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Space ethics

December 04, 2023

Space ethics, astroethics or astrobioethics[1] is a discipline of applied ethics that discusses the moral and ethical implications arising from astrobiological research, space exploration and space flight.[2] It deals with practical contemporary issues like the protection of the space environment[3] and hypothetical future issues pertaining to our interaction with extraterrestrial life forms.

Specific issues of space ethics include space debris mitigation and the militarization of space, but also more theoretical topics like space colonization,[4] terraforming and space mining. The field also concerns itself with more fundamental moral questions, such as the ethicality of SETI and METI, the intrinsic value of extraterrestrial life, and how humans should treat extraterrestrial non-intelligent life (like microbes) and extraterrestrial intelligent life (and whether this distinction should be made in the first place).

Astroethical issues are often discussed as elements of broader issues such as general environmental protection and imperialism.[5] Astroethics have been described as an emerging discipline gaining in attention, a "necessity for astrobiology" and a "true issue for the future of astrobiology".[1]

Ethical guidelines for space exploration edit

Planetary Protection edit

Main article: Planetary protection

A guiding principle in astroethics is that of Planetary Protection (PP), which seeks to prevent the introduction of lifeforms from Earth to other celestial bodies (forward contamination)[6] and vice versa (back contamination), and thereby possible adverse consequences on existing ecospheres resulting from such contamination. This principle is anchored in the UN Outer Space Treaty, which was established in 1967 and has since been signed and ratified by all space-faring nations.

Precautionary Principle edit

Main article: Precautionary principle

The precautionary principle was defined in the 1998 Wingspread Conference on the Precautionary Principle. This approach is supposed to guide decisions in the face of a lack of scientific knowledge or consensus on a matter. In a 2010 COSPAR workshop at Princeton University, 26 experts embraced the precautionary principle and concluded that "further investigations before interference that is likely to be harmful to Earth and other extraterrestrial bodies, including extraterrestrial life and the contamination and disturbance of celestial environments", are to be conducted.[7]

Other Astroethical Principles for SETI edit

SETI astrobiologist Margaret Race and Methodist theologian Richard Randolph have outlined 4 principles for the search for extra-terrestrial life within our solar system:[8]

  1. Cause no harm to Earth, its life, or its diverse ecosystems.
  2. Respect the ecosystem on the surveyed celestial body, do not irreparably alter it or its evolutionary trajectory.
  3. Follow proper scientific procedures with honesty and integrity during all phases of exploration.
  4. Ensure international participation by all interested parties.

Astroethical Issues edit

A wide range of concrete issues is discussed in astroethics. Some of them are adumbrated in the following paragraphs.

Space Debris edit

Millions of pieces of space debris, defunct artificial objects in space, are orbiting Earth.[9] On average, one cataloged piece of space debris falls back onto the planet every day, potentially posing a risk to organisms and property.[10] In total, an estimated 80 tons of space debris re-enter Earth's atmosphere every year. Due to the high friction with the atmospheric gases, the debris burns up, causing the release of its chemical components, which may contribute to atmospheric pollution and ozone depletion.[11] Additionally, space debris still orbiting Earth can damage satellites and spacecraft due to its[clarification needed] high velocity of 18,000 mph (approximately 29,000 km/h).[9] This could pose a threat to the lives of astronauts on manned missions and lead to the Kessler syndrome, where a collision of objects in space produces new fragments of space debris that could set off a chain reaction of more collisions. This could render the space around Earth untraversable for space missions and unsuitable for the use of satellites.

As of March 2022, there are no legally binding international laws about who is responsible for the extraction of space debris, or mandating a reduction of new space debris brought into Earth's orbit.[12] However, space agencies of several countries have implemented their own standards and policies to reduce introduction of new space debris, and the Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee (IADC) has been founded to address issues regarding orbital debris.[10] Additionally, JAXA is researching an electromagnetic tether that could be used to pull debris down into the atmosphere.[13]

The moral problem is that those in power (space agencies) can launch material into the Earth's orbit for their own gains without being held accountable for it, while the general public has to bear the consequences (such as atmospheric pollution or the risk of being hit by space debris).[2]

Satellite surveillance edit

Reconnaissance satellites are used for a variety of military and intelligence purposes, such as optical imaging and signals intelligence. It has been noted that such data could infringe on people's privacy and thereby lead to ethical and legal issues. It could also turn into a source of national security threats if such information got into malevolent hands.[14] In order to ensure ethically correct obtainment and use of satellite data, leading researchers in law, meteorology and atmospheric science have called for new policy which would lead to more transparency and security.[14]

Weaponizing space edit

In 1967, the Outer Space Treaty was signed, spurred by the development of intercontinental ballistic missiles, the Soviet Union's launch of Sputnik, the first artificial satellite, and the following arms race with the United States. The treaty outlaws all kinds of military action (including weapon tests) in space, limits the use of space to peaceful purposes only and ensures that all nations on Earth are free to explore space.

This treaty has since been called into question multiple times, especially by former President of the United States Donald Trump. On June 18, 2018, Trump announced plans to establish a space force, which would constitute a new, sixth branch of the United States military.[15] He expressed that "When it comes to defending America, it is not enough to merely have an American presence in space. We must have American dominance in space".[16] On December 20, 2019, the United States Space Force Act was signed into law with votes from both Democratic and Republican senators and House members.[17] As a result, the United States Space Force was founded.

This was seen by some as an American contestation of the Outer Space Treaty. Viktor Bondarev, chair of the Federation Council Committee on Defense and Security,[18] responded by saying that if the US were to go further and withdraw from the 1967 treaty, there would be "a tough response aimed at ensuring world security."[19] This is despite Russia itself having a space force branch in their military.

Private spaceflight and space tourism edit

The emergence of space tourism gives rise to a number of ethical concerns. Future frequent and large-scale landings on celestial bodies like the moon may damage or pollute landing sites and the areas around them. While scientific activity in space is benign, this cannot be guaranteed for actions by private people. If, how, by what criteria and by whom laws should be made to ensure that space tourism doesn't negatively impact other celestial bodies is a question of astroethics.

Terraforming other celestial bodies edit

Main article: Ethics of terraforming

Terraforming is a controversial astroethical matter. Proponents of terraforming, like Robert Zubrin, argue that humans, being the only technologically advanced and intelligent species on Earth, have a moral obligation to make other celestial bodies habitable for Earth's lifeforms to ensure their survival after the inevitable destruction of our planet.[20] The other, ecocentrist and biocentrist side of the debate criticizes this position as anthropocentrism and argues that other celestial bodies may already contain life which always has intrinsic value, no matter how advanced it may be. They oppose the interplanetary contamination and changes to the other world that would stem from terraforming, as they could endanger the indigenous life and alter its evolutionary trajectory.

Ethicality of SETI and METI edit

Main article: Active SETI § Controvery

SETI and especially METI (Active SETI) are not uncontroversial and come with their own ethical implications. METI has been criticized as incompatible with the precautionary principle because it could reveal the location of our planet to potentially malevolent alien species. It therefore also potentially puts all of humanity at risk without the need for their individual prior consent, which violates the basic scientific rule of informed consent that all other science must abide by.[21] Reflecting on human history, some authors even fear the enslavement of humanity, should we be discovered by a more advanced species.[2] Similarly, Stephen Hawking, one of the most prominent METI critics, warned of the potential consequences of a meeting with such a species, citing the near-extinction of Aboriginal Tasmanians as an equivalent case from human history.[22]

Concerns regarding the ethicality of METI might be a solution to the Fermi paradox. It is proposed that extraterrestrial life forms may abstain from attempting interstellar communication due to the potential danger it may pose to them, in line with the precautionary principle.[22]

Other astroethical considerations regarding METI are the lack of legally enforceable protocols about the steps that should be taken once extraterrestrial life is discovered,[23] the unpredictability of cultural consequences of that discovery (potential paradigm changes in policy, nations, religions, etc.)[24], who will get to speak for humanity in case contact is made, how and by whom that person or group of people should be selected, and what the contents of the messages should be.

Value of extraterrestrial life edit

A further point of contention in the field is whether extraterrestrial life has intrinsic value and therefore if humans have a moral obligation to protect it. This becomes even more difficult when considering the wide span of possible extraterrestrial life forms and whether our treatment of them should differ based on criteria such as their advancement and intelligence. As former NASA chief historian Steven J. Dick put it, "Does Mars belong to the Martians, even if the Martians are only microbes?"[23] Dick argues that the first step in deciding how we should interact with life forms is to assess their moral status, which is complicated by our ambiguous relations with animals on earth, sheltering some species as pets while eating and exterminating others.[23] The principle of planetary protection provides that all life on other celestial bodies is worthy of protection from harm (in the form of contamination) and therefore confers rights even on hypothetical extraterrestrial microbes, a situation that contrasts with our treatment of microbes and even many other organisms on Earth. This difference in treatment is hardly justifiable. Therefore, according to Dick, astroethical considerations will broaden our current ethical horizon: they will unveil such inconsistencies and double standards and move humanity from an anthropocentric ethic (ascribing intrinsic value only to rationing beings) to a cosmocentric or biocentric one that values all living things. In fact, Dick says that the finding of extraterrestrial life would "necessitate" a transition away from the anthropocentric approach because it would no longer be consistently applicable to a cosmos that harbors life beyond Earth.[23]

References edit

  1. ^ a b Chon-Torres, Octavio A. (2017-04-10). "Astrobioethics". International Journal of Astrobiology. 17 (1): 51–56. doi:10.1017/S1473550417000064. ISSN 1473-5504. S2CID 232248384.
  2. ^ a b c "Astroethics | Encyclopedia". encyclopedia.pub. Retrieved 2021-12-20.
  3. ^ Williamson, Mark (2003-02-01). "Space ethics and protection of the space environment". Space Policy. 19 (1): 47–52. doi:10.1016/S0265-9646(02)00064-4. ISSN 0265-9646. Retrieved 2022-03-28.
  4. ^ Dirks, Nicholas (2021-08-06). "The Ethics of Sending Humans to Mars". Scientific American. Retrieved 2022-10-15.
  5. ^ Vidaurri, Monica (2019-10-24). "Will people go to space—and then colonize it?". Quartz. Retrieved 2022-03-28.
  6. ^ Marshall, Alan (1993). "Ethics and the Extraterrestrial Environment". Journal of Applied Philosophy. 10 (2): 227–236. doi:10.1111/j.1468-5930.1993.tb00078.x. ISSN 0264-3758.
  7. ^ Rummel, J.D.; Race, M.S.; Horneck, G. (November 2012). "Ethical Considerations for Planetary Protection in Space Exploration: A Workshop". Astrobiology. 12 (11): 1017–1023. doi:10.1089/ast.2012.0891. ISSN 1531-1074. PMC 3698687. PMID 23095097.
  8. ^ "Planets and Life: The Emerging Science of Astrobiology". Higher Education from Cambridge University Press. 2007-09-13. doi:10.1017/cbo9780511812958.026. Retrieved 2021-12-20.
  9. ^ a b Keeter, Bill (2018-12-05). "Space Debris". NASA. Retrieved 2021-12-20.
  10. ^ a b "ARES | Orbital Debris Program Office Frequently Asked Questions". orbitaldebris.jsc.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2021-12-20.
  11. ^ "How Does Space Debris Impact Earth's Environment And Atmosphere?". Science ABC. 2019-05-03. Retrieved 2023-05-23.
  12. ^ "Who is Going to Take Out the Trash? - Addressing Space Debris under International Law". Public International Law & Policy Group. 2022-03-14. Retrieved 2023-05-23.
  13. ^ "JAXA | Joint demonstration of J-SPARC initiated by ALE and JAXA, aimed at the commercialization of space debris prevention device". JAXA | Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency. Retrieved 2021-12-20.
  14. ^ a b Swayne, Matt; University, Pennsylvania State. "Researchers detail privacy-related legal, ethical challenges with satellite data". phys.org. Retrieved 2021-12-20.
  15. ^ "Trump directs establishment of U.S. force to dominate space". Reuters. 2018-06-18. Retrieved 2023-05-23.
  16. ^ "The Trump Administration Is Establishing the United States Space Command to Advance American Interests and Defend Our Nation – The White House". trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov. Retrieved 2023-05-23.
  17. ^ Gould, Joe (2019-12-17). "Congress adopts defense bill that creates Space Force". Defense News. Retrieved 2023-05-23.
  18. ^ "Committees". Federation Council of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation. Retrieved 2023-05-23.
  19. ^ . 2018-11-05. Archived from the original on 2018-11-05. Retrieved 2023-05-23.
  20. ^ Robert Zubrin, The Case for Mars: The Plan to Settle the Red Planet and Why We Must, pp. 248-249, Simon & Schuster/Touchstone, 1996, ISBN 0-684-83550-9
  21. ^ Traphagan, John W. (2019-01-02). "Active SETI and the Problem of Research Ethics". Theology and Science. 17 (1): 69–78. doi:10.1080/14746700.2019.1557806. ISSN 1474-6700. S2CID 172004039.
  22. ^ a b A. Vakoch, Douglas (2017-04-03). "Hawking's fear of an alien invasion may explain the Fermi Paradox". Theology and Science. 15 (2): 134–138. doi:10.1080/14746700.2017.1299380. ISSN 1474-6700. S2CID 219627161.
  23. ^ a b c d Dick, Steven J. "Astroethics and Cosmocentrism". Scientific American Blog Network. Retrieved 2023-05-23.
  24. ^ Dick, Steven J. (2012-10-18). "Critical Issues in the History, Philosophy, and Sociology of Astrobiology". Astrobiology. 12 (10): 906–927. doi:10.1089/ast.2011.0786. ISSN 1531-1074.

See also edit

December 04, 2023
space, ethics, astroethics, astrobioethics, discipline, applied, ethics, that, discusses, moral, ethical, implications, arising, from, astrobiological, research, space, exploration, space, flight, deals, with, practical, contemporary, issues, like, protection,. Space ethics astroethics or astrobioethics 1 is a discipline of applied ethics that discusses the moral and ethical implications arising from astrobiological research space exploration and space flight 2 It deals with practical contemporary issues like the protection of the space environment 3 and hypothetical future issues pertaining to our interaction with extraterrestrial life forms Specific issues of space ethics include space debris mitigation and the militarization of space but also more theoretical topics like space colonization 4 terraforming and space mining The field also concerns itself with more fundamental moral questions such as the ethicality of SETI and METI the intrinsic value of extraterrestrial life and how humans should treat extraterrestrial non intelligent life like microbes and extraterrestrial intelligent life and whether this distinction should be made in the first place Astroethical issues are often discussed as elements of broader issues such as general environmental protection and imperialism 5 Astroethics have been described as an emerging discipline gaining in attention a necessity for astrobiology and a true issue for the future of astrobiology 1 Contents 1 Ethical guidelines for space exploration 1 1 Planetary Protection 1 2 Precautionary Principle 1 3 Other Astroethical Principles for SETI 2 Astroethical Issues 2 1 Space Debris 2 2 Satellite surveillance 2 3 Weaponizing space 2 4 Private spaceflight and space tourism 2 5 Terraforming other celestial bodies 2 6 Ethicality of SETI and METI 2 7 Value of extraterrestrial life 3 References 4 See alsoEthical guidelines for space exploration editPlanetary Protection edit Main article Planetary protection A guiding principle in astroethics is that of Planetary Protection PP which seeks to prevent the introduction of lifeforms from Earth to other celestial bodies forward contamination 6 and vice versa back contamination and thereby possible adverse consequences on existing ecospheres resulting from such contamination This principle is anchored in the UN Outer Space Treaty which was established in 1967 and has since been signed and ratified by all space faring nations Precautionary Principle edit Main article Precautionary principle The precautionary principle was defined in the 1998 Wingspread Conference on the Precautionary Principle This approach is supposed to guide decisions in the face of a lack of scientific knowledge or consensus on a matter In a 2010 COSPAR workshop at Princeton University 26 experts embraced the precautionary principle and concluded that further investigations before interference that is likely to be harmful to Earth and other extraterrestrial bodies including extraterrestrial life and the contamination and disturbance of celestial environments are to be conducted 7 Other Astroethical Principles for SETI edit SETI astrobiologist Margaret Race and Methodist theologian Richard Randolph have outlined 4 principles for the search for extra terrestrial life within our solar system 8 Cause no harm to Earth its life or its diverse ecosystems Respect the ecosystem on the surveyed celestial body do not irreparably alter it or its evolutionary trajectory Follow proper scientific procedures with honesty and integrity during all phases of exploration Ensure international participation by all interested parties Astroethical Issues editA wide range of concrete issues is discussed in astroethics Some of them are adumbrated in the following paragraphs Space Debris edit Millions of pieces of space debris defunct artificial objects in space are orbiting Earth 9 On average one cataloged piece of space debris falls back onto the planet every day potentially posing a risk to organisms and property 10 In total an estimated 80 tons of space debris re enter Earth s atmosphere every year Due to the high friction with the atmospheric gases the debris burns up causing the release of its chemical components which may contribute to atmospheric pollution and ozone depletion 11 Additionally space debris still orbiting Earth can damage satellites and spacecraft due to its clarification needed high velocity of 18 000 mph approximately 29 000 km h 9 This could pose a threat to the lives of astronauts on manned missions and lead to the Kessler syndrome where a collision of objects in space produces new fragments of space debris that could set off a chain reaction of more collisions This could render the space around Earth untraversable for space missions and unsuitable for the use of satellites As of March 2022 there are no legally binding international laws about who is responsible for the extraction of space debris or mandating a reduction of new space debris brought into Earth s orbit 12 However space agencies of several countries have implemented their own standards and policies to reduce introduction of new space debris and the Inter Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee IADC has been founded to address issues regarding orbital debris 10 Additionally JAXA is researching an electromagnetic tether that could be used to pull debris down into the atmosphere 13 The moral problem is that those in power space agencies can launch material into the Earth s orbit for their own gains without being held accountable for it while the general public has to bear the consequences such as atmospheric pollution or the risk of being hit by space debris 2 Satellite surveillance edit Reconnaissance satellites are used for a variety of military and intelligence purposes such as optical imaging and signals intelligence It has been noted that such data could infringe on people s privacy and thereby lead to ethical and legal issues It could also turn into a source of national security threats if such information got into malevolent hands 14 In order to ensure ethically correct obtainment and use of satellite data leading researchers in law meteorology and atmospheric science have called for new policy which would lead to more transparency and security 14 Weaponizing space edit In 1967 the Outer Space Treaty was signed spurred by the development of intercontinental ballistic missiles the Soviet Union s launch of Sputnik the first artificial satellite and the following arms race with the United States The treaty outlaws all kinds of military action including weapon tests in space limits the use of space to peaceful purposes only and ensures that all nations on Earth are free to explore space This treaty has since been called into question multiple times especially by former President of the United States Donald Trump On June 18 2018 Trump announced plans to establish a space force which would constitute a new sixth branch of the United States military 15 He expressed that When it comes to defending America it is not enough to merely have an American presence in space We must have American dominance in space 16 On December 20 2019 the United States Space Force Act was signed into law with votes from both Democratic and Republican senators and House members 17 As a result the United States Space Force was founded This was seen by some as an American contestation of the Outer Space Treaty Viktor Bondarev chair of the Federation Council Committee on Defense and Security 18 responded by saying that if the US were to go further and withdraw from the 1967 treaty there would be a tough response aimed at ensuring world security 19 This is despite Russia itself having a space force branch in their military Private spaceflight and space tourism edit The emergence of space tourism gives rise to a number of ethical concerns Future frequent and large scale landings on celestial bodies like the moon may damage or pollute landing sites and the areas around them While scientific activity in space is benign this cannot be guaranteed for actions by private people If how by what criteria and by whom laws should be made to ensure that space tourism doesn t negatively impact other celestial bodies is a question of astroethics Terraforming other celestial bodies edit Main article Ethics of terraforming Terraforming is a controversial astroethical matter Proponents of terraforming like Robert Zubrin argue that humans being the only technologically advanced and intelligent species on Earth have a moral obligation to make other celestial bodies habitable for Earth s lifeforms to ensure their survival after the inevitable destruction of our planet 20 The other ecocentrist and biocentrist side of the debate criticizes this position as anthropocentrism and argues that other celestial bodies may already contain life which always has intrinsic value no matter how advanced it may be They oppose the interplanetary contamination and changes to the other world that would stem from terraforming as they could endanger the indigenous life and alter its evolutionary trajectory Ethicality of SETI and METI edit Main article Active SETI Controvery SETI and especially METI Active SETI are not uncontroversial and come with their own ethical implications METI has been criticized as incompatible with the precautionary principle because it could reveal the location of our planet to potentially malevolent alien species It therefore also potentially puts all of humanity at risk without the need for their individual prior consent which violates the basic scientific rule of informed consent that all other science must abide by 21 Reflecting on human history some authors even fear the enslavement of humanity should we be discovered by a more advanced species 2 Similarly Stephen Hawking one of the most prominent METI critics warned of the potential consequences of a meeting with such a species citing the near extinction of Aboriginal Tasmanians as an equivalent case from human history 22 Concerns regarding the ethicality of METI might be a solution to the Fermi paradox It is proposed that extraterrestrial life forms may abstain from attempting interstellar communication due to the potential danger it may pose to them in line with the precautionary principle 22 Other astroethical considerations regarding METI are the lack of legally enforceable protocols about the steps that should be taken once extraterrestrial life is discovered 23 the unpredictability of cultural consequences of that discovery potential paradigm changes in policy nations religions etc 24 who will get to speak for humanity in case contact is made how and by whom that person or group of people should be selected and what the contents of the messages should be Value of extraterrestrial life edit A further point of contention in the field is whether extraterrestrial life has intrinsic value and therefore if humans have a moral obligation to protect it This becomes even more difficult when considering the wide span of possible extraterrestrial life forms and whether our treatment of them should differ based on criteria such as their advancement and intelligence As former NASA chief historian Steven J Dick put it Does Mars belong to the Martians even if the Martians are only microbes 23 Dick argues that the first step in deciding how we should interact with life forms is to assess their moral status which is complicated by our ambiguous relations with animals on earth sheltering some species as pets while eating and exterminating others 23 The principle of planetary protection provides that all life on other celestial bodies is worthy of protection from harm in the form of contamination and therefore confers rights even on hypothetical extraterrestrial microbes a situation that contrasts with our treatment of microbes and even many other organisms on Earth This difference in treatment is hardly justifiable Therefore according to Dick astroethical considerations will broaden our current ethical horizon they will unveil such inconsistencies and double standards and move humanity from an anthropocentric ethic ascribing intrinsic value only to rationing beings to a cosmocentric or biocentric one that values all living things In fact Dick says that the finding of extraterrestrial life would necessitate a transition away from the anthropocentric approach because it would no longer be consistently applicable to a cosmos that harbors life beyond Earth 23 References edit a b Chon Torres Octavio A 2017 04 10 Astrobioethics International Journal of Astrobiology 17 1 51 56 doi 10 1017 S1473550417000064 ISSN 1473 5504 S2CID 232248384 a b c Astroethics Encyclopedia encyclopedia pub Retrieved 2021 12 20 Williamson Mark 2003 02 01 Space ethics and protection of the space environment Space Policy 19 1 47 52 doi 10 1016 S0265 9646 02 00064 4 ISSN 0265 9646 Retrieved 2022 03 28 Dirks Nicholas 2021 08 06 The Ethics of Sending Humans to Mars Scientific American Retrieved 2022 10 15 Vidaurri Monica 2019 10 24 Will people go to space and then colonize it Quartz Retrieved 2022 03 28 Marshall Alan 1993 Ethics and the Extraterrestrial Environment Journal of Applied Philosophy 10 2 227 236 doi 10 1111 j 1468 5930 1993 tb00078 x ISSN 0264 3758 Rummel J D Race M S Horneck G November 2012 Ethical Considerations for Planetary Protection in Space Exploration A Workshop Astrobiology 12 11 1017 1023 doi 10 1089 ast 2012 0891 ISSN 1531 1074 PMC 3698687 PMID 23095097 Planets and Life The Emerging Science of Astrobiology Higher Education from Cambridge University Press 2007 09 13 doi 10 1017 cbo9780511812958 026 Retrieved 2021 12 20 a b Keeter Bill 2018 12 05 Space Debris NASA Retrieved 2021 12 20 a b ARES Orbital Debris Program Office Frequently Asked Questions orbitaldebris jsc nasa gov Retrieved 2021 12 20 How Does Space Debris Impact Earth s Environment And Atmosphere Science ABC 2019 05 03 Retrieved 2023 05 23 Who is Going to Take Out the Trash Addressing Space Debris under International Law Public International Law amp Policy Group 2022 03 14 Retrieved 2023 05 23 JAXA Joint demonstration of J SPARC initiated by ALE and JAXA aimed at the commercialization of space debris prevention device JAXA Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency Retrieved 2021 12 20 a b Swayne Matt University Pennsylvania State Researchers detail privacy related legal ethical challenges with satellite data phys org Retrieved 2021 12 20 Trump directs establishment of U S force to dominate space Reuters 2018 06 18 Retrieved 2023 05 23 The Trump Administration Is Establishing the United States Space Command to Advance American Interests and Defend Our Nation The White House trumpwhitehouse archives gov Retrieved 2023 05 23 Gould Joe 2019 12 17 Congress adopts defense bill that creates Space Force Defense News Retrieved 2023 05 23 Committees Federation Council of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation Retrieved 2023 05 23 Russia is now talking tough with its Space Force response We Are The Mighty 2018 11 05 Archived from the original on 2018 11 05 Retrieved 2023 05 23 Robert Zubrin The Case for Mars The Plan to Settle the Red Planet and Why We Must pp 248 249 Simon amp Schuster Touchstone 1996 ISBN 0 684 83550 9 Traphagan John W 2019 01 02 Active SETI and the Problem of Research Ethics Theology and Science 17 1 69 78 doi 10 1080 14746700 2019 1557806 ISSN 1474 6700 S2CID 172004039 a b A Vakoch Douglas 2017 04 03 Hawking s fear of an alien invasion may explain the Fermi Paradox Theology and Science 15 2 134 138 doi 10 1080 14746700 2017 1299380 ISSN 1474 6700 S2CID 219627161 a b c d Dick Steven J Astroethics and Cosmocentrism Scientific American Blog Network Retrieved 2023 05 23 Dick Steven J 2012 10 18 Critical Issues in the History Philosophy and Sociology of Astrobiology Astrobiology 12 10 906 927 doi 10 1089 ast 2011 0786 ISSN 1531 1074 See also editEnvironmental ethics Ethics of technology Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Space ethics amp oldid 1181805596, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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