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Somatotype and constitutional psychology

January 01, 1970

"Endomorph" redirects here. For the mathematical concept, see Endomorphism. "Mesomorph" redirects here. For the state of matter, see Mesophase.

Somatotype is a theory proposed in the 1940s by the American psychologist William Herbert Sheldon to categorize the human physique according to the relative contribution of three fundamental elements which he termed somatotypes, classified by him as ectomorphic, mesomorphic, and endomorphic. He created these terms borrowing from the three germ layers of embryonic development: The endoderm, (which develops into the digestive tract), the mesoderm, (which becomes muscle, heart, and blood vessels) and the ectoderm (which forms the skin and nervous system).[1] Later variations of these categories, developed by his original research assistant Barbara Heath, and later by Lindsay Carter and Rob Rempel, are used by academics today.[2][3]

Constitutional psychology is a theory developed by Sheldon in the 1940s, which attempted to associate his somatotype classifications with human temperament types.[4][5] The foundation of these ideas originated with Francis Galton and eugenics.[2] Sheldon and Earnest Hooton were seen as leaders of a school of thought, popular in anthropology at the time, which held that the size and shape of a person's body indicated intelligence, moral worth and future achievement.[2]

In his 1954 book, Atlas of Men, Sheldon categorized all possible body types according to a scale ranging from 1 to 7 for each of the three somatotypes, where the pure endomorph is 7–1–1, the pure mesomorph 1–7–1 and the pure ectomorph scores 1–1–7.[6][7][8] From type number, an individual's mental characteristics could supposedly be predicted.[7] In a late version of a pseudoscientific thread within criminology in which criminality is claimed to be an innate characteristic that can be recognized through particular physiognomic markers (as in Cesare Lombroso's theory of phrenology), Sheldon contended that criminals tended to be 'mesomorphic'.[9] The system of somatotyping is still in use in the field of physical education.[10]

The three types edit

 
Comparison of Sheldon's body types

Sheldon's "somatotypes" and their associated physical and psychological traits were characterized as follows:[3][8][11]

Somatotype Physical traits Psychological traits Notes
Ectomorphic characterized as skinny, weak, and usually tall with low testosterone levels described as intelligent, gentle and calm, but self-conscious, introverted and anxious. [3][6][8][12]
Mesomorphic characterized as naturally hard and strong, with even weight distribution, muscular, thick-skinned, and as having good posture with narrow waist described as competitive, extroverted, and tough. [3][6][8]
Endomorphic     characterized as fat, usually short, and having difficulty losing weight described as outgoing, friendly, happy and laid-back, but also lazy and selfish [3][6][8]

Stereotyping edit

There may be some evidence that different physiques carry cultural stereotypes, as some cultures are more prone to certain physiques. According to one study endomorphs are likely to be perceived as slow, sloppy, and lazy. Mesomorphs, in contrast, are typically stereotyped as popular and hardworking, whereas ectomorphs are often viewed as intelligent yet fearful.[13]

Heath–Carter formula edit

Sheldon's physical taxonomy is still in use, particularly the Heath–Carter variant of the methodology.[14] This formulaic approach utilises an individual's weight (kg), height (cm), upper arm circumference (cm), maximal calf circumference (cm), femur breadth (cm), humerus breadth (cm), triceps skinfold (mm), subscapular skinfold (mm), supraspinal skinfold (mm), and medial calf skinfold (mm), and remains popular in anthropomorphic research, according to Rempel: "with modifications by Parnell in the late 1950s, and by Heath and Carter in the mid 1960s somatotype has continued to be the best single qualifier of total body shape".[15]

This variant utilizes the following series of equations to assess a subject's traits against each of the three somatotypes, each assessed on a seven-point scale, with 0 indicating no correlation and 7 indicating a very strong correlation:

  where: 

 

  • Ectomorphy : Calculate the subject's Ponderal Index:  
    • If  ,  
    • If  ,  
    • If  ,  

This numerical approach has gone on to be incorporated in the current sports science and physical education curriculums of numerous institutions, ranging from the UK's secondary level GCSE curriculums (14- to 16-year-olds), the Indian UPSC Civil Service exams, to MSc programs worldwide, and has been utilized in numerous academic papers, including:

Criticism edit

"The Varieties of Human Physique" by Sheldon et al (1940) classified body types into 3 categories using data processes that would not be accepted by researchers today.[30] Sheldon's ideas that body type was an indicator of temperament, moral character or potential – while popular in an atmosphere accepting of the theories of eugenics – were later disputed.[2][31]

A key criticism of Sheldon's constitutional theory is that it was not a theory at all but a general assumption of continuity between structure and behavior and a set of descriptive concepts to measure physique and behavior in a scaled manner.[3] His use of thousands of photographs of naked Ivy League undergraduates, obtained without explicit consent from a pre-existing program evaluating student posture, has been strongly criticized.[2][32]

While popular in the 1950s,[32] Sheldon's claims have since been dismissed as "quackery".[3][4][33][34][35] Barbara Honeyman Heath, who was Sheldon's main assistant in compiling Atlas of Men, accused him of falsifying the data he used in writing the book.[2]

See also edit

References edit

  1. ^ Hollin, Clive R. (2012). Psychology and Crime: An introduction to criminological psychology. Routledge. p. 59. ISBN 978-0415497039.
  2. ^ a b c d e f Vertinsky, P. (2007). "Physique as destiny: William H. Sheldon, Barbara Honeyman Heath, and the struggle for hegemony in the science of somatotyping". Canadian Bulletin of Medical History. 24 (2): 291–316. doi:10.3138/cbmh.24.2.291. PMID 18447308.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g Roeckelein, Jon E. (1998). "Sheldon's type theory". Dictionary of Theories, Laws, and Concepts in Psychology. Greenwood. pp. 427–428. ISBN 9780313304606.
  4. ^ a b Rafter, N. (2008). "Somatotyping, antimodernism, and the production of criminological knowledge". Criminology. 45 (4): 805–33. doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.2007.00092.x.
  5. ^ "Constitutional Theory". The Penguin Dictionary of Psychology. Penguin Books. 2009. ISBN 9780141030241 – via Credo Reference.
  6. ^ a b c d Mull, Amanda (2018-11-06). "Americans can't escape long-disproven body stereotypes". The Atlantic. Retrieved 2018-12-31.
  7. ^ a b Sheldon, W.H. (1954). Atlas of Men: A guide for somatotyping the adult male at all ages. New York: Harper.
  8. ^ a b c d e Kamlesh, M.L. (2011). "Ch. 15: Personality and sport § Sheldon's constitutional typology". Psychology in the Physical Education and Sport. Pinnacle Technology. ISBN 9781618202482.[permanent dead link]
  9. ^ di Cristina, Bruce; Gottschalk, Martin; Mayzer, Roni (2014). "Four currents of criminological thought". In Bruce Arrigo; Heather Bersot (eds.). The Routledge Handbook of International Crime and Justice Studies. Routledge. pp. 13–15. ISBN 978-1-136-86850-4.
  10. ^ Kathirgamam, Vijayakumar; Ambike, Mandar; Bokan, Raju; Bharambe, Vaishaly; Prasad, Arun (2020-04-15). "Analyzing the effects of exercise prescribed based on health-related fitness assessment among different somatotypes". Journal of Health Sciences. 10 (1): 83–89. doi:10.17532/jhsci.2020.876. ISSN 1986-8049. S2CID 218816659.
  11. ^ Timmermans, Floyd; Jansen, Britt; Mokken, Sterre; Heer, Merel; Veen, Kevin; Bouman, Mark-Bram; Mullender, Margriet; Grift, Tim (2021-02-17). "The ideal location of the male nipple-areolar complex: A pinpointing algorithm". International Journal of Transgender Health. 22 (4): 403–411. doi:10.1080/26895269.2021.1884926. hdl:1765/135046. PMC 10561627. PMID 37818394. S2CID 233928744.
  12. ^ "What is your body type?". 2014-04-24. Retrieved 2018-12-31.
  13. ^ Ryckman, R.M.; Robbins, M.A.; Kaczor, L.M.; Gold, J.A. (1989). "Male and female raters' stereotyping of male and female physiques". Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 15 (2): 244–251. doi:10.1177/0146167289152011. S2CID 145753602.
  14. ^ Norton, Kevin; Olds, Tim (1996). Anthropometrica: A Textbook of Body Measurement for Sports and Health Courses. Australian Sports Commission; UNSW Press. ISBN 978-0868402239.
  15. ^ Rempel, R (1994). A Modified Somatotype Assessment Methodology. Simon Fraser University. ISBN 978-0-612-06785-1.
  16. ^ Kerr, D; Ross, WD; Norton, K; Hume, P; Kagawa, Masaharu (2007). "Olympic Lightweight and Open Rowers possess distinctive physical and proportionality characteristics for selecting elite athletes" (PDF). Journal of Sports Sciences. 25 (1): 43–53. doi:10.1080/02640410600812179. PMID 17127580. S2CID 19851908.
  17. ^ Sánchez-Muñoz, C; Sanz, D; Mikel Zabala, M (November 2007). "Anthropometric characteristics, body composition and somatotype of elite junior tennis players". Br J Sports Med. 41 (11): 793–799. doi:10.1136/bjsm.2007.037119. PMC 2465306. PMID 17957016.
  18. ^ Lewandowska, J; Buśko, K; Pastuszak, A; Boguszewska, K (2011). "Somatotype Variables Related to Muscle Torque and Power in Judoists". Journal of Human Kinetics. 30 (2011): 21–28. doi:10.2478/v10078-011-0069-y. PMC 3588646. PMID 23487284.
  19. ^ Papadopoulou, S (January 2003). de Ridder, H.; Olds, T. (eds.). "Anthropometric characteristics and body composition of Greek elite women volleyball players". Kinanthropometry VII (7 ed.). Pochefstroom University for CHE: 93–110.
  20. ^ Purenović-Ivanović, T; Popović, R (April 2014). "Somatotype of Top-Level Serbian Rhythmic Gymnasts". Journal of Human Kinetics. 40 (1): 181–187. doi:10.2478/hukin-2014-0020. ISSN 1899-7562. PMC 4096098. PMID 25031686.
  21. ^ Irurtia Amigó, Alfredo (2009). "Height, weight, somatotype and body composition in elite Spanish gymnasts from childhood to adulthood". Apunts Med Esport. 61: 18–28.
  22. ^ Petroski (2013). "Anthropometric, morphological and somatotype characteristics of athletes of the Brazilian Men's volleyball team: an 11-year descriptive study". Brazilian Journal of Kineanthropometry & Human Performance. 15 (2): 184.
  23. ^ Leake, Christopher N.; Carter, JE (1991). "Comparison of body composition and somatotype of trained female triathletes". Journal of Sports Sciences. 9 (2): 125–135. doi:10.1080/02640419108729874. PMID 1895351.
  24. ^ Yang, LT (2015). "Study on the adult physique with the Heath-Carter anthropometric somatotype in the Han of Xi'an, China". Anat Sci Int. 91 (2): 180–7. doi:10.1007/s12565-015-0283-0. PMID 25940679. S2CID 29933361.
  25. ^ Baltadjiev, AG (2013). "Somatotype characteristics of female patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus". Folia Med (Plovdiv). 55 (1): 64–9. doi:10.2478/folmed-2013-0007. PMID 23905489. S2CID 45784636.
  26. ^ Baltadjiev, AG (2012). "Somatotype characteristics of male patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus". Folia Med (Plovdiv). 54 (2): 40–5. doi:10.2478/v10153-011-0087-5. PMID 23101284. S2CID 3618307.
  27. ^ Noh; et al. (2013). "Somatotype analysis of elite Taekwondo athletes compared to non-athletes for sports health sciences". Toxicology and Environmental Health Sciences. 5 (4): 189–196. doi:10.1007/s13530-013-0178-1. S2CID 16963270.
  28. ^ Stewarta; et al. (2014). "Somatotype: a more sophisticated approach to body image work with eating disorder sufferers". Advances in Eating Disorders: Theory, Research and Practice. 2 (2): 125–135. doi:10.1080/21662630.2013.874665. S2CID 145547027.
  29. ^ Pourbehzadi; et al. (2012). "The Relationship between Posture and Somatotype and Certain Biomechanical Parameters of Iran Women's National Dragon Boat Team". Annals of Biological Research. 3 (7): 3657–3662.
  30. ^ Maddan, Sean; Walker, Jeffery T.; Miller, J. Mitchell (2009). "The BMI as a somatotypic measure of physique:A rejoinder to Jeremy E.C. Genovese". The Social Science Journal. 46 (2): 394–401. doi:10.1016/j.soscij.2009.04.006. S2CID 144994945.
  31. ^ Vertinsky (2007). "Body type". In Reynolds, Cecil R.; Fletcher-Janzen, Elaine (eds.). Encyclopedia of Special Education: A reference for the education of children, adolescents, and adults with disabilities and other exceptional individuals (3rd ed.). Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley. ISBN 9780471678021. Retrieved 2014-11-20 – via Credo Reference.
  32. ^ a b Rosenbaum, Ron (15 January 1995). "The great ivy league nude posture photo scandal". The New York Times. Retrieved 2 December 2011.
  33. ^ Zentner, Marcel; Shiner, Rebecca L. (2012). Handbook of Tempermaent. Guilford Press. p. 6. ISBN 9781462506514 – via Google Books.
  34. ^ Ryckman, Richard M. (2007). Theories of Personality (9th ed.). Cengage Learning. pp. 260–261. ISBN 9780495099086 – via Google Books.
  35. ^ "Nude photos are sealed at Smithsonian". The New York Times. 21 January 1995. Retrieved 1 December 2011.

Sources edit

  • Gerrig, Richard; Zimbardo, Phillip G. (2002). Psychology and Life (16th ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon. ISBN 0-205-33511-X.
  • Hartl, Emil M.; Monnelly, Edward P.; Elderkin, Roland D. (1982). Physique and Delinquent Behavior (A Thirty-year Follow-up of William H. Sheldon's Varieties of Delinquent Youth). New York: Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-328480-5.

Further reading edit

  • Sheldon, William H. (1942). . New York; London: Harper & Brothers. Archived from the original on 2012-02-24 – via University of Delhi.
  • Carter, J.E. Lindsay; Heath, Barbara Honeyman (1990). Somatotyping-development and Applications. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521351170.
  • Arraj, Tyra; Arraj, James (January 1988). "Ch. 4:William Sheldon's Body and Temperament Types". Tracking the Elusive Human. Vol. I. Midland, OR: Inner Growth. ISBN 0914073168 – via innerexplorations.com.
  • Coughlan, Robert (June 25, 1951). "What manner of morph are you?". Life. Vol. 30, no. 26. pp. 65–79 – via Google Books.

External links edit

January 01, 1970
somatotype, constitutional, psychology, endomorph, redirects, here, mathematical, concept, endomorphism, mesomorph, redirects, here, state, matter, mesophase, this, article, multiple, issues, please, help, improve, discuss, these, issues, talk, page, learn, wh. Endomorph redirects here For the mathematical concept see Endomorphism Mesomorph redirects here For the state of matter see Mesophase This article has multiple issues Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page Learn how and when to remove these template messages This article may lend undue weight to certain ideas incidents or controversies Please help improve it by rewriting it in a balanced fashion that contextualizes different points of view November 2023 Learn how and when to remove this message The examples and perspective in this article may not include all significant viewpoints Please improve the article or discuss the issue November 2023 Learn how and when to remove this message Learn how and when to remove this message Somatotype is a theory proposed in the 1940s by the American psychologist William Herbert Sheldon to categorize the human physique according to the relative contribution of three fundamental elements which he termed somatotypes classified by him as ectomorphic mesomorphic and endomorphic He created these terms borrowing from the three germ layers of embryonic development The endoderm which develops into the digestive tract the mesoderm which becomes muscle heart and blood vessels and the ectoderm which forms the skin and nervous system 1 Later variations of these categories developed by his original research assistant Barbara Heath and later by Lindsay Carter and Rob Rempel are used by academics today 2 3 Constitutional psychology is a theory developed by Sheldon in the 1940s which attempted to associate his somatotype classifications with human temperament types 4 5 The foundation of these ideas originated with Francis Galton and eugenics 2 Sheldon and Earnest Hooton were seen as leaders of a school of thought popular in anthropology at the time which held that the size and shape of a person s body indicated intelligence moral worth and future achievement 2 In his 1954 book Atlas of Men Sheldon categorized all possible body types according to a scale ranging from 1 to 7 for each of the three somatotypes where the pure endomorph is 7 1 1 the pure mesomorph 1 7 1 and the pure ectomorph scores 1 1 7 6 7 8 From type number an individual s mental characteristics could supposedly be predicted 7 In a late version of a pseudoscientific thread within criminology in which criminality is claimed to be an innate characteristic that can be recognized through particular physiognomic markers as in Cesare Lombroso s theory of phrenology Sheldon contended that criminals tended to be mesomorphic 9 The system of somatotyping is still in use in the field of physical education 10 Contents 1 The three types 1 1 Stereotyping 2 Heath Carter formula 3 Criticism 4 See also 5 References 6 Sources 7 Further reading 8 External linksThe three types edit nbsp Comparison of Sheldon s body types Sheldon s somatotypes and their associated physical and psychological traits were characterized as follows 3 8 11 Somatotype Physical traits Psychological traits Notes Ectomorphic characterized as skinny weak and usually tall with low testosterone levels described as intelligent gentle and calm but self conscious introverted and anxious 3 6 8 12 Mesomorphic characterized as naturally hard and strong with even weight distribution muscular thick skinned and as having good posture with narrow waist described as competitive extroverted and tough 3 6 8 Endomorphic characterized as fat usually short and having difficulty losing weight described as outgoing friendly happy and laid back but also lazy and selfish 3 6 8 Stereotyping edit There may be some evidence that different physiques carry cultural stereotypes as some cultures are more prone to certain physiques According to one study endomorphs are likely to be perceived as slow sloppy and lazy Mesomorphs in contrast are typically stereotyped as popular and hardworking whereas ectomorphs are often viewed as intelligent yet fearful 13 Heath Carter formula editSheldon s physical taxonomy is still in use particularly the Heath Carter variant of the methodology 14 This formulaic approach utilises an individual s weight kg height cm upper arm circumference cm maximal calf circumference cm femur breadth cm humerus breadth cm triceps skinfold mm subscapular skinfold mm supraspinal skinfold mm and medial calf skinfold mm and remains popular in anthropomorphic research according to Rempel with modifications by Parnell in the late 1950s and by Heath and Carter in the mid 1960s somatotype has continued to be the best single qualifier of total body shape 15 This variant utilizes the following series of equations to assess a subject s traits against each of the three somatotypes each assessed on a seven point scale with 0 indicating no correlation and 7 indicating a very strong correlation Endomorphy 0 7182 0 145 x 0 00068 x 2 0 0000014 x 3 displaystyle text Endomorphy 0 7182 0 145x 0 00068x 2 0 0000014x 3 nbsp where x tricep skinfold m m subscapular skinfold m m supraspinal skinfold m m 170 18 height c m displaystyle x text tricep skinfold mm text subscapular skinfold mm text supraspinal skinfold mm frac 170 18 text height cm nbsp Mesomorphy 0 858 humerus breadth c m 0 601 femur breadth c m 0 188 upper arm girth c m 0 161 max calf girth c m 0 131 height c m 4 5 displaystyle begin aligned text Mesomorphy amp 0 858 text humerus breadth cm amp 0 601 text femur breadth cm amp 0 188 text upper arm girth cm amp 0 161 text max calf girth cm amp 0 131 text height cm amp 4 5 end aligned nbsp Ectomorphy Calculate the subject s Ponderal Index PI height c m mass k g 1 3 displaystyle text PI frac text height cm text mass kg 1 3 nbsp If P I gt 40 74 displaystyle PI gt 40 74 nbsp Ectomorphy 0 732 P I 28 58 displaystyle text Ectomorphy 0 732 PI 28 58 nbsp If 39 65 lt P I lt 40 74 displaystyle 39 65 lt PI lt 40 74 nbsp Ectomorphy 0 463 P I 17 615 displaystyle text Ectomorphy 0 463 PI 17 615 nbsp If P I lt 39 65 displaystyle PI lt 39 65 nbsp Ectomorphy 0 5 displaystyle text Ectomorphy 0 5 nbsp This numerical approach has gone on to be incorporated in the current sports science and physical education curriculums of numerous institutions ranging from the UK s secondary level GCSE curriculums 14 to 16 year olds the Indian UPSC Civil Service exams to MSc programs worldwide and has been utilized in numerous academic papers including Rowing athletes 16 Tennis athletes 17 Judo athletes 18 Volleyball athletes 19 Gymnasts 20 21 Soccer athletes 22 Triathletes 23 Han people 24 Persons with diabetes 25 26 Taekwondo athletes 27 Persons with eating disorders 28 Dragon boat participants 29 Criticism edit The Varieties of Human Physique by Sheldon et al 1940 classified body types into 3 categories using data processes that would not be accepted by researchers today 30 Sheldon s ideas that body type was an indicator of temperament moral character or potential while popular in an atmosphere accepting of the theories of eugenics were later disputed 2 31 A key criticism of Sheldon s constitutional theory is that it was not a theory at all but a general assumption of continuity between structure and behavior and a set of descriptive concepts to measure physique and behavior in a scaled manner 3 His use of thousands of photographs of naked Ivy League undergraduates obtained without explicit consent from a pre existing program evaluating student posture has been strongly criticized 2 32 While popular in the 1950s 32 Sheldon s claims have since been dismissed as quackery 3 4 33 34 35 Barbara Honeyman Heath who was Sheldon s main assistant in compiling Atlas of Men accused him of falsifying the data he used in writing the book 2 See also editBiological anthropology Biomechanics Body mass index Body shape Eugenics in the United States Female body shape Kinanthropometry Neurobiological effects of physical exercise Physiognomy Physiology SomatologyReferences edit Hollin Clive R 2012 Psychology and Crime An introduction to criminological psychology Routledge p 59 ISBN 978 0415497039 a b c d e f Vertinsky P 2007 Physique as destiny William H Sheldon Barbara Honeyman Heath and the struggle for hegemony in the science of somatotyping Canadian Bulletin of Medical History 24 2 291 316 doi 10 3138 cbmh 24 2 291 PMID 18447308 a b c d e f g Roeckelein Jon E 1998 Sheldon s type theory Dictionary of Theories Laws and Concepts in Psychology Greenwood pp 427 428 ISBN 9780313304606 a b Rafter N 2008 Somatotyping antimodernism and the production of criminological knowledge Criminology 45 4 805 33 doi 10 1111 j 1745 9125 2007 00092 x Constitutional Theory The Penguin Dictionary of Psychology Penguin Books 2009 ISBN 9780141030241 via Credo Reference a b c d Mull Amanda 2018 11 06 Americans can t escape long disproven body stereotypes The Atlantic Retrieved 2018 12 31 a b Sheldon W H 1954 Atlas of Men A guide for somatotyping the adult male at all ages New York Harper a b c d e Kamlesh M L 2011 Ch 15 Personality and sport Sheldon s constitutional typology Psychology in the Physical Education and Sport Pinnacle Technology ISBN 9781618202482 permanent dead link di Cristina Bruce Gottschalk Martin Mayzer Roni 2014 Four currents of criminological thought In Bruce Arrigo Heather Bersot eds The Routledge Handbook of International Crime and Justice Studies Routledge pp 13 15 ISBN 978 1 136 86850 4 Kathirgamam Vijayakumar Ambike Mandar Bokan Raju Bharambe Vaishaly Prasad Arun 2020 04 15 Analyzing the effects of exercise prescribed based on health related fitness assessment among different somatotypes Journal of Health Sciences 10 1 83 89 doi 10 17532 jhsci 2020 876 ISSN 1986 8049 S2CID 218816659 Timmermans Floyd Jansen Britt Mokken Sterre Heer Merel Veen Kevin Bouman Mark Bram Mullender Margriet Grift Tim 2021 02 17 The ideal location of the male nipple areolar complex A pinpointing algorithm International Journal of Transgender Health 22 4 403 411 doi 10 1080 26895269 2021 1884926 hdl 1765 135046 PMC 10561627 PMID 37818394 S2CID 233928744 What is your body type 2014 04 24 Retrieved 2018 12 31 Ryckman R M Robbins M A Kaczor L M Gold J A 1989 Male and female raters stereotyping of male and female physiques Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 15 2 244 251 doi 10 1177 0146167289152011 S2CID 145753602 Norton Kevin Olds Tim 1996 Anthropometrica A Textbook of Body Measurement for Sports and Health Courses Australian Sports Commission UNSW Press ISBN 978 0868402239 Rempel R 1994 A Modified Somatotype Assessment Methodology Simon Fraser University ISBN 978 0 612 06785 1 Kerr D Ross WD Norton K Hume P Kagawa Masaharu 2007 Olympic Lightweight and Open Rowers possess distinctive physical and proportionality characteristics for selecting elite athletes PDF Journal of Sports Sciences 25 1 43 53 doi 10 1080 02640410600812179 PMID 17127580 S2CID 19851908 Sanchez Munoz C Sanz D Mikel Zabala M November 2007 Anthropometric characteristics body composition and somatotype of elite junior tennis players Br J Sports Med 41 11 793 799 doi 10 1136 bjsm 2007 037119 PMC 2465306 PMID 17957016 Lewandowska J Busko K Pastuszak A Boguszewska K 2011 Somatotype Variables Related to Muscle Torque and Power in Judoists Journal of Human Kinetics 30 2011 21 28 doi 10 2478 v10078 011 0069 y PMC 3588646 PMID 23487284 Papadopoulou S January 2003 de Ridder H Olds T eds Anthropometric characteristics and body composition of Greek elite women volleyball players Kinanthropometry VII 7 ed Pochefstroom University for CHE 93 110 Purenovic Ivanovic T Popovic R April 2014 Somatotype of Top Level Serbian Rhythmic Gymnasts Journal of Human Kinetics 40 1 181 187 doi 10 2478 hukin 2014 0020 ISSN 1899 7562 PMC 4096098 PMID 25031686 Irurtia Amigo Alfredo 2009 Height weight somatotype and body composition in elite Spanish gymnasts from childhood to adulthood Apunts Med Esport 61 18 28 Petroski 2013 Anthropometric morphological and somatotype characteristics of athletes of the Brazilian Men s volleyball team an 11 year descriptive study Brazilian Journal of Kineanthropometry amp Human Performance 15 2 184 Leake Christopher N Carter JE 1991 Comparison of body composition and somatotype of trained female triathletes Journal of Sports Sciences 9 2 125 135 doi 10 1080 02640419108729874 PMID 1895351 Yang LT 2015 Study on the adult physique with the Heath Carter anthropometric somatotype in the Han of Xi an China Anat Sci Int 91 2 180 7 doi 10 1007 s12565 015 0283 0 PMID 25940679 S2CID 29933361 Baltadjiev AG 2013 Somatotype characteristics of female patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus Folia Med Plovdiv 55 1 64 9 doi 10 2478 folmed 2013 0007 PMID 23905489 S2CID 45784636 Baltadjiev AG 2012 Somatotype characteristics of male patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus Folia Med Plovdiv 54 2 40 5 doi 10 2478 v10153 011 0087 5 PMID 23101284 S2CID 3618307 Noh et al 2013 Somatotype analysis of elite Taekwondo athletes compared to non athletes for sports health sciences Toxicology and Environmental Health Sciences 5 4 189 196 doi 10 1007 s13530 013 0178 1 S2CID 16963270 Stewarta et al 2014 Somatotype a more sophisticated approach to body image work with eating disorder sufferers Advances in Eating Disorders Theory Research and Practice 2 2 125 135 doi 10 1080 21662630 2013 874665 S2CID 145547027 Pourbehzadi et al 2012 The Relationship between Posture and Somatotype and Certain Biomechanical Parameters of Iran Women s National Dragon Boat Team Annals of Biological Research 3 7 3657 3662 Maddan Sean Walker Jeffery T Miller J Mitchell 2009 The BMI as a somatotypic measure of physique A rejoinder to Jeremy E C Genovese The Social Science Journal 46 2 394 401 doi 10 1016 j soscij 2009 04 006 S2CID 144994945 Vertinsky 2007 Body type In Reynolds Cecil R Fletcher Janzen Elaine eds Encyclopedia of Special Education A reference for the education of children adolescents and adults with disabilities and other exceptional individuals 3rd ed Hoboken N J Wiley ISBN 9780471678021 Retrieved 2014 11 20 via Credo Reference a b Rosenbaum Ron 15 January 1995 The great ivy league nude posture photo scandal The New York Times Retrieved 2 December 2011 Zentner Marcel Shiner Rebecca L 2012 Handbook of Tempermaent Guilford Press p 6 ISBN 9781462506514 via Google Books Ryckman Richard M 2007 Theories of Personality 9th ed Cengage Learning pp 260 261 ISBN 9780495099086 via Google Books Nude photos are sealed at Smithsonian The New York Times 21 January 1995 Retrieved 1 December 2011 Sources editGerrig Richard Zimbardo Phillip G 2002 Psychology and Life 16th ed Boston Allyn and Bacon ISBN 0 205 33511 X Hartl Emil M Monnelly Edward P Elderkin Roland D 1982 Physique and Delinquent Behavior A Thirty year Follow up of William H Sheldon s Varieties of Delinquent Youth New York Academic Press ISBN 0 12 328480 5 Further reading editSheldon William H 1942 The Varieties of Temperament New York London Harper amp Brothers Archived from the original on 2012 02 24 via University of Delhi Carter J E Lindsay Heath Barbara Honeyman 1990 Somatotyping development and Applications Cambridge University Press ISBN 0521351170 Arraj Tyra Arraj James January 1988 Ch 4 William Sheldon s Body and Temperament Types Tracking the Elusive Human Vol I Midland OR Inner Growth ISBN 0914073168 via innerexplorations com Coughlan Robert June 25 1951 What manner of morph are you Life Vol 30 no 26 pp 65 79 via Google Books External links edit Somatotype Encyclopaedia Britannica Online Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Somatotype and constitutional psychology amp oldid 1214423773, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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