torrential rains collapsed Thousands defected the Portuguese government was offering 1 600 reis for each Spanish soldier who deserted and 3 000 reis to those who enlisted in the Portuguese Army 135 while their stragglers and wounded suffered a slaughter at the hands of the peasants nbsp General Dumouriez French hero who in 1792 defeated the Prussians at the battle of Valmy and the Austrians at the battle of Jemappes He was also the main Bourbon chronicler of the Franco Spanish invasion of 1762 46 136 It is with astonishment we read in the page of History that the Spaniards have almost always been beat by the Portuguese this contempt toward the Portuguese is itself the fundamental cause of that continual disgrace which the Spaniards have suffered whenever they have carried their arms into Portugal 137 Yesterday and the day before I spent passports to 45 Spanish deserters and taking into consideration what they tell us the Spanish army fell into the abyss they talk of 7 000 deserters 12 000 men sick in hospitals in addition to the many who have died letter of 27 October and the number of deserters would be higher they say if they were not afraid of being killed by our irregulars letter of 31 October 138 letters sent by Miguel de Arriaga the army s secretary to the Portuguese prime minister Marquis of Pombal during the chase of the remnants of the Franco Spanish army The Scottish Colonel John Hamilton wrote in a letter dated 24 October 1762 that the army of Charles III was in a most ruinous shattered condition 139 while Lippe would add in his Memoir 1770 that the Bourbon army was decimated by starvation desertion and disease 140 his cavalry suffering a debacle 141 The total losses of the Franco Spanish army during the first two invasions of Portugal according to a report of British ambassador in Portugal Edward Hay to Pitt s successor the 2nd Earl of Egremont 8 November 1762 was around 30 000 men half of them deserters many of whom became prisoners representing almost three quarters of the initial invading army 142 These figures are corroborated by sources close to the Spanish crown both the Austrian ambassador Count of Rosenberg and the Secretary of the Danish embassy Federico de Goessel sent independent reports to their governments estimating that excluding the prisoners and deserters which were not included in the following number Spain had suffered 12 000 deaths in the war against Portugal 143 The death toll of the French has not been estimated More recently French historian Isabelle Henry wrote about these losses Disappointed facing incredible resistance and losing everything in the field the Spaniards abandoned the fight and left behind twenty five thousand men 144 For its part the American historian Edmund O Callaghan estimated that the Spanish army had already lost half of their men even before withdrawing Harassed dispirited and reduced to almost one half of their original numbers the Spanish troops retired within their own frontier 145 Spanish military historian Jose Terton Ponce wrote that since the beginning of the first invasion of Portugal up to the middle of the second invasion immediately before the Bourbon retreat from Abrantes the invading army had already suffered 20 000 casualties 146 There were additional losses during the retreat and third invasion Dumouriez who traveled into Portugal and Spain collecting testimonies from participants in the invasion of 1762 46 reported to Madrid and Paris in 1766 that the Spaniards had lost 15 000 men during the second invasion of Portugal province of Beira 147 plus 10 000 soldiers during the first invasion of Portugal Province of Tras os Montes 59 of whom 4 000 died in the Hospital of Braganza of injuries and sickness 41 This chronicler makes no estimate of the Spanish casualties in the third invasion of Portugal province of Alentejo The Franco Spanish disaster was summarily captured in these much quoted contemporary words the Court of Spain ordered 40 000 men to march into Portugal p 247 148 The Spanish forces when they arrived at the frontier were reduced to 25 000 men and never did troops experience a more horrible campaign 2nd invasion The sick and the stragglers were almost all of them massacred by the peasants the ill success of the campaign in Portugal it covered Spain with dishonour and exhausted her to such a degree as to keep her quiet till the peace p 254 149 Excerpt from the report of French General Dumouriez who came to Portugal to study the causes of the Franco Spanish defeat and develop an effective new plan to attack Portugal 150 His report was presented to the Spanish king in November 1766 by the French ambassador Ossun who omitted the passages of the text that mentioned the effectiveness of the Portuguese guerrillas over the Spaniards 151 152 It was also sent to the French foreign minister Choiseul nbsp Napoleon s withdrawal from Russia a painting by Adolph Northen The Russians in 1812 similarly to the Anglo Portuguese in 1762 did not need to win one single battle to defeat the invading army Indeed they lost all the battles and all the main cities of the Russian empire including Moscow Yet and again like the Anglo Portuguese in 1762 and 1810 153 154 the Russians using a scorched earth policy and the guerrillas to disrupt the enemy s supply lines compelled Napoleon to retreat with an even greater proportional loss than that experienced by Aranda in Portugal in 1762 Comparatively during the Napoleonic campaign to conquer Portugal a few years later in 1810 1811 the French army of Massena lost 25 000 men of whom 15 000 dead from starvation and disease plus 8 000 deserters or prisoners to the Anglo Portuguese of Wellington and guerrillas 155 The similarities between the two invasions of Portugal respectively in 1762 and 1810 11 go far beyond the coincidence of the number of casualties suffered by the invaders in both situations 156 Historian Esdaile wrote that Wellington s plan of 1810 11 was one of the most perfect schemes of defence that have ever been devised It exploited both the Portuguese capital s geographical situation and the poverty of the Portuguese countryside to the full whilst at the same time bringing into play traditional responses to invasion in the Form of the ordinances and the devastation of the countryside in a scorched Earth policy a similar tactic had actually been Employed against the Spaniards as recently as 1762 157 Only in the first days of July 1762 the total number of Spanish deserters who had entered the Portuguese army allowed creating 2 new full regiments besides the many who boarded British and Dutch ships This suggests a brutal defection rate since the bulk of defections would only occur from mid October onwards during the retreat of the invaders and most of the deserters who survived the Peasants were not incorporated into the Portuguese army merely being used as informants or scouts The Bourbon losses were simply devastating 158 Comparatively the British losses were vastly inferior fourteen soldiers were killed in combat and 804 men died from other causes especially disease 12 The tactic of destroying the opponent without fighting and attacking only when he withdraws was the key to victory the main central attack on Portugal second invasion failed utterly partly through the skilful measures of the prince of Lippe who had been placed in charge of the Portuguese army and strengthened by 7 000 British troops partly through the bold partisan enterprises carried out against their line of communications by General Burgoyne and the guerrillas But mainly the invasion failed through the absolute lack of munitions and food the Portuguese as was their wont had swept the country side clean a deadly scorched earth strategy After starving for some weeks in a roadless wilderness the Spanish army retired into Estremadura Spain in a sad state of dilapidation Next spring Charles III sued for peace 159 Journal of the Royal United Service Institution Fall of Spanish headquarters edit nbsp Portrait of Count of Aranda by Francisco Jover y Casanova A brilliant Spanish statesman whose experience as ambassador in Lisbon and writings about the inevitability of invading Portugal would grant him the command of that disastrous invasion The autumnal rains now setting in D Aranda found himself harassed on all sides by the peasantry his provisions exhausted he dismantled the few fortresses that he had taken and made a hasty retreat into Spain This campaign was humiliating enough 160 Nothing better symbolizes the Anglo Portuguese victory than the final conquest of the Spanish headquarters in Castelo Branco itself 161 When the allied army began a second encirclement movement to cut off the Spanish forces inside and around Castelo Branco they fled to Spain abandoning to their fate all their countless wounded and sick accompanied by a letter addressed to Townshend commander of the Portuguese force in which the Count of Aranda demanded human treatment for their captured men 2 November 1762 131 The number of Spaniards taken can be deduced from a letter sent by the Secretary of the Portuguese army to the Portuguese prime minister six days before the fall of Castelo Branco 27 October stating that according to Spanish deserters the total number of sick men laying in Spanish hospitals was 12 000 138 By the ends of October the invading army was concentrated almost entirely in the region around Castelo Branco out of it there were only little garrisons in the cities of Almeida and Chaves This number was exceptionally high since besides the wounded there were also many sick the Spanish army concentrated around Castelo Branco was suffering a terrible epidemic This epidemic was transmitted to the Portuguese population itself when it returned to the city shortly after the flight of the Spaniards Thus the joy of victory was overshadowed by the grief and mourning of many residents 162 American historian Lawrence H Gipson winner of the Pulitzer Prize for History Lippe meanwhile had concentrated fifteen thousand British and Portuguese Troops at Abrantes called the Pass to Lisbon With the coming of the autumnal rains and with his army not only ravaged by disease and other ills but greatly reduced as the result of desertions General Aranda found it impossible to remain in the desolate mountainous country that he was confined He therefore began to withdraw his half starved half naked troops to Spain and so precipitously as to leave according to reports his sick and incapacitated behind The Portuguese war had really ended and as ingloriously as it had auspiciously begun But this was not the only humiliation suffered by the Spaniards before the year 1762 came to a close 163 The defeat of Spain in Portugal was accompanied and aggravated by setbacks in her empire and in the sea In one short year the unfortunate Spaniards saw their armies beaten in Portugal Cuba and Manila torn from their grasp their commerce destroyed and their fleets annihilated 164 Meanwhile admirers of Aranda anticipated his victory taken for granted such as the humanist and reformer Stanislaw Konarski who writing from distant Poland and ignoring the Franco Spanish disaster composed an ode in Latin in his honor praising the generosity and humanism of the winner of Portugal towards the inhabitants of Lisbon surrendered to his feet 165 La Lippe rewarded edit Thus except for two frontier strongholds Chaves and Almeida 166 all the occupied territory was liberated 167 168 169 nbsp The city of Castelo Branco used by the Bourbons as Headquarters and Hospital site Fleeing before an inferior enemy and leaving behind all their many wounded and sick in the hands of the Anglo Portuguese represented a severe blow in Spain s prestige as well as the end of the second invasion of Portugal The remnants of the invading armies were expelled and chased to the border and even within Spain itself as would happen in Codicera where several Spanish soldiers were imprisoned Portugal had not accepted the invitation to join France and Spain in this alliance and the latter powers invaded Portugal England sent a fleet promptly to Lisbon with 8 000 soldiers who helped drive the invaders back and followed them into Spain herself The blows she had received were staggering 170 At the end of the war La Lippe was invited by the Portuguese prime minister Pombal to stay in Portugal in order to reorganize and modernize the Portuguese army which he accepted 171 When Lippe eventually returned to his own country praised by Voltaire in his famous Encyclopedia and covered with prestige in Britain and all Europe the King of Portugal offered him six cannons of gold each weighing 32 pounds a star studded with diamonds among other gifts as a sign of gratitude for the man who had saved his throne 171 The King determined that even absent of Portugal La Lippe retained nominal command of the Portuguese army with the rank of Marshal General And he was also given the title of Serene Highness 25 January 1763 On the other hand British government rewarded him with the title of honorary Field Marshal Third invasion of Portugal Alentejo edit The third invasion of Portuguese territory was stimulated by the peace negotiations between France and Great Britain and rumours of a general peace the preliminary Treaty of Fontainebleau was signed on 3 November one day after the fall of the Spanish Headquarters in Portugal Indeed after her defeat in the last invasion Spain felt compelled to reorganize her troops in order to conquer a portion of Portuguese territory that could be changed by her huge colonial losses at the hands of the British 172 This would reinforce her position and bargaining power during the peace talks which would culminate in the Treaty of Paris on 13 February 1763 Surprise Factor edit nbsp High Alentejo where the third failed Bourbon invasion occurred Since the remnants of the Bourbon troops were settled into winter quarters inside Spain after crossing the river Tagus at Alcantara the allied army did the same in Portugal By then the French army was practically out of action because in addition to the many dead deserters and prisoners there were 3 000 French lying in the hospital of Salamanca 173 Yet Aranda correctly assumed that if he attacked first before next year s spring when the new campaign was supposed to start Portuguese garrisons would be completely taken by surprise This time the flatness of the terrain in the province of Alentejo would give full advantage to the Spanish cavalry instead of what happened in the two previous invasions He knew that the Portuguese fortresses were only manned by second line troops militia and recent experience proved that siege operations were their Achilles heel Besides the poor state of the Portuguese fortresses in the Alentejo was almost an invitation for invasion during an inspection to the strongholds of Alentejo British Brigadier General Charles Rainsford recommended to remove some of their larger guns to prevent their capture 174 However Lippe had taken preventive measures by strengthening the garrisons of the Alentejo s fortresses near the border Elvas Marvao Ouguela Arronches Alegrete and Campo Maior while transferring some regiments from North to South of the riverTagus in Alentejo where they continued in winter quarters but closer to the gravity center of the next campaign He also created a reserve force consisting in all the British regiments and some Portuguese troops near Sardoal At last some British officers were sent to command Portuguese garrisons in key strongholds Field Marshal Clark into Elvas Colonel Wrey into Alegrete Colonel Vaughan into Arronches Captain Brown into Marvao keeping the Portuguese commanders of Ouguela Captain Bras de Carvalho and Campo Maior Governor Marquis do Prado This set of measures would prove decisive Offensive edit For this campaign the Spaniards assembled three big divisions around Valencia de Alcantara This time unlike the two previous invasions the Spaniards split their army in several corps with each one attacking one target A Spanish force of 4 000 or 5 000 attempted to take Marvao with a frontal attack The terrorized population pressed for surrender but the firmness of Captain Brown prevailed and he opened fire against the attackers The Spaniards were defeated with many losses and fled Another Spanish force of four squadrons attacked Ouguela 12 November 1762 whose walls were ruined Its tiny garrison formed by some armed irregulars and fifty riflemen routed the enemy who fled leaving many dead behind The King of Portugal promoted Captain Bras de Carvalho and the other Ouguela s officers to a higher rank The assault on Campo Maior also failed because the Spanish unit from Badajoz was not supported by the Spanish unit of Albuquerque The latter fled to Spain when part of the Portuguese garrison of Campo Maior tried to intercept it Third retreat second chase edit nbsp Burgoyne s 16th Light Dragoon British The British decisively stiffened the resistance of the Portuguese army The Count of Lippe assisted by the energy of the Portuguese Minister quickly formed the Portuguese troops into a disciplined army 175 Eventually Lippe mobilized the entire allied army finishing its winter quarters 12 November 1762 and moving all units into south of the river Tagus near Portalegre as soon as news of the enemy s offensive became known The Spaniards were demoralized by these failures during the two previous invasions not even one stronghold had resisted a success rate of one hundred percent while this time not even one fortress had been taken 176 giving the Portuguese time to assemble troops The Portuguese army was now disciplined and well commanded This renewed army which initial unpopularity led some men to mutilate themselves to avoid conscription saw their prestige and numbers skyrocket with volunteers 177 On the Contrary the Franco Spanish army was greatly diminished after the losses suffered during three failed invasions Once again for the third time the Spanish army was compelled to retreat 15 November 1762 and for the second time it was chased by Anglo Portuguese detachments 129 which took many prisoners 178 A few more prisoners were even taken inside Spain when the Portuguese garrison of Alegrete led by colonel Wrey made a successful raid on La Codosera 19 November 179 Spain seeks a truce edit On 22 November 1762 seven days after the beginning of the definitive Spanish retreat from Portugal and three days after the Portuguese incursion in Spain Codicera the commander in chief of the Franco Spanish army Count of Aranda sent Major General Bucarelli to the Anglo Portuguese headquarters at Monforte with a Peace proposal the suspension of hostilities It was accepted and signed 9 days later on 1 December 1762 180 However the Bourbon commander would try one last move to save his face on the very same day Aranda sent a proposal to the Portuguese for the suspension of hostilities 22 November he also sent a force of 4 000 men to seize the Portuguese town of Olivenca But the Spaniards withdrew as soon as they discovered that the garrison had just been reinforced shortly before Lippe informed Aranda that such behaviour was odd for someone well intentioned and eager for peace The Spanish commander answered that there had been an error of communication with the leader of that expedition A preliminary peace treaty had been signed at Fontainebleau but the definitive treaty was only signed on 10 February 1763 in Paris 166 with the presence of the Portuguese representative Martinho de Melo e Castro among all the other By this treaty Spain was obliged to return to Portugal the small cities of Almeida and Chaves in the Hispano Portuguese frontier and Colonia del Sacramento in South America which had been taken to the Portuguese together with part of the Rio Grande do Sul in 1763 besides large concessions to the British The Spaniards having failed the campaign of Portugal had to return Colonia del Sacramento renounce claims on their fishing rights in Newfoundland recognize the legality of the British settlements on the coast of Honduras cede Florida to England and confirm all the privileges that British commerce held before the war started 181 Meanwhile Portugal also captured Spanish territories in South America 1763 The Portuguese won most of the valley of the Rio Negro in the Amazon Basin after dislodging the Spaniards from S Jose de Marabitanas and S Gabriel 1763 182 183 where they built two fortresses The Portuguese commanded by Rolim Moura also successfully resisted a Spanish army sent from Santa Cruz de la Sierra Bolivia to dislodge them from the right bank of the Guapore River Fortress of S Rosa or Conceicao the gate for the gold rich Province of Mato Grosso 1763 184 The besieging Spanish army reduced to less than half by disease starvation and desertions had to retreat leaving the Portuguese in possession of the disputed territory and all its artillery both the outcome and strategy resembling the misfortunes of the Spanish army in Portugal 185 This way the confrontation between Portugal and Spain in South America during the Seven Years War ended in a tactical stalemate However while the Spaniards lost to the Portuguese nearly all the territory conquered during the conflict Colonia do Sacramento was given back by treaty and Rio Grande do Sul would be retaken from the Spanish army during the undeclared war of 1763 1777 186 187 188 189 Portugal retained all its conquests in the Rio Negro Valley S Jose de Marabitanas and S Gabriel and the Guapore s right bank Mato Grosso The only lands that Portugal conquered and returned to Spain were the territories of San Martin and San Miguel whose Spanish property had always been recognized by the Portuguese 190 Aftermath editReasons for Spanish failure edit Spanish Prime Minister Manuel Godoy Prince of the Peace 1767 1851 credited the Franco Spanish defeat of 1762 mainly to the peasant uprising caused by the excesses of the invaders The war of 62 alternated between defeats and disgraces forty thousand Spanish soldiers and twelve thousands French only managed to take Almeida and penetrate some leagues inland and then were defeated in the mountains with very little honour to the Spanish and French arms the country was trampled the people subjected to violence and repression And the peasantry rebelled 191 It was a war without formal battles of marches and counter marches and s it is called the Fantastic War in Portuguese historiography It represented a victory of strategy over numbers since the Bourbon armies failed to reach all their stated goals and had to retreat with huge casualties before an advancing and inferior enemy who chased them out of Portugal The mountainous nature of the terrain and the collapse of logistic lines respectively well used and caused by the allies were determinant Eventually the genius of Count Lippe 192 and the discipline of British troops whose officers managed to reorganize the whole Portuguese army in record time while taking advantage of its bravery 193 a explain a Portuguese victory that many observers considered impossible at the time 6 when Spain declared war against Portugal in 1762 the nominal Portuguese army consisted of 17 000 men of which not more than half could be mustered and these without artillery or engineers The talents of the German Count de La Lippe who commanded them and the assistance of the British enabled this force to resist the Spanish army who retired at the close of the campaign after sustaining considerable loss as well as from the regulars as the peasants 194 W Bradford in Sketches of Military Costume in Spain and Portugal Most decisive of all were the hatred and resistance of rural populations to the foreign invader 195 196 197 The Franco Spanish army commanded by Prince Beauvau and Count of Aranda acted softly inside Portugal who revolted against foreign invasion in the same way that Spain will do in 1808 against Napoleon and was aided in its resistance by a body of 8 000 British landed in Lisbon The invaders had to retreat by the valley of the Tagus 198 The Spaniards also made several errors such as changing plans three times the main objective being successively Oporto Lisbon and Alentejo during the three invasions and replacing the army s commander at a critical moment Their relationship with the French was poor Aranda even wrote to the Spanish court complaining of the atrocities committed by French troops against the Portuguese villages In addition the large Spanish fleet sent to America not only diverted resources and logistics from the army aimed to conquer Portugal but also prevented Spain from attacking Portugal by sea citation needed Besides the Bourbon numerical superiority was mainly apparent as they had to split their forces in order to sustain the conquered strongholds look for food chase the guerrillas escort supply convoys from Spain and build roads 199 The remaining troops available for main military operations were very few starved and demoralized citation needed Loss of Spanish prestige edit nbsp Charles III of Spain He wrote to his Plenipotentiary Grimaldi during the peace negotiations in Paris end of 1762 I d rather lose my dignity than to see my people suffer 200 It was during the invasion of Portugal the main Spanish contribution to the Seven Years War 9 201 that Spain suffered the highest human toll around 25 000 soldiers 14 The surrender of Havana represented 11 670 losses including 5 000 of the garrison captured before being deported back to Spain According to several contemporaries the huge human losses experienced by the Spaniards during the invasion of Portugal contributed to discredit Spain 202 Contemporary General Dumouriez French 1766 The preservation independence of Portugal cost Spain its glory its treasure and an army 203 Contemporary anonymous Spanish author 1772 the discrediting and destruction of a splendid army in the last entry invasion of Portugal persuaded Europe that our power was more imaginary than real With odious comparisons with what we the Spaniards were in other times in Military Historical reflections on why Portugal remains independent of Spain and why our wars against it usually end in disgrace which will continue until we take other dispositions in Spanish 204 Contemporary Spanish Satire mocking about the destruction of a Spanish army in Portugal and a navy in Cuba in just 6 months Through a Compact Family the sword he drew thus it was believed that the world he was going to conquer But he sheathed his sword again having lost a splendid army an excellent navy money and a lot of men and his honor in Havana in six months alone 205 The invasion of Portugal took six months while the siege of Havana lasted two months Jose Cornide Spaniard who went to Portugal in 1772 to study the reasons of the Franco Spanish defeat and elaborated a military report of that country The war against the Kingdom of Portugal its bad outcome and the loss of a considerable number of troops and even civilians that were contaminated by the retreating troops Merely in Galicia about which I can speak with some knowledge more than 60 000 people were lost as a consequence of the war of 17 62 whenever we adopt the tactics of the war of 1762 the result will always be so disgraceful as then 206 Duke of Choiseul French Foreign Minister in a letter to king Louis XV It is not my fault that the Spaniards have made such an unbelievable campaign in Portugal Apparently he devalued French responsibility in the Franco Spanish defeat 207 Far from saving France from defeat Spain shared it and indeed made it worse 208 However after the war Spain would commit to peace 209 embracing a successful process of reforms and modernization 210 211 Trials in Spain edit After the end of the Seven Years War there was a war council in Spain to judge the military leaders involved in the fall of Havana at British hands mainly Juan de Prado y Portocarrero governor of Cuba and the Marquis of the Royal Transportation The Count of Aranda was the President of this council The punishments were generally very severe and Aranda was particularly active asking inclusively the death sentence for the former Viceroy of Peru Count of Superunda whose only crime had been to be in the wrong place at the wrong time he was returning to Spain after serving the Crown in Peru for 16 years when he was caught in the Havana s siege nbsp Portrait of Voltaire who like other contemporary intellectuals criticized the invasion of 1762 He attributed the Anglo Portuguese victory over the Franco Spaniards entirely to the genius of Count Lippe He classified the Spanish Attempt of defeating Britain by invading Portugal as the greatest political stroke that modern history records 212 Adam Smith in its turn considered the invasion a biased economical tactic since it was based on the premise that England would not survive without the gold of Portugal The devastating defeat caused great commotion in the Spanish public opinion 213 who demanded scapegoats But ironically it would be the loser of the Portuguese campaign of 1762 who would judge the loser of Cuba Spanish historian Jose de Urdanez pointed out that as the best biographers of the Aragonese count Aranda have explained under the cover of rigor the material and moral failure that this war had been to Spain was camouflaged before the people However it was still amazing that the leader of the defeated army in Portugal was the fierce accuser of the defenders of Havana 214 In Victimas Ilustradas del Despotismo El Conde de Superunda Culpable y Reo ante el Conde de Aranda Stalemate in South America edit The Spanish invasion of Portugal in Europe which absorbed the lion s share of the Spanish war effort also saw a resurgence of border skirmishes between the Portuguese colony of Brazil and adjacent Spanish territories that ended with a mixed result River Plate the Spanish Cevallos expedition 3 900 men 215 was successful capturing the crucially placed River Plate Portuguese port town of Colonia do Sacramento with 767 defenders 216 where 27 British merchantmen with their cargo loaded on board were captured in the harbour 217 nbsp The Attack on Nova Colonia in the River Plate in 1763 under the command of Captain John MacnamaraWhen a small Company Portuguese fleet under privateer John McNamara tried to retake Colonia do Sacramento in 1763 it was beaten off with the East India Company losing one fourth rate ship of the line the Lord Clive along with another ship the 40 gun Ambuscade suffering structural damage The Portuguese frigate Gloria of 38 guns also suffered damage The fleet retreated after the loss of their largest ship Cevallos also captured the fort of Santa Teresa with 400 defenders 218 219 on 19 April 1763 and the little fort of San Miguel with 30 defenders 220 on 23 April Rio Grande do Sul South Brazil Cevallos advanced North with a Hispano Indian army of 6 000 men and reached an even greater victory when he conquered most of the vast and rich territory of the so called Continent of S Peter the present day Brazilian state of Rio Grande do Sul where the Portuguese had only up to 1 000 men soldiers and militia 221 Sao Jose do Norte and the capital S Pedro do Sul were abandoned without a fight However the Spaniards were defeated by the Portuguese at the Battle of Santa Barbara 1 January 1763 222 when an invading army of 500 Spaniards and 2 000 Indians 223 in cooperation with Cevallos tried to conquer Rio Pardo almost the only remaining Portuguese territory in Rio Grande do Sul seven cannons 224 9 000 heads of cattle and 5 000 horses were captured 225 This huge territory would be completely retaken by the Portuguese during the so called deaf war 1763 1777 186 187 188 189 Rio Negro Amazonia North Brazil Portugal conquered the valley of the Rio Negro 1763 in the Amazon Basin after dislodging the Spaniards from Marabitanas and San Gabriel 1763 182 183 There they raised two fortresses using Spanish cannons Mato Grosso western Brazil the Portuguese commanded by Rolim Moura also successfully resisted a Spanish army sent from Santa Cruz de la Sierra Bolivia to dislodge them from the right bank of the Guapore River Fortress of S Rosa or Conceicao the gate for the gold rich Province of Mato Grosso 1763 which the Spanish crown intended to recover The Portuguese not only used biological warfare according to the Spanish commander the Governor of Santa Cruz de la Sierra but also captured and occupied until the end of the war the reductions of S Miguel and S Martin which were main sources of Spanish supply and were located on the Spanish side of the river Guapore left bank 184 Thus the besieging Spanish army reduced to less than half by disease starvation and desertions had to retreat leaving the Portuguese in possession of the disputed territory and all its artillery 185 Rolim de Moura would be rewarded for his victory with the Viceroyalty of Brazil A second Spanish attack 3 years after the end of the seven years war failed again 1766 citation needed This way if the confrontation between Portugal and Spain in South America during the Seven Years War ended in a tactical stalemate it represented also a Portuguese strategic victory in the short run the Spaniards would lose to the Portuguese nearly all the territory they had conquered during the conflict Colonia do Sacramento was given back by the treaty of Paris which ended the war and Rio Grande do Sul would be retaken from the Spanish army during the undeclared war of 1763 1777 186 187 188 189 while Portugal retained all its conquests in the Rio Negro Valley S Jose de Marabitanas and S Gabriel and the Guapore s right bank Mato Grosso The only lands that Portugal conquered and returned to Spain were the territories of San Martin and San Miguel missions whose Spanish property had always been recognized by the Portuguese 190 Invasion in literature edit Curiously the Franco Spanish invasion of Portugal is almost a forgotten episode in Portuguese History text books And for Portuguese literature it is like a blind spot with a few exceptions Helia Correia s Lillias Fraser and Mario de Carvalho s A paixao do conde de Frois However in English literature there is at least a book on the subject Absolute honour whose hero is an Englishman Jack Absolute that lives adventures during the Bourbon invasion of Portugal in 1762 Naturally and for understandable reasons this campaign is also almost absent from Spanish literature There is nevertheless a high qualified exception the great Novelist and Dramaturge Benito Perez Galdos who wrote a tale about the battle of Bailen where a personage D Santiago Fernandez describes sarcastically his participation in the campaign of 1762 fiercely defending his master the marquis of Sarria There was no other Sarria born after Alexander the Macedonian That was a great campaign yes sir we entered Portugal and although we had to withdraw shortly after because the English appeared before us The Marquis of Sarria was a supporter of the Prussian tactic which is to be quiet and wait for the enemy to advance wildly thus rapidly being tired and defeated In the first battle fought with the Portuguese villagers everyone began to run when they saw us and the general ordered the cavalry to take possession of a herd of sheep which was achieved without bloodshed 226 References editNotes edit A few years after the 1762 invasion during the Peninsular war 1808 1814 the prestige of the Portuguese soldier remained There are countless comments from British officers praising the bravery steadfastness and skill of their Portuguese comrades the Duke of Wellington used to call them the fighting roosters of his Anglo Portuguese army and asked Portuguese troops to reinforce his army in Belgian during the Waterloo campaign The French who fought against them agreed General Hugo and his son new from experience that the Portuguese line was capable of withstanding the attacks of the best French regiments Later on Baron Marbot Marshal Massena s ADC concurred adding that they had not been given proper credit for the part they played in the Peninsular War in Chartrand Rene The Portuguese Army of the Napoleonic Wars vol 3 Osprey Publishing New York 2001 p 41 Note A The Iberian war of 1762 is an anomaly within the Seven Years war Yet its less than dramatic conduct should not overshadow its importance As part of a larger campaign it was born of an illusion imagined by the Bourbon powers These illusions set the stage for the war s final Bourbon disaster p 429 A reported 4 000 Spanish troops died in the hospital at Braganca and it was estimated that of the 40 000 who invaded Portugal only 25 000 returned the following spring Bourbon casualties mounted because the Portuguese peasantry waged a relentless war of revenge against deserters and retreating soldiers who they captured and massacred in large numbers p 452 The Portuguese campaign indeed the entire Spanish war lay in ruins p 521 In Danley Mark and Patrick Speelman The Seven Years War Global Views Brill 2012 chapter 16 pp 429 460 Note B with the help of a small British expeditionary force Portugal repulsed the Spanish attack In Dull Jonathan The Age of the Ship of the Line the British and French navies 1650 1851 University of Nebraska Press 2009 p 88 As for Spain the expulsion of her troops from Portugal the loss of Cuba and the Philippines twelve ships and more than 100 million made her deeply regret her involvement in the war In Roujoux and Alfred Mainguet Histoire d Angleterre in French Vol II Paris Charles Hingray Libraire Editeur 1845 p 404 Portugal had not accepted the invitation to join France and Spain in this alliance and the latter powers invaded Portugal England sent a fleet promptly to Lisbon with 8 000 soldiers who helped drive the invaders back and followed them into Spain herself The blows she had received were staggering in Hart Francis Russel The Siege of Havana 1762 Houghton Mifflin 1931 p 52 the annoyance given by the peasantry checked the progress of the Spaniards Accordingly the invaders retired within their own frontiers evacuating all their conquests This campaign constituted nearly the whole of the Spanish share of the Seven Years War in Europe In Busk M M The History of Spain and Portugal from B C 1000 to A D 1814 Vol 25 Baldwin and Cradock Paternoster Row London 1833 page 204 Note C Reports sent by Miguel de Arriaga the army s secretary to the Portuguese prime minister during the chase of the remnants of the Franco Spanish army Yesterday and the day before I spent passports to 45 Spanish deserters and taking into consideration what they tell us the Spanish army fell into the abyss they talk of 7 000 deserters 12 000 men sick in hospitals in addition to the many who have died letter of 27 October and the number of deserters would be higher they say if they were not afraid of being killed by our irregulars letter of 31 October In SALES Ernesto Augusto O Conde de Lippe em Portugal Vol 2 Publicacoes de Comissao de Historia Militar Minerva 1936 page 29 Citations edit a b The army was in no better shape Only 8 000 effective Portuguese soldiers stood in the face of the coming Spanish onslaught They wore rags and patches and begged in the streets as they received little or no pay from the central government In Speelman Patrick and Danley Mark The Seven Years War Global Views Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine 2012 p 436 Archived 11 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine Between 7 000 and 8 000 Portuguese in Chagas Pinheiro Historia de Portugal vol VII Lisboa 1902 p 40 a b The British troops which embarked for Lisbon under their veteran commander consisted of 7 104 officers and men of al arms official figures when boarding in Britain This force had been dispatched in consequence of the threatening attitude of France and Spain towards Portugal whose monarch had declined to enter into an alliance with the above two powers in order to curb the pride of the British nation which aspired to become despotic over the sea In Dalton Charles 1714 1727 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Vol II 1912 p 31 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine All told the British forces in Portugal numbered roughly 7 000 men In Speelman Patrick and Danley Mark The Seven Years War Global Views Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine 2012 p 440 Archived 12 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine Selvagem Carlos Portugal Militar in Portuguese Imprensa Nacional Casa da Moeda Lisboa 2006 p 475 a b c d Letter XLIV from a British captain Lisbon 1779 Dear brother p 409 after comparing every thing after visiting the frontiers of the two kingdoms as I have endeavoured to do with something of a critical eye to me it appears that a successful invasion of Portugal from Spain at least as circumstances at present stand would be so exceedingly probable or rather certain that I find it very difficult to account for the miscarriage of their last attempt upon it in 1762 page 415 an army consisting of at least 30 000 men with 10 or 12 000 French auxiliaries and a large park of artillery collected at a great expense from Catalonia and the farthest parts of the Kingdom establishing large magazines in different parts of the frontiers it is astonishing that with such a shadow of an army to oppose them p 416 in Costigan Arthur W Sketches of Society and Manners in Portugal Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine vol II London 1787 pp 409 416 a b c 30 000 Spaniards according to a letter of Charles III to Count of Gazola in December of 1761 plus 10 000 French in 12 battalions who joined them on 12 June 1762 All these informations in Mourinho Antonio Invasao de Tras os Montes e das Beiras na Guerra dos Sete Anos Pelos Exercitos Bourbonicos em 1762 atraves da Correspondencia Oficial in Portuguese Series II Vol 31 Anais da Academia Portuguesa de Historia Lisboa 1986 pp 380 and 395 Selvagem Carlos Portugal Militar in Portuguese Imprensa Nacional Casa da Moeda Lisboa 2006 p 476 a b This operation was without doubt the greatest mobilisation of troops on mainland Spain throughout the whole eighteenth century and the figures themselves bear witness to the government s interest in the operation and meant leaving the rest of mainland Spain largely unguarded by way of comparison the battle of Almansa of 1707 involved a Spanish French army of over 25 000 men while the famous attack on Algiers in 1775 involved a mobilisation of little more than 19 000 infantry and cavalry men in Enciso Agustin Gonzalez Spanish Mobilising Resources for War Britain and Spain at Work During the Early Modern Period Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Eunsa Ediciones Universidad de Navarra S A Spain 2006 p 159 Archived 21 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine ISBN 9788431323844 In this offensive would participate the most distinguished of the Bourbon army newly reformed and as officers the brightest students graduated from the modern military academies established a few decades ago in Barcelona Segovia and Madrid following the dictates of the enlightened science of the time See De Espanha nem bom vento nem bom casamento La guerra como determinante de las dificiles relaciones entre las dos Coronas Ibericas en la Peninsula y en America 1640 1808 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine in Spanish pp 29 111 in Anais de Historia de alem mar Vol X Juan Marchena Fernandez 2009 Anais de Historia de alem mar p 71 A Campaign won without the major casualties of battle or incurring many losses other than those of sickness In Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine vol 59 London 1981 p 25 Archived 8 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine a b British casualties were light overall there were fourteen combat deaths compared to 804 from other means In Speelman Patrick and Danley Mark The Seven Years War Global Views Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine 2012 p 448 Archived 29 October 2018 at the Wayback Machine Eduard Hay British ambassador in Portugal letter to the 2nd Earl of Egremont 8 November 1762 reported a total of 30 000 Franco Spanish casualties during the first two invasions of Portugal half of them deserters many of whom became prisoners representing almost three quarters of the initial invading army See British Scholar C R Boxer in Descriptive List of the State Papers Portugal 1661 1780 in the Public Record Office London 1724 1765 Archived 6 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine Vol II Lisbon Academia das Ciencias de Lisboa with the collaboration of the British Academy and the P R O 1979 p 415 See also COSTA Fernando Dores Nova Historia Militar de Portugal Archived 20 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine Circulo de Leitores Vol II Coordinator Antonio Hespanha 2004 p 358 footnote 280 a b Disappointed facing incredible resistance and losing everything in the field the Spaniards abandoned the fight and left behind twenty five thousand men In Henry Isabelle Dumouriez General de la Revolution 1739 1823 Archived 8 March 2021 at the Wayback Machine L Harmattan Paris 2002 p 87 Archived 8 August 2017 at the Wayback Machine Corroborated by two sources close to the Spanish crown both the Austrian ambassador Count of Rosenberg and the Secretary of the Danish embassy Federico de Goessel sent independent reports to their governments estimating that excluding the prisoners and deserters which were not included in this number Spain had suffered 12 0000 death in the war against Portugal The death toll of the French has not been estimated See Count of Rosenberg to Kaunitz Escorial letter of November 18 1762 and Goessel to Bernstorff Madrid letter of January 3 1763 Cited by Olaechea Rafael Contribucion al estudio del Motin contra Esquilache 1766 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine in Tiempos Modernos 8 2003 p 9 footnote nr 40 In Morell Thomas Studies in History vol II London 1821 p 373 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Boscawen had defeated the French fleet off the Portuguese coast The French commander took refuge in Lagos after losing five of his ships on the coast of the Algarve The French at once began to demand satisfaction and Pitt sent Lord Kinnoull on a special mission to Lisbon to offer apologies In Livermore H V A New History of Portugal Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Cambridge University Press London 1969 p 234 Jose Hermano Saraiva coordinator Historia de Portugal vol VI Quidnovi 2004 p 63 France s Foreign Minister the Duc de Choiseul had pressured Charles III of Spain to declare war against Britain even as he was beginning secret negotiations with London to end the fighting In York Neil Longley Turning the World Upside Down The War of American Independence and the Problem of Empire Praeger London 2003 p 33 Spanish invasion of Portugal an effort to block the British in Europe also resulted in defeat for Spain In Altagracia Ortiz Eighteenth Century Reforms in the Caribbean Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press 1983 p 216 footnote 16 Stein Stanley and Stein Barbara Apogee of Empire Spain and New Spain in the Age of Charles III 1759 1789 English naval forces intercepted official correspondence Pesquisa Google Archived from the original on 14 August 2021 Retrieved 4 July 2014 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint bot original URL status unknown link Johns Hopkins University Press 2004 chapter The Trauma of Havana 1762 1765 Pack S W Sea Power in the Mediterranean A Study of the Struggle for sea power in the Mediterranean from the Seventeenth Century to the Present Day Arthur Barker Limited 1971 p 68 Archived 21 March 2017 at the Wayback Machine In Carnota John Smith A The Marquis of Pombal Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine 2nd edition Longmans Green Reader and Dyer London 1871 p 187 Carvalhosa Manuel F Barros Viscount of Santarem Quadro Elementar das Relacoes Politicas e Diplomaticas de Portugal Tome VI Paris 1850 p XVI One of the main aims of the two great Bourbon powers in the making of the Family Compact had been to attack Portugal in order either to compel England to send a large part of its troops to that country or to take possession of it in Philippson Martin The Age of Frederick the Great Archived 19 August 2017 at the Wayback Machine vol XV Lea Brothers and amp company Philadelphia 1905 p 103 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Livermore H V A New History of Portugal Cambridge University Press London 1966 p 232 Clark Edward Letters concerning the Spanish nation Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine London 1763 p 353 Livermore H V A History of Portugal Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Cambridge University Press London 1947 p 359 Archived 6 September 2017 at the Wayback Machine According to Dumouriez in An Account of Portugal as it Appeared in 1766 to Dumouriez Lausanne 1775 and London 1797 p 103 According to Dumouriez in An Account of Portugal as it Appeared in 1766 to Dumouriez Archived 13 December 2014 at the Wayback Machine Lausanne 1775 and London 1797 p 244 Archived 13 December 2014 at the Wayback Machine Azevedo J Lucio de O Marques de Pombal e a sua epoca 2nd edition Annuario do Brasil Rio de Janeiro p 237 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine In Dellon Gabriel and other authors Portugal nos Seculos Dezassete e Dezoito Quatro Testemunhos Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Lisoptima Edicoes 1989 p 157 in Portuguese Shaw L M The Anglo Portuguese alliance and the English merchants in Portugal 1654 1810 Ashgate 1998 p 193 free her from the heavy shackles of Britannic dominion Pesquisa Google Archived from the original on 14 August 2021 Retrieved 4 July 2014 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint bot original URL status unknown link a b Speelman Patrick and Danley Mark The Seven Years War Global Views Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine 2012 p 438 Archived 30 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine The Province was absolutely defenceless without soldiers arms powder ball or provisions and it was impossible to paint the scandalous conditions of the defences In Francis Alan David Portugal 1715 1808 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Tamesis Books Limited London 1985 p 150 Archived 13 September 2018 at the Wayback Machine Dumouriez Charles An Account of Portugal as it Appeared in 1766 to Dumouriez Lausanne 1775 and London 1797 p 249 Archived 30 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine Francis Alan David Portugal 1715 1808 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine 1985 p 150 Speelman Patrick and Danley Mark The Seven Years War Global Views Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine 2012 p 439 Maxwell Kenneth Pombal Paradox of the Enlightenment Archived 6 May 2021 at the Wayback Machine University Press Cambridge 1995 p 113 Archived 5 May 2021 at the Wayback Machine a b Martin Benjamin Miscellaneous Correspondence Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine vol IV London 1764 p 904 a b See Dumouriez Charles An Account of Portugal as it Appeared in 1766 to Dumouriez Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Lausanne 1775 and London 1797 p 18 Lafuente Modesto Historia General de Espana Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine tome XX third part 8th book Madrid 1858 p 55 Monteiro Nuno Goncalo D Jose na sombra de Pombal Temas e Debates 2008 p 198 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine a b Speelman Patrick and Danley Mark The Seven Years War Global Views Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine 2012 p 439 The British Chronologift Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Battle at the river Douro when the Portuguese defeated the Spaniards May 25 1762 London 1789 Index to vol III 1748 1762 p 482 Green William Chronological History of the Reign of George the Third Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine London 1826 page 10 The French and Spaniards enter Portugal reinforcements sent to assist the Portuguese May 25 The Portuguese beat the Spaniards on the River Douro a b c Journal of the Society for Army Historical research vol 59 London 1981 p 25 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Dumouriez Charles An Account of Portugal as it Appeared in 1766 to Dumouriez Lausanne 1775 and London 1797 chapter 3 p p 18 19 Dumouriez Charles An Account of Portugal as it Appeared in 1766 to Dumouriez Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Lausanne 1775 and London 1797 Chapter VIII p 249 In Le Nouvelliste Suiss Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine July 1762 Newchatel p 277 Archived 29 July 2018 at the Wayback Machine The London Chronicle for The Year 1762 in their attempt to take it by a coup de main have lost it is said 600 men Pesquisa Google Archived from the original on 14 August 2021 Retrieved 3 August 2014 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint bot original URL status unknown link Vol XII from 30 June to 31 December number 86 from 29 June to 1 July p 6 The London Chronicler or Universal evening Post Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine for the year of 1762 vol XII nr 86 from Tuesday 29 June to Thursday 1 July 1762 London p 6 Archived 22 December 2014 at the Wayback Machine In The London Chronicler Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine 1762 from 29 June to 1 July O Callaghan Edmund Bailey Orderly Book of Lieut Gen Burgoyne New York 1860 Introduction p XIV The Spanish failure in 1762 to exploit their early successes by a march to capture Oporto the major town in Northern Portugal proved operationally decisive In Black Jeremy European Warfare in a Global Context 1660 1815 Archived 9 September 2018 at the Wayback Machine Routledge 2007 p 41 Dumouriez Charles An Account of Portugal as it Appeared in 1766 to Dumouriez Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Lausanne 1775 and London 1797 chapter 3 p 20 Serrao Joaquim Verissimo Historia de Portugal O Despotismo Iluminado 1750 1807 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine vol VI da Historia de Portugal Editorial Verbo 1977 p 61 Serrao Joaquim Verissimo Historia de Portugal O Despotismo Iluminado 1750 1807 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine vol VI da Historia de Portugal Editorial verbo 1977 p 61 Ponce Jose Luis Terron La Casaca y la Toga Luces y sombras de la reforma militar en el reinado de Carlos III Archived 2014 07 07 at archive today Institut Menorqui d Estudis Mahon 2011 Chapter 2 La campana de Portugal en 1762 pp 11 21 Archived 2014 07 14 at the Wayback Machine p 13 a b This province of Tras os Montes is not worth an attack in a war between Spain and Portugal it is even dangerous for the Spaniards to penetrate into it as they found to their cost in the late war 40 000 men advanced to Chaves Braganca and Miranda and about a fourth of their number died there In Dumouriez Charles An Account of Portugal as it Appeared in 1766 to Dumouriez Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Lausanne 1775 and London 1797 p 20 Archived 12 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine it was found that the Marquis of Marialva and the Field Marshals Count of Angeja Count of Arcos and Jose Leite de Sousa were approaching Lamego with 7 regiments British forces and militias If this force entered Tras os Montes it could divide the two wings of the Spanish army that trying to reach Oporto through the mountains and that trying to reach the left bank of the Douro which was a huge risk in Barrento Antonio Guerra Fantastica Portugal o Conde de Lippe e a Guerra dos Sete Anos Archived 8 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine Tribuna Lisboa 2006 pp 55 56 In fact they made a very good effort the Tras os Montes invasion was turned back p 150 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine On the South Bank of the river Douro O Hara was at Lamego where a considerable Portuguese regular force was mobilizing and in the mountains near Vila Real the enemy were afraid of being cut off by the auxiliaries there and found it prudent to retire p 151 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine in Francis Alan Davis Portugal 1715 1808 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Tamesis Book Limited London 1985 Chlosser Friedrich translated by D Davison M A History of the Eighteenth Century and of the Nineteenth Till the Overthrow of the French Empire 1843 Vol IV Chapman and Hall London 1845 pp 252 53 Academia Portuguesa da Historia Anais Archived 19 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine 1986 p 396 De Espanha nem bom vento nem bom casamento La guerra como determinante de las dificiles relaciones entre las dos Coronas Ibericas en la Peninsula y en America 1640 1808 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine in Spanish pp 29 111 in Anais de Historia de alem mar Vol X Juan Marchena Fernandez 2009 Anais de Historia de alem mar p 71 Massena s Aide de camp 1810 cited in Pecchio Giuseppe Lettres Historiques et Politiques sur le Portugal 1830 p 303 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research the Portuguese had to stave off the first Spanish invasion on their own Pesquisa Google Archived from the original on 14 August 2021 Retrieved 4 July 2014 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint bot original URL status unknown link vol 59 London 1981 p 25 In April because the war with Portugal was going badly for the Spanish troops he Count of Aranda was ordered to return to Spain in Maria Dolores Albiac Blanco El Conde de Aranda los Laberintos del Poder Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Caja de Ahorros de la Inmaculada de Aragon 1998 p 67 Alonso Jose Ramon Historia Politica del Ejercito Espanol Editora Nacional 1974 p 49 Archived 28 November 2017 at the Wayback Machine The Gentleman s and London Magazine Or Monthly Chronologer 1741 1794 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine year of 1762 p 483 Count La Lippe who was placed at the head of the allied forces was one of the best soldiers of the age and the Portuguese furnished a good raw material although wretchedly equipped and officered Nevertheless the heterogeneous body of English Germans and Portuguese collected under La Lippe made a very good fight of it and Burgoyne now a brigadier at the head of 3 000 cavalry mostly Portuguese distinguished himself in Cook John D and others The Saturday Review of Politics Literature Science and Art Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Vol 41 John W Parker and Son 1876 p 369 he was a man born to command of eccentric character but highly educated and one of the most renowned engineer officers he soon established an order and discipline amongst the Portuguese troops which gave them the ability to contend successfully with the Spaniards in this campaign and which entitles him to distinction in all military annals The Citadel of Elvas still perpetuates his name to Portuguese gratitude Fort Lippe in Cust Edward Annals of the Wars of the Eighteen Century Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Vol III 1760 1783 London 1858 p 74 As Commander in Chief of the effete Portuguese army he had repelled in the brilliant peninsular campaigns of 1761 3 superior Franco Spanish Forces In Prothero George Walter The Quarterly Review Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine vol 221 John Murray 1914 p 394 The Anglo Portuguese allies won by adroit marches and counter marches so that although the enemy by superior numbers could possibly have won they were always confronted by defenders in a good position and never dared to risk an all out attack A Campaign won without the major casualties of battle for the Anglo Portuguese In Journal of the Society for Army Historical research Archived 8 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine vol 59 London 1981 p 25 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine The movements of the Anglo Portuguese troops forced the Spanish army of General Aranda to withdraw In Mendes J Caria John Hunter in Portugal Archived 10 February 2020 at the Wayback Machine 1963 page 61 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine originally published in Semana Medica nr 91 22 January 1961 and translated by Dr Guerra of the Wellcome Medical Library Azevedo J Lucio de O Marques de Pombal e a sua epoca 2nd edition Annuario do Brasil Rio de Janeiro p 239 In 1762 he was chosen to command the united English and Portuguese army in a victorious war against the Spanish In Radant Friedhelm From Baroque to Storm and Stress 1720 1775 Vol IV of Literary History of Germany Croom Helm 1977 p 137 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Philippson Martin The Age of Frederick the great Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine vol 15 Lea Brothers amp Company 1905 p 103 Archived 4 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine The Bourbons planned the invasion in three divisions the first in the north of Portugal between the Minho and the Douro the second in the middle between the Douro and the Tagus and the third to the south of the Tagus to co operate on that side with the middle corps in its attempt upon Lisbon The northern division commenced hostilities entered the Portuguese province of Tras os Montes and in Bisset Robert The History of the Reign of George III Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Vol I Philadelphia 1822 p 188 Speelman Patrick and Danley Mark The Seven Years War Global Views Bourbon casualties mounted because the Portuguese peasantry waged a relentless war of revenge Pesquisa Google Archived from the original on 14 August 2021 Retrieved 4 July 2014 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint bot original URL status unknown link 2012 p 447 disrupted the concentration of the third Spanish column Pesquisa Google Archived from the original on 14 August 2021 Retrieved 6 September 2014 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint bot original URL status unknown link In testimony to the cruel reality were the devastated fields by order of the government to embarrass the invasion by hunger and along roadsides the bones of the Spaniards slaughtered by the rural people In Azevedo J Lucio de O Marques de Pombal e a sua epoca in Portuguese 2nd edition Annuario do Brasil Rio de Janeiro p 241 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine the Spanish invaded Tralos Montes and had to retreat with loss in Neale John Mason A History of Portugal Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Joseph Masters London 1846 p 220 Lopez Emilio Gonzalez Bajo las luces de la Ilustracion Galicia en los reinados de Carlos III y Carlos IV pero las noticias que llegaron eran todo lo contrario Pesquisa Google Archived from the original on 14 August 2021 Retrieved 21 September 2014 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint bot original URL status unknown link Edic Del Castro 1977 page 22 ISBN 9788485134229 Stein Stanley and Stein Barbara Apogee of Empire Spain and New Spain in the Age of Charles III 1759 1789 Archived 26 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine Johns Hopkins University Press 2004 chapter Imperilled Colonies and Spain s Response Esquilache himself went to Portugal Pesquisa Google Archived from the original on 14 August 2021 Retrieved 4 July 2014 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint bot original URL status unknown link Sir Charles Grey to Shelburne cited in Nelson Paul David Sir Charles Grey First Earl Grey Royal Soldier family Patriarch Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Associated University Presses USA 1996 p 26 Spanish successes in overrunning poorly defended Portuguese fortresses led to urgent Portuguese requests for British troops and these helped to turn the side Cambridge illustrated Atlas Warfare Renaissance to Revolution 1492 1792 vol II 1996 p 127 Almeida a key frontier town whose possession could open up the route to Lisbon was in chaos Its fortifications were second rate and its inhabitants terrified of Spanish aggression In Speelman Patrick and Danley Mark The Seven Years War Global Views Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine 2012 p 437 Archived 20 December 2014 at the Wayback Machine Francis Alan David Portugal 1715 1808 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine 1985 p 150 Lippe Count of Memoire de la Campagne de Portugal de 1762 trois mille hommes mais c etait des nouvelles levees dont une partie considerable deserta Pesquisa Google Archived from the original on 14 August 2021 Retrieved 26 September 2014 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint bot original URL status unknown link 1770 page 6 Costa Fernando Dores Nova Historia Militar de Portugal Archived 20 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine Circulo de Leitores Vol II Coordinator Antonio Hespanha 2004 p 339 Speelman Patrick and Danley Mark The Seven Years War Global Views against 24 000 Spanish and 8 000 French Pesquisa Google Archived from the original on 14 August 2021 Retrieved 4 October 2014 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint bot original URL status unknown link 2012 p 446 Archived 29 October 2018 at the Wayback Machine Aranda attacked Almeida and after a siege of nine days forced the garrison of fifteen hundred men to surrender In Coxe William Espana Bajo el Reinado de la Casa de Borbon Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Tome IV Establecimiento Tipografico Madrid 1847 p 122 James George Lives of the most eminent foreign statesmen Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine vol V 1838 p 135 Although this war was undertaken entirely in the national interests nay in defence of the very existence of Portugal it was viewed with disfavour by an influential if not a large portion of the population Colonel Anderson belonging to the British contingent and serving on the staff of the Count of Santiago writes to Burgoyne you may depend upon receiving the best of intelligence of the enemy s motions but hitherto the Conde de Santiago has found it very difficult to get good intelligence It s odd you ll say when every peasant might reasonably be supposed to be a spy for him These do not look on the Spaniards as their enemy they think their cause the cause of the Jesuits and the cause of God The people of condition the Excellencies and the hidalgos have so insuperable a hatred to the minister as to sacrifice their king their country and even their honour to feed it I have however the happiness here to be under as honest a man as ever lived Portuguese commander Count of Santiago with as good a heart as it is possible to imagine In Edward Barrington de Fonblanque Political and military episodes in the latter half of the nineteenth century Archived 4 April 2017 at the Wayback Machine Macmillan and Co London 1876 pp 36 37 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Foy Maximilien History of the War in the Peninsula Under Napoleon Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine vol I London 1827 p 255 In Azevedo J Lucio de O Marques de Pombal e a sua epoca 2nd edition Annuario do Brasil Rio de Janeiro p 241 Francis Alan David Portugal 1715 1808 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine 1985 p 150 Godoy Manuel Memorias Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Emilio La Parra Lopez Elisabel Larriba editors Publicaciones Universidad de Alicante 2008 p 756 These peasants they the Spaniards hanged and shot whenever they fell into their hands and their incensed comrades committed in return the most merciless barbarities on their prisoners In Cassel John Smith John and Howitt William John Cassel s Illustrated History of England Archived 20 June 2018 at the Wayback Machine vol 5 London 1861 p 17 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Academia Portuguesa da Historia Anais Archived 19 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine 1986 p 401 Speelman Patrick and Danley Mark The Seven Years War Global Views harass the Spanish on the flanks and rear Pesquisa Google Archived from the original on 14 August 2021 Retrieved 4 October 2014 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint bot original URL status unknown link 2012 p 446 Archived 29 October 2018 at the Wayback Machine a b See Lippe Memoire de la Campagne de Portugal de 1762 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine 1770 pp 25 28 Lippe Memoire de la Campagne de Portugal de 1762 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine 1770 pages 44 45 Portugal concentrated 15 000 men the complete Allied army consisted of 7 000 to 8 000 Portuguese plus 7 104 British at the city of Abrantes and effectively barred the Spanish thrust Then the Spaniards supply system failed causing the troops to go hungry In Santiago Mark The Red Captain The Life of Hugo O Conor Commandant Inspector of the Interior Provinces of New Spain Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Arizona historical Society 1994 p 14 To Burgoyne who had embarked for the Tagus with his light horse early in May and who now held the local rank of Brigadier General the organization of his brigade of 3 000 men of whom nearly two thirds were Portuguese must in spite of his love of soldiering have been an irksome task in Political and military episodes in the latter half of the nineteenth century Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Macmillan and Co London 1876 p 35 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine mainly owing to the brilliant services of Brigadier General Burgoyne the Spaniards were defeated at Valencia de Alcantara and Vila Velha and peace was made on 10th February 1763 In Encyclopaedia Britannica A ZYM Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine William Smith Day Kellogg Thomas Baynes vol XIX 1903 p 550 Burgoyne s successful leadership brought the Portuguese campaign to a victorious end by the time the Autumnal rains commenced in November 1762 The Seven Years War was virtually over In Hargrove Richard General John Burgoyne Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine University of Delaware Press 1983 p 38 Jeudwine John Religion commerce liberty a record of a time of storm and change 1683 1793 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Longmans Green 1925 p 160 Letter from the Allied commander Earl of Loudoun to the Earl of Egremont Macao 9 October 1762 As soon as the enemy perceived our intention of drawing back they pushed a corps over the river Alvito to harass our rearguard which was composed of the four English regiments six companies of Portuguese grenadiers a few of our light dragoons and a regiment of Portuguese cavalry with the four British field pieces but upon my ordering one of the guns to be brought up which Major M Bean conducted so effectually that hardly any shot was fired that did not take place among the enemy they thought proper to retire the country people report that they have buried 40 of the enemy I can not omit mentioning to your Lordship that the Portuguese grenadiers showed upon this occasion not only a very good countenance but the utmost readiness and alertness in forming upon all the different occasions where it was necessary In Boswell James The Scots Magazine vol XXIV Edinburgh 1762 p 551 Archived 11 September 2017 at the Wayback Machine The attack was led by Lt col Charles Lee of the Dragoons of whom some perhaps the majority were Portuguese In Francis Alan David Portugal 1715 1808 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Tamesis Books Limited London 1985 p 158 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Encyclopedie du dix neuvieme siecle En 1762 les Espagnols y furent defaits par les Portugais Pesquisa Google Archived from the original on 14 August 2021 Retrieved 21 September 2014 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint bot original URL status unknown link vol I Paris 1858 page 106 Lippe Memoire de la Campagne de Portugal de 1762 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine 1770 pages 46 47 Oman Charles A History of the Peninsular War Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine vol III Clarendon Press 1908 p 183 Archived 18 August 2018 at the Wayback Machine p 184 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine and p 185 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Lippe had directed the Count St Joao to drive the country during his retreat to the Lower Beira and every thing that could not been carried off was destroyed so that the enemy now found himself in a desert without being able to procure either provisions care or peasants to assist them the inhabitants had abandoned their villages and carried off every thing in The Royal Military Chronicle vol V London 1812 pp 50 51 lower Beira could not provide for the enemy neither food nor chariots nor peasants to build roads the Count of Santiago had been ordered to make disappear from this province everything that could be eaten or used as road but what mainly contributed to the scarcity in the province was the cruel procedure of the enemy against the inhabitants many of whom were killed and their villages were looted and torched in revenge for the deaths caused by the peasants thus many inhabitants in order to escape the atrocities of the enemy had left their homes taking with them their cattle food and whatever they could carry in Lippe Count of Memoire de la Campagne de Portugal de 1762 Archived copy Archived from the original on 14 August 2021 Retrieved 24 October 2014 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint archived copy as title link CS1 maint bot original URL status unknown link 1770 pp 39 41 Lippe executed forty years before Lord Wellington a similar manoeuvre to that in which the distinct English General took shelter behind the Lines of Torres Vedras thereby opposing an invincible barrier to the army of Massena Count of Aranda found himself in the same position as Marshal Prince d Essling or perhaps in an even more critical situation In fact as the Napoleon s general Aranda was forced to retreat or starve in Beira In Chagas Pinheiro Historia de Portugal vol VII Lisboa 1902 pp 46 47 Sardinha Antonio A Questao Iberica A segunda zona e a que mais directamente leva a peninsula de Lisboa Pesquisa Google Archived from the original on 14 August 2021 Retrieved 8 November 2014 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint bot original URL status unknown link Almeida Miranda amp Sousa 1916 p 274 Crowe Eyre Evans The History of France the hilly country North of Lisbon Pesquisa Google Archived from the original on 14 August 2021 Retrieved 8 November 2014 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint bot original URL status unknown link vol IV 1866 p 286 A study on some of these defensive constructions can be found in Monteiro Mario Pereira Andre O Forte das Batarias Sobre a Ribeira do Alvito Archived 21 December 2014 at the Wayback Machine ACAFA On Line nr 1 2008 Associacao de Estudos do Alto Tejo Anderson Fred Crucible of War The Seven Years War and the Fate of Empire in British North America 1754 1766 unable to secure their lines of communication Pesquisa Google Archived from the original on 14 August 2021 Retrieved 25 October 2014 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint bot original URL status unknown link USA 2001 p 497 Aspinall Arthur The Correspondence of George Prince of Wales 1770 1812 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Oxford University Press 1971 p 12 Weller Jac Uffindell Andrew On Wellington the Duke and his art of War Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Greenhill Books 1998 p 99 Memoire de la Campagne de Portugal de 1762 1770 Page 47 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Memoire de la Campagne de Portugal de 1762 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine 1770 page 48 Count of Lippe in his own words The Count Marshal in order to embarrass the enemy and to force its retreat back into Spain risked ordering Townshend to join the troops commanded by Lord Lenox and after the junction to take Penamacor in order to cut off the communication of the enemy army with Ciudad Rodrigo Spain the arriving of this combined troops over the enemy s right and its rearguard Townshend suddenly reappeared in the Province of Beira by a counter march of forty leagues through the most rude mountains of Portugal thanks both to Townshend s skill and to the admirable perseverance of the Portuguese soldier who left the traces of their bleeding feet in the sharp rocks in Lippe Count of Memoire de la Campagne de Portugal de 1762 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine 1770 pages 41 43 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine The Royal Military Chronicle The alarm excited in the rear of the enemy by the troops under General Townsend Pesquisa Google Archived from the original on 14 August 2021 Retrieved 7 October 2014 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint bot original URL status unknown link vol V London 1812 p 51 Lippe withdraws to Abrantes which was strengthened to preclude the passage of the Aranda s army toward Lisbon while at the same time orders General Townshend to cut off the retreat of the enemy army by occupying Penamacor and Monsanto threatened with destruction as Count of Lippe moves its forces Aranda retreats to Castelo Branco the lower Beira is released while Aranda systematically harassed and threatened in the rear eventually withdraws back into Spain In Lousada Abilio Exercito jornal do Army journal of the Archived 5 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine nr 598 August September 2010 Peres Soctip Industrias Graficas SA suplemento chapter Schaumburg Lippe e a Guerra Fantastica p 153 ISSN 0871 8598 And Aranda ingloriously withdrew his discouraged and diminished army in Ward Sir Adolphus and others The Cambridge Modern History Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine vol 6 1909 p 369 the Bourbon army began withdrawing back into Spain via Valencia even though rearguard detachments harassed the advancing allied units In Speelman Patrick and Danley Mark The Seven Years War Global Views Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine 2012 p 452 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine a b Speelman Patrick and Danley Mark the Spanish troops had retired to Spain as British detachments closely followed them to the frontier In The Seven Years War Global Views Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine 2012 p 448 The frontier filled with Spanish deserters eager to be captured in Speelman Patrick and Danley Mark The Seven Years War Global Views Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine 2012 p 452 Archived 29 October 2018 at the Wayback Machine a b The Royal Military Chronicle d Aranda retreated at leisure leaving his sick and wounded in the hospital at Caste L o Branco Pesquisa Google Archived from the original on 14 August 2021 Retrieved 14 August 2021 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint bot original URL status unknown link vol V London 1812 pp 52 53 Speelman Patrick and Danley Mark Captain John Fenton of the Buffs led a detachment that overtook the Spanish rearguard and seized control of the Portuguese border town of Salvaterra In The Seven Years War Global Views 2012 p 448 Speelman Patrick and Danley Mark The Seven Years War Global Views torched those who offered resistance Pesquisa Google Archived from the original on 14 August 2021 Retrieved 24 July 2014 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint bot original URL status unknown link 2012 p 452 In the campaign of 1704 the combined forces of France and Spain were palsied in the midst of their success by topographical obstacles and the want of provisions In 1762 on the same ground the same obstacles stopped the Spanish army under the orders of Count d Aranda and the auxiliary corps commanded by the Prince de Beauvau and compelled them to retreat before troops inferior both in quality and numbers In Foy Maximilien Sebastian History of the War in the Peninsula under Napoleon Vol II London 1827 p 21 See Arenas Mar Garcia Los Proyectos del General Dumouriez Sobre la Invasion de Portugal in El Equilibrio de los Imperios de Utrecht a Trafalgar Archived 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine Actas de la VIII Reunion Cientifica de la Fundacion Espanola de Historia Moderna Madrid 2 4 de Junio de 2004 vol II Fundacion Espanola de Historia Moderna 2005 p 544 His report on Portugal earned Dumouriez the rank of colonel in the French army 1772 a reward of 18 000 francs 1768 the rank of Aide Marechal General of the French invading army sent to Corsica 1768 and he received the personal thanks of French foreign minister Choiseul in a public audience 1768 He was also rewarded with the rank of lieutenant colonel of a Spanish corps called the foreign legion by Charles III of Spain which he rejected Later his military information about Portugal would be used by Junot first Napoleonic invasion of Portugal 1807 and Soult Second Napoleonic invasion of Portugal 1809 See FEller Francois Xavier Dictionnaire Historique Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine vol VI Paris 1827 p 169 Archived 4 June 2018 at the Wayback Machine see also Arenas Mar Garcia Los Proyectos del General Dumouriez Sobre la Invasion de Portugal in El Equilibrio de los Imperios de Utrecht a Trafalgar Archived 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine Actas de la VIII Reunion Cientifica de la Fundacion Espanola de Historia Moderna Madrid 2 4 de Junio de 2004 vol II Fundacion Espanola de Historia Moderna 2005 p 550 Dumouriez Charles An Account of Portugal as it Appeared in 1766 to Dumouriez Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Lausanne 1775 and London 1797 chapter 5 pp 134 135 a b Sales Ernesto Augusto O Conde de Lippe em Portugal Archived 21 March 2017 at the Wayback Machine Vol 2 Publicacoes de Comissao de Historia Militar Minerva 1936 page 29 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Letter of John Hamilton to Townsend Alpedrinha 24 October 1762 cited by Speelman Patrick and Danley Mark The Seven Years War Global Views Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine 2012 p 448 Lippe Memoire de la Campagne de Portugal de 1762 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine 1770 Page 47 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine and page 48 Lippe Memoire de la Campagne de Portugal de 1762 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine 1770 p 53 Eduard Hay reporting to the Earl of Egremont See British Scholar C R Boxer in Descriptive List of the State Papers Portugal 1661 1780 in the Public Record Office London 1724 1765 Archived 6 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine Vol II Lisbon Academia das Ciencias de Lisboa with the collaboration of the British Academy and the P R O 1979 p 415 See also Costa Fernando Dores Nova Historia Militar de Portugal Archived 20 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine Circulo de Leitores Vol II Coordinator Antonio Hespanha 2004 p 358 footnote 280 Count of Rosenberg to Kaunitz Escorial letter of November 18 1762 and Goessel to Bernstorff Madrid letter of January 3 1763 Cited by Olaechea Rafael Contribucion al estudio del Motin contra Esquilache 1766 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine in Tiempos Modernos 8 2003 p 9 footnote nr 40 Henry Isabelle Dumouriez General de la Revolution 1739 1823 Archived 8 March 2021 at the Wayback Machine L Harmattan Paris 2002 p 87 Archived 8 August 2017 at the Wayback Machine O Callaghan Edmund Bailey Orderly Book of Lieut Gen Burgoyne New York 1860 Introduction p XVII Altogether it was possible to collect an army of 40 000 men p 11 With the army by then reduced to 20 000 men completely devoid of food Aranda could do little p 14 In Ponce La Casaca y la Toga Luces y sombras de la reforma militar en el reinado de Carlos III Archived 2014 07 07 at archive today Institut Menorqui d Estudis Mahon 2011 Chapter 2 La campana de Portugal en 1762 pp 11 21 Archived 2014 07 14 at the Wayback Machine Spain ordered 40 000 men to march into Portugal page 247 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine The Spanish forces when they arrived at the frontier were reduced to 25 000 men This war which might have crushed Portugal gave it a degree of vigour and elasticity and produced a military spirit page 254 Archived 16 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine in Dumouriez Charles An Account of Portugal as it Appeared in 1766 to Dumouriez Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Lausanne 1775 and London 1797 General Dumouriez Charles An Account of Portugal as it Appeared in 1766 to Dumouriez Archived 2 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine Lausanne 1775 and London 1797 p 247 See Dumouriez Charles An Account of Portugal as it Appeared in 1766 to Dumouriez Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Lausanne 1775 and London 1797 p 254 because the precedent disaster in the Fantastic War as the invasion of 1762 is known in Portuguese historiography should have been a lesson Dumouriez s mission was to study the campaign of 1762 find the reasons of the failure and through a detailed observation in situ of the geography and military state of the Portuguese crown to devise an effective plan of campaign for a future war In Arenas Mar Garcia Los Proyectos del General Dumouriez Sobre la Invasion de Portugal In El Equilibrio de los Imperios de Utrecht a Trafalgar Archived 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine Actas de la VIII Reunion Cientifica de la Fundacion Espanola de Historia Moderna Madrid 2 4 de Junio de 2004 vol II Fundacion Espanola de Historia Moderna 2005 p 541 The opinion of Dumouriez was omitted in the copy that was to be delivered to the office of Charles III by order of the French ambassador Ossun since it could hurt Spanish susceptibility See Arenas Mar Garcia Los Proyectos del General Dumouriez Sobre la Invasion de Portugal in El Equilibrio de los Imperios de Utrecht a Trafalgar Archived 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine Actas de la VIII Reunion Cientifica de la Fundacion Espanola de Historia Moderna Madrid 2 4 de Junio de 2004 volumen II published in 2005 page 548 see also p 541 Here are the omitted references disclosing that the Portuguese guerrillas were worsting the Spanish army The peasantry also form a militia who serve without pay but engage with great fury and are very formidable to the Spaniards by their manner of fighting as from the ignorance of their Generals the neglect of their officers and the want of discipline in the soldiers the latter are ever exposed to ambuscades assassinations and sudden attacks In An Account of Portugal as it Appeared in 1766 to Dumouriez Lausanne 1775 and London 1797 p 109 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine and also Garcia Arenas 2004 pp 41 73 and 74 The Russian strategy was learned from British military leader Wellington who in alliance with Portuguese guerrilla forces had resisted French invasion in the Peninsular War in a similar manner two years earlier In Hough Peter Environmental Security Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Routledge New York 2014 p 58 his Grand Army of French and allied troops was annihilated by the terrible winter disease typhus and the stamina of the Russian guerrillas using tactics similar to those of Spain and Portugal In Greer Thomas Lewis Gavin A Brief History of the Western World Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine 9th edition Thomson wadsworth 2004 p 470 Archived 3 May 2018 at the Wayback Machine For the next four months the French army of Portugal maintained its vigil at a cost of more than twenty five thousand men Of these only two thousand were killed in action and nearly eight thousand were captured or deserted while the rest fell to disease and starvation In Moon Joshua Wellington s Two Front War The Peninsular Campaigns at Home and Abroad 1808 1814 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine University of Oklahoma Press USA 2012 p 73 Wellington did not attempt to hold the Portuguese border Instead he ordered the entire countryside between the border and Lisbon to be laid waste and the inhabitants to take refuge in the mountains Meanwhile he had completed the construction of two formidable lines of fortification the Lines of Torres Vedras across the neck of the Lisbon peninsula Massena advanced deep into Portugal At Bussaco he came upon the retreating Anglo Portuguese army attacked it and was repulsed with heavy losses Nevertheless Wellington continued to retreat and slipped through the Lines of Torres Vedras accompanied by most of the population of the Portuguese Province of Northern Estremadura Massena reached the Lines For four months the two armies remained in that position facing each other without fighting Yet whereas Lisbon was well supplied the French were starving Their marauding columns either found no food or were ambushed Massena ordered a retreat one month later his army reached its starting point ciudad Rodrigo reduced by one third of its strength Hunger disease and the guerrillas had taken at least twenty thousand French lives As for the victors their army had suffered no losses but their victory had been won at the price of whole provinces destroyed and thousands of civilians starved tortured killed or destitute No phase of the Peninsular War was waged with more ferocity and yet not a single major battle was fought In Herold J Christopher The Age of Napoleon Mariner books 2002 p 226 Esdaile Charles The Peninsular War a New History Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Penguin Books London 2003 chapter 12 Archived 27 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine Historian Lawrence H Gipson uses the expression the disintegration of the Spanish army see The British Empire before the American Revolution the great war for the Empire the culmination 1760 1763 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Knopf 1954 p 260 while Portuguese historian Fernando Dores Costa wrote about the Spanish army s spectrum of decomposition see Nova Historia Militar de Portugal Archived 20 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine vol II Circulo de Leitores Coordinator Antonio Hespanha 2004 p 358 footnote 280 Also Portuguese historian Nuno Monteiro wrote that although there have been no battles in this strange war severe losses occurred on the Spanish side see D Jose na sombra de Pombal Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Temas e Debates 2008 p 198 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Journal of the Royal United Service Institution Whitehall Yard Vol 63 W Mitchell United Kingdom 1918 p 196 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Cassel John Smith John and Howitt William John Cassel s Illustrated History of England Archived 20 June 2018 at the Wayback Machine vol 5 London 1861 chapter I Reign of George III p 20 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine See The Annual Register Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Burke Edmund London 1784 General Index Castel Branco defeat of the Spaniards in the Territory of Academia Portuguesa da Historia Anais com os jubilos da vitoria Pesquisa Google Archived from the original on 14 August 2021 Retrieved 14 August 2014 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint bot original URL status unknown link 1969 p 132 Gipson Lawrence The British Empire before the American Revolution the great war for the Empire the culmination 1760 1763 vol 8 Knopf 1954 p 260 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Prowse D W A History of Newfoundland from the English Colonial and Foreign Records Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Heritage Books Inc 2007 p 311 Archived 27 November 2016 at the Wayback Machine Urdanez Jose Luis Gomez Victimas Ilustradas del Despotismo El Conde de Superonda Culpable y Reo ante el Conde de Aranda Archived 14 July 2014 at the Wayback Machine Universidad de la Rioja 2009 p 8 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine part of the investigation project El Imperio Espanol Desde la Decadencia a la Espana Discreta HAR 2009 13824 a b by mid 1762 the allied commander Lippe had delivered the Lusitanian territory from the Spanish invaders who kept only two borderland fortresses and quickly celebrated the triumph of concluding such an honourable peace for Portugal as the Peace of Hubertusburg was for Frederick the Great In Medina Eduardo de Revista europea Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Vol 11 Madrid 1878 p 280 In the opening of the campaign success attended the arms of the invaders they took Miranda Braganza and Almeida Here their triumphs ceased Lippe arrived from Germany and assumed the command In his operations he was well assisted by General Burgoyne and they had soon the glory of freeing the Portuguese soil from the Bourbon army In Dunham Samuel A The History of Spain and Portugal Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine vol 5 London 1832 pp 258 59 The Spaniards who had passed the mountains in three divisions North centre and South of Portugal after having taken many places now imagined that they would soon become masters of the whole kingdom found themselves under the necessity of abandoning their conquests and of evacuating Portugal In Beaumont Alexander The History of Spain Archived 21 November 2017 at the Wayback Machine London 1809 p 458 The Portuguese with the aid of their allies had driven the Spaniards out of their country In Collections of the New York Historical Society The John watts De Peyster publication fund series vol 7 The Society 1875 p 213 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Hart Francis Russel The Siege of Havana 1762 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Houghton Mifflin 1931 p 52 Archived 9 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine a b Lippe deserves far more than the eight miniature gold cannon mounted on silver carriages or six according to other sources 80 000 gold moidares and numerous diamonds given to him by the Portuguese King upon his departure So impressed was Oeiras that he retained Lippe s services so he could reform the Portuguese army and modernize the kingdom s defenses In Speelman Patrick and Danley Mark The Seven Years War Global Views Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine 2012 p 457 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Black Jeremy America or Europe British Foreign Policy 1739 63 regaining colonial losses in Portugal Pesquisa Google Archived from the original on 14 August 2021 Retrieved 30 July 2014 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint bot original URL status unknown link University of Exeter UCL Press 2002 pp 26 27 In September this number increasing during the Bourbon retreat in October 3 000 French soldiers lay sick at Salamanca in Danley Mark and Patrick Speelman The Seven Years War Global Views Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Brill 2012 p 452 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine See Journal of the Society for Army Historical research Archived 8 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine vol 59 London 1981 p 40 Stephens Henry The History of Portugal Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine G P Putnam s sons 1891 p 363 In November the enemy attacked two small places Marvao and Ouguela but the long record of shameful capitulations at last ended Ouguela was successfully held by a Portuguese commander and Marvao was defended by captain Brown of Armstrong s with a British detachment and some Portuguese He replied to the summons with a reminder of the recent fall of Havana and dispersed the assailants with a burst of shellfire In Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine vol 59 London 1981 p 40 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine A new wind swept the military Portuguese forces Volunteers showed up to fight under his Lippe s command and the Portuguese forces increased both quantitatively and qualitatively page 129 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine In November the Franco Spanish allies had lost most of their infantry men and artillery while Portuguese forces continued to grow up page 131 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine In Daehnhardt Rainer Segredos da Historia Luso Alema Publicacoes Quipu Lisboa 1998 ISBN 9728408072 Our detachments pursued their rear guard and took several prisoners the allied commander Count of Lippe in Memoire de la Campagne de Portugal de 1762 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine 1770 page 65 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Lippe Memoire de la Campagne de Portugal de 1762 Le delabrement de leur cavallerie et le grand nombre de malades Pesquisa Google Archived from the original on 14 August 2021 Retrieved 22 July 2014 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint bot original URL status unknown link 1770 pp 65 66 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine This German officer La Lippe who had learned the war in the school of Frederick the Great of Prussia repelled the invasion and forced the Bourbon allies to sign an armistice on the 1st December 1762 in Legrand Theodoric Histoire du Portugal Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine in French Payot 1928 p 82 Archived 1 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine Tandeter Enrique coordinator German Carrera Damas Historia General de America Latina processos americanos hacia la redefinicion colonial Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine in Spanish vol 4 UNESCO 2000 p 22 a b Ojer Pablo La Decada Fundamental en la Controversia de Limites entre Venezuela y Colombia 1881 1891 de los cuales fueron desalojados por los portugueses Pesquisa Google Archived from the original on 8 March 2021 Retrieved 25 July 2014 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint bot original URL status unknown link in Spanish Academia Nacional de la Historia 1988 p 292 Archived 22 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine a b United States Army Corps of Engineers Report on Orinoco Casiquiare Negro Waterway Venezuela Colombia Brazil July 1943 Sao Gabriel was founded during the Portuguese conquest in 1763 Pesquisa Google Archived from the original on 14 August 2021 Retrieved 26 September 2017 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint bot original URL status unknown link Vol I 1943 p 15 a b The land on their own side Portuguese side of the river Guapore afforded nothing on which they could rely whereas the country of the Spanish Missions left bank of the Guapore abounded with cattle The Spaniards designed to intercept the communication of the Portuguese in S Rosa with Para and Villa Bella This blockade might be easily maintained because they drew their supplies from the reductions whereas the garrison of S Rosa being confined to their own shore would be distressed for food and might thus be reduced without a blow The Portuguese made an expedition against the Reduction of S Miguel which had been removed from the right Bank to the left bank of the river Guapore in 1760 in accordance to the Treaty of Madrid 1750 they got possession of supplies which were intended for the Spanish army at Itanomas the Portuguese kept possession of the territory of S Miguel which abounded with kine horses and pigs the Reduction of S Martin voluntarily offered submission D Antonio ventured to attack the Spaniards in their camp the estacade was found too strong but the boldness of this measure thought unsuccessful discouraged the Spaniards they soon removed from their station the encampment on the Mamore was abandoned also shortly after they fell back to S Pedro the Spaniards then returnrd to S Cruz and the expedition was broken up The Portuguese then withdrew from the left shore In Southern Robert History of Brazil Archived 25 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine part third London 1819 p 584 Archived 14 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine a b disease caused by tropical conditions and the use of biological warfare by the Portuguese according to the Spanish commander and desertion had trimmed Verdugo the Spanish Governor of Santa Cruz de la Sierra s levies from 610 to 303 by the time they reached San Pedro head of the missions in Moxos Bolivia to where the Spanish remnants retreated after two months on the Guapore the governor returned to Santa Cruz Bolivia leaving behind a skeleton force In 1763 Moura retired from Mato Grosso the victor He had advanced to the Guapore and beyond it occupying Spanish territory in the left bank of this river until the end of the war the territory of the Missions of S Miguel and S Martin main sources of supply to the Spanish army fortified Portuguese positions on the river and remained in the field as his rival retired Moura s service earned him a hero s welcome from his commanders a Knighthood and eventually the office of Viceroy of Brazil In Block David Mission Culture on the Upper Amazon native Tradition Jesuit enterprise and Secular Policy in Moxos 1660 1880 Archived 8 March 2021 at the Wayback Machine University of Nebraska Press 1994 p 51 Archived 12 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine a b c Marley David Wars of the Americas a chronology of armed conflict in the New World 1492 to the present Archived 7 May 2021 at the Wayback Machine vol II ABC CLIO USA 2008 p 449 Archived 6 May 2021 at the Wayback Machine and p 450 Archived 22 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine a b c Bento Claudio Moreira Brasil conflitos externos 1500 1945 Archived 14 January 2012 at the Wayback Machine electronic version Academia de Historia Militar Terrestre do Brasil chapter 5 As guerras no Sul 1763 77 a b c Ricardo Lesser Las Origenes de la Argentina Editorial Biblos 2003 see chapter El desastre Archived 22 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine see pp 63 72 a b c Bento Claudio Moreira Rafael Pinto Bandeira in O Tuiuti Archived 22 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine nr 95 Academia de Historia Militar Terrestre do Brasil 2013 pp 3 18 a b Pereira Ione Aparecida Guerra nas Missoes de Mojos uma analise do conflito luso espanhol pela posse da antiga Missao Jesuitica de Santa Rosa de Mojos no rio Guapore 1760 1764 Archived 12 February 2019 at the Wayback Machine in the magazine Memoria Americana electronic version Vol 25 nr 2 Ciudad Autonoma de Buenos Aires diciembre 2017 ISSN 1851 3751 Godoy Manuel 2008 La Parra Lopez Emilio Larriba Elisabel eds Memorias Publicaciones Universidad de Alicante p pp 781 782 archived from the original on 14 August 2021 Speelman Patrick and Danley Mark The Seven Years War Global Views Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine 2012 p 457 Henriques Mendo C Vitoria e Pirineus 1813 O Exercito Portugues na Libertacao de Espanha Tribuna Lisboa 2008 p 35 inured to hardships they were pre eminently excellent on the march Finally the militia was very well adapted in The United Service Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine vol 132 139 American Periodical Series 1850 1900 Lewis R Hamersly amp Company 1904 p 692 Bradford in 1814 cited in Pivka Otto Von The Portuguese Army of the Napoleonic Wars Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Osprey Publishing New York 1977 p 19 permanent dead link It was believed that Portugal which had been thrown into the utmost disorder by a vicious court would prove an easy conquest and a united Spanish and French army at first met with little resistance but the Portuguese people soon rose to defend their homes with such vigour that all Choiseul s hopes in that quarter were extinguished In Wright Thomas The History of France Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine vol II London 1858 p 354 Societe d Histoire Generale et d Histoire Diplomatique Revue d Histoire Diplomatique Archived 7 May 2021 at the Wayback Machine vol 37 Editions A Pedone Paris 1969 p 195 Archived 6 May 2021 at the Wayback Machine in 1762 Portugal was invaded by Franco Spanish troops which were checked by the resistance of rural populations In Alegria Jose A and Palais des beaux arts Triomphe du Baroque Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine RTBF Brussels 1991 p 29 Archived 16 September 2018 at the Wayback Machine Guillon Maxime Port Mahon La France a Minorque sous Louis XV 1766 1763 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine E Leroux 1894 p 107 Spanish Chief minister Ricardo Wall in a letter to Tanucci 12 October 1762 the circumstance of having to make war on a sterile country and where each civilian is an enemy makes it necessary to bring the supplies from Castile Spain employing many troops to keep the conquered and to protect the food convoys thus the army possibly will not reach Lisbon before the Winter contrary to what was planned this prediction would prove prophetic since three days later the Franco Spanish army initiated its disastrous retreat In Alarcia Diego T El ministerio Wall la Espana discreta del ministro olvidado Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine 2012 p 155 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Monglave Eugene Histoire de l Espagne Chez Raymond Editeur Paris 1825 p 271 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Preparations the Spanish Government made for war after signing the compact with France focused more on Portugal than the colonies In Greentree David A Far Flung Gamble Havana 1762 Osprey Publishing Oxford 2010 p 30 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Albistur Rafael Olachea Estudios sobre el siglo XVIII vergonzoso Tratado de Paris de 1763 l Asi llamaria Pesquisa Google Archived from the original on 14 August 2021 Retrieved 16 August 2014 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint bot original URL status unknown link in Spanish edited by Vicente Palacio Atard Instituto Jeronimo Zurita C S I C Madrid Anexos de la revista Hispania nº 9 1978 p 201 Archived 19 November 2017 at the Wayback Machine Albistur Rafael Estudios sobre el siglo XVIII avantage que la connoissance de sa foiblesse Pesquisa Google Archived from the original on 14 August 2021 Retrieved 16 August 2014 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint bot original URL status unknown link 1978 p 201 Dumouriez Charles An Account of Portugal as it Appeared in 1766 to Dumouriez Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Lausanne 1775 and London 1797 p 247 Archived 7 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine Reflexiones Historico Militares que manifiestan los Motivos Porque se Mantiene Portugal Reino Independiente de Espana y Generalmente Desgraciadas Nuestras Empresas y que Lo Seran Mientras No se Tomen Otras Disposiciones Borzas 28 November 1772 cited in Jose Terton Ponce La Casaca y la Toga Luces y sombras de la reforma militar en el reinado de Carlos III Archived 2014 07 07 at archive today Institut Menorqui d Estudis Mahon 2011 La campana de Portugal en 1762 pp 11 21 Archived 29 January 2016 at the Wayback Machine p 21 Cited in Jose Terton Ponce La Casaca y la Toga Luces y sombras de la reforma militar en el reinado de Carlos III Archived 2014 07 07 at archive today Institut Menorqui d Estudis Mahon 2011 Chapter 2 La campana de Portugal en 1762 pp 11 21 Archived 2014 07 14 at the Wayback Machine p 21 Cornide Jose published by Juan M Rosario Cebrian Los Viajes de Jose Cornide por Espana y Portugal de 1754 a 1801 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Real Academia de la Historia Madrid 2009 pp 847 848 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Dziembowski Edmond La Guerre de Sept Ans 1756 1763 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Perrin Ministere de la Defense 2015 subchapter La France et l Espagne Jouent et Perdent in chapter 13 electronic book without numbered pages But this Spanish navy beaten everywhere allows the British conquest of the Antilles part of the Philippines and even Belle Isle en Mer On land defeat in Portugal the fateful pact did nothing but aggravate the situation already so disastrous In Lauvriere Emile Histoire de Louisiane Francaise 1673 1939 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine G P Maisonneuve 1940 p 395 Spain s Charles III following the military episode with Portugal was increasingly reluctant to risk repeating his misfortunes of 1762 63 he wanted to have peace until the end of his reign In Brecher Frank W Securing American Independence John Jay and the French Alliance Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Praeger Publishers USA 2003 pp 50 51 Ponce Jose Luis Terron Ejercito y Politica en La Espana de Carlos III Archived 2014 07 07 at archive today vol 37 de Collection Adalid Ministerio de Defensa Secretaria General Tecnica 1997 p 23 or page 5 la desastrosa expedicion contra Portugal Pesquisa Google Archived from the original on 14 August 2021 Retrieved 5 October 2014 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint bot original URL status unknown link of chapter La Monarquia Militar part I El Hecho Militar Durante El Reinado De Carlos III La Situacion del Ejercito Y Su Reforma in the electronic edition for it was from the trauma and humiliation suffered in the conflict that the third of its Bourbon kings Charles III and his ministers derived the sense of purpose and direction required for the formulation and implementation of the all embracing process of modernization which historians refer to as the Bourbon reforms In Fisher John Robert Bourbon Peru 1750 1824 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Liverpool University Press UK 2003 p 28 Archived 4 April 2017 at the Wayback Machine Carnota John Smith A The Marquis of Pombal Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine 2nd edition Longmans Green Reader and Dyer London 1871 p 182 Archived 8 June 2018 at the Wayback Machine Abbot Beliardi the agent of Choiseul at Madrid writing on 18 October 1762 news of the taking of Havana has gravely upset the Spanish nation there is no consolation for the irreparable loss of one third of Spain s naval forces surrendered without a cannon shot In Stein Stanley and Stein Barbara Apogee of Empire Spain and New Spain in the Age of Charles III 1759 1789 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Johns Hopkins University Press 2004 chapter Imperiled Colonies and Spain s Response Urdanez Jose Luis Gomez Victimas Ilustradas del Despotismo El Conde de Superunda Culpable y Reo ante el Conde de Aranda Archived 14 July 2014 at the Wayback Machine Universidad de la Rioja 2009 pp 14 15 part of the investigation project El Imperio Espanol Desde la Decadencia a la Espana Discreta HAR 2009 13824 700 regular infantry troops 200 dragoons 1 800 militiamen and 1200 Indians See Marley David Wars of the Americas a chronology of armed conflict in the New World 1492 to the present vol II ABC CLIO USA 2008 p 441 The 400 Portuguese infantry men 40 troopers 32 gunners 230 militiamen are reinforced from Rio de Janeiro by a 10 ship convoy although conveying only 65 soldiers in Marley David Wars of the Americas a chronology of armed conflict in the New World 1492 to the present Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine vol II ABC CLIO USA 2008 p 441 442 Archived 18 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine and the taking of Sacramento to the Portuguese with the capture of 27 richly loaded English ships In Altamira Rafael Historia de Espana y de la Civilizacion Espanola Libreria de Juan Gili 1911 p 52 Portuguese colonel Osorio built a small fort which he called Santa Teresa where he took shelter with 400 men and little artillery January 1763 Next April Ceballos who had gathered in Maldonado a well provisioned army of more than 3 000 men with much artillery invested the Lusitanian position After a weak resistance Osorio surrendered with the remaining 130 men All the other had deserted In Instituto Historico e Geografico do Rio Grande do Sul Revista do Instituto Historico e Geografico do Rio Grande do Sul Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Edicoes 132 134 Brazil 1998 p 12 Marley David Wars of the Americas a chronology of armed conflict in the New World 1492 to the present with 400 men of the Dragoon Regiment of rio Pardo Pesquisa Google Archived from the original on 14 August 2021 Retrieved 18 February 2015 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint bot original URL status unknown link vol II ABC CLIO USA 2008 p 441 Archived 18 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine Four days later the small fort of San Miguel fell into the hands of Cevallos abandoned by the garrison of 30 men which stayed there under cap Joao Teixeira In Instituto Historico e Geografico do Rio Grande do Sul Revista do Instituto Historico e Geografico do Rio Grande do Sul Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Edicoes 132 134 Brazil 1998 p 12 In the whole region of the Rio Grande the Portuguese government did not have more than 1 000 soldiers including regular and militia troops spread over several trims In Instituto Historico e Geografico do Rio Grande do Sul Revista do Instituto Historico e Geografico do Rio Grande do Sul Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Edicoes 132 134 Brazil 1998 p 12 In this race for the Rio Grande territory the border of Rio Pardo was the only one who resisted the Spanish invasion thanks to Barreto Pereira Pinto courage and above all Francisco Pinto Bandeira which shattered the army of captain Antonio Cattani on January 1 1763 Pinto Bandeira with only 230 dragoons and adventurers of St Paul fell like a hurricane over the 2 500 enemy soldiers Never saw this territory such a stampede Cattani s troops disbanded in panic The commander no time to put on the uniform fled in underwear In Barbosa Fidelis D Historia do Rio Grande do Sul Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Edicoes Est 4th edition Porto Alegre 1976 p 60 Archived 18 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine While the Spanish army advanced along the coast fully reaching their goals another enemy column consisting of five hundred militiamen from the Corrientes Province and about 2 000 Guaranis came from the Misiones Orientales against Rio Pardo under lieutenant colonel Antonio Cattani and fortified next to the stream of Santa Barbara in Vellinho Moyses Fronteira Editora Globo 1975 p 105 Branco Jose Obras do Barao do Rio Branco Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine vol VI Ministerio das Relacoes exteriores Brazil p 3 Archived 18 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine Flores Moacyr Dicionario de historia do Brasil Edipucrs 2004 p 80 ISBN 9788574302096 Galdos Benito Guerra de la Independencia Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine vol I Algaba Ediciones Madrid 2008 pp 427 428 Bibliography edit Articles Arenas Mar Garcia Los Proyectos del General Dumouriez Sobre la Invasion de Portugal in El Equilibrio de los Imperios de Utrecht a Trafalgar Archived 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine Actas de la VIII Reunion Cientifica de la Fundacion Espanola de Historia Moderna Madrid 2 4 de Junio de 2004 vol II Fundacion Espanola de Historia Moderna published in 2005 pp 537 550 Bento Claudio Moreira Rafael Pinto Bandeira in O Tuiuti Archived 22 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine Nº 95 Academia de Historia Militar Terrestre do Brasil 2013 Francis Alan David The Campaign in Portugal 1762 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine in Journal of the Society of Army Historical Research Archived 8 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine Vol 59 nr 237 pp 25 43 Society of Army Historical Research London 1981 Urdanez Jose Luis Gomez Victimas Ilustradas del Despotismo El Conde de Superunda Culpable y Reo ante el Conde de Aranda Archived 14 July 2014 at the Wayback Machine Universidad de la Rioja 2009 part of the investigation project El Imperio Espanol Desde la Decadencia a la Espana Discreta HAR 2009 13824 Books Barrento Antonio Guerra Fantastica 1762 Portugal o Conde de Lippe e a Guerra dos Sete Anos Archived 8 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine Lisboa Tribuna 2006 Bento Claudio Moreira Brasil conflitos externos 1500 1945 Archived 14 January 2012 at the Wayback Machine electronic version Academia de Historia Militar Terrestre do Brasil chapter 5 As guerras no Sul 1763 77 Chagas Manuel Pinheiro Historia de Portugal vol VII Lisboa 1902 Costa Fernando Dores Coordinator Antonio Hespanha Nova Historia Militar de Portugal Archived 20 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine vol II Circulo de Leitores 2004 ISBN 9789724230719 Coxe William Espana Bajo el Reinado de la Casa de Borbon Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Tome IV Establecimiento Tipografico Madrid 1847 Daehnhardt Rainer Segredos da Historia Luso Alema Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Lisboa Publicacoes Quipu 1998 ISBN 9728408072 Dellon Gabriel and other authors Portugal nos Seculos Dezassete e Dezoito Quatro Testemunhos Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Lisoptima Edicoes 1989 ISBN 9789729394027 Dumouriez Charles An Account of Portugal as it Appeared in 1766 to Dumouriez Archived 7 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine Lausanne 1775 and London 1797 Dziembowski Edmond La Guerre de Sept Ans 1756 1763 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Perrin Ministere de la Defense 2015 electronic book without numbered pages Francis Alan David Portugal 1715 1808 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Tamesis Books Limited London 1985 Gipson Lawrence The British Empire before the American Revolution the great war for the Empire the culmination 1760 1763 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Vol VIII Knopf 1954 Hull Anthony H Charles III and the revival of Spain University Press of America 1980 ISBN 978 0 8191 1022 0 Langer William Leonard The Rise of Modern Europe A Survey of European History in Its Political Economic and Cultural Aspects from the End of the Middle Ages to the Present Archived 7 May 2021 at the Wayback Machine Vol 9 Harper amp Row 1936 Lesser Ricardo Las Origenes de la Argentina Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Editorial Biblos 2003 chapter El desastre Archived 22 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine pp 63 72 Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Madariaga Salvador de The fall of the Spanish American empire Greenwood Press 1975 ISBN 978 0 8371 8267 4 Marley David Wars of the Americas a chronology of armed conflict in the New World 1492 to the present Archived 7 May 2021 at the Wayback Machine vol II ABC CLIO USA 2008 Mourinho Antonio Invasao de Tras os Montes e das Beiras na Guerra dos Sete Anos Pelos Exercitos Bourbonicos em 1762 atraves da Correspondencia Oficial Series II Vol 31 Anais da Academia Portuguesa de Historia Lisboa 1986 Ortiz Altagracia Eighteenth Century Reforms in the Caribbean Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press 1983 ISBN 9780838630082 Petrie Sir Charles King Charles III of Spain Constable 1971 a, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,
