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Reappearance of Muhammad al-Mahdi

March 16, 2023

The reappearance of Muhammad al-Mahdi is the Twelver eschatological belief in the return of their Hidden Imam in the end of time to establish peace and justice on earth. For Twelvers, this would end a period of occultation that began shortly after the death of Hasan al-Askari in 260 AH (873–874 CE), the eleventh Imam. While the miraculously prolonged life of the eschatological Mahdi is specific to Shia, the signs of his (re)appearance and his career are largely common in Shia and Sunni, and the belief in a messianic Mahdi remains popular among all Muslims, possibly owing to numerous traditions to this effect in canonical Sunni and Shia sources.

Historical background

Until their deaths, the tenth and eleventh of the Twelve Imams were held under close surveillance in the garrison town of Samarra by the Abbasids,[1][2] who are often responsible in Shia sources for poisoning the two Imams, namely, Ali al-Hadi and Hasan al-Askari.[3]

Contemporary to the tenth Imam, the Abbasid al-Mutawakkil heavily persecuted the Shia,[4][5] partly due to a renewed Zaydi opposition.[6] The restrictive policies of al-Mutawakkil towards the tenth Imam were later adopted by his son, al-Mu'tamid, who is reported to have kept the eleventh Imam under house arrest without any visitors.[7] Instead, al-Askari is known to have mainly communicated with his followers through a network of representatives.[5][8] Among them was Uthman ibn Sa'id,[9] who is said to have disguised himself as a seller of cooking fat to avoid the Abbasid officers.[10] Tabatabai suggests that these restrictions were placed on al-Askari because the caliphate had come to know about traditions among the Shia elite, predicting that the eleventh Imam would father the eschatological Mahdi.[11]

Death of al-Askari

Al-Askari died in 260 (873-874) without an obvious heir.[12][13] Immediately after the death of the eleventh Imam,[14] his main representative, Uthman ibn Sa'id,[15] claimed that the Imam had an infant son, named Muhammad.[16][14] This infant was kept hidden from the public out of fear of Abbasid persecution,[17] who sought to eliminate an expected child of al-Askari, whom persistent rumors described as a savior.[18] Uthman also claimed that he had been appointed to represent the son of al-Askari,[19] who is more commonly known as Muhammad al-Mahdi (lit. 'the rightly guided').[20]

Being the closest associate of al-Askari,[21] Uthman's assertions were largely accepted by other representatives of al-Askari.[16][22] Those followers who accepted the imamate of this Muhammad later formed the Twelvers.[23] The other sects created over the succession of al-Askari disappeared within a hundred years.[23][13]

Occultation

Thus began a period of about seventy years, later termed the Minor Occultation (al-ghaybat al-sughra, 260-329 AH, 874–941 CE), during which it is believed that four successive agents represented Muhammad al-Mahdi, the Hidden Imam, starting with Uthman ibn Sa'id as the first agent.[18] The fourth agent, Abu al-Hasan al-Samarri, is said to have received a letter from Muhammad al-Mahdi shortly before his death in 941 CE.[24][25] The letter predicted the death of al-Samarri in six days and announced the beginning of the complete occultation,[26][27][25] later called the Major Occultation, which continues to this day.[28] The letter, ascribed to al-Mahdi, added that the complete occultation would continue until God permitted him to manifest himself again in a time when the earth would be filled with tyranny.[26]

In Twelver belief, the life of al-Mahdi has been miraculously prolonged.[29] Al-Mahdi is also viewed responsible for the affairs of men and, in particular, their inward spiritual guidance during the occultation.[30][31]

Career of al-Mahdi

Shortly before the Day of Judgment, when commanded by God, al-Mahdi will return to lead the forces of righteousness against the forces of evil in an apocalyptic war that would ultimately establish peace and justice on earth, according to the Twelvers.[32] In his mission, al-Mahdi will be assisted by Jesus, who will kill al-Dajjal (antichrist) in some Islamic accounts.[33] Al-Mahdi would also be accompanied by 313 loyal followers, their number identical to the number of Muslim warriors in the Battle of Badr.[34][35] He is expected to reemerge as a young man in possession of the relics of the past prophets, such as the staff and arc of Moses.[34] The time of his reappearance is unknown, however, and Shia hadiths expressly forbid haste (este'jal) and setting time (tawqit) for his return.[34][36]

In Twelver thought, al-Mahdi is also expected to avenge the injustices suffered by Husayn, grandson of the prophet, whose innocent blood is believed to have plunged the Muslim community into a cycle of violence, corruption, and oppression. This vengeance is necessary, it is said, to rid the Muslim community of the most odious crime ever committed in their name.[34] It also involves the return to life of the evildoers and their victims, which is known as the doctrine of return (al-raj'a).[34][32]

Al-Mahdi is also viewed by the Twelvers as the restorer of true Islam,[37] and the restorer of other monotheistic religions after their distortion and abandonment.[34] In their true form, it is believed, all monotheistic religions are essentially identical to Islam as "submission to God."[34][18] It is in this sense, according to Amir-Moezzi, that one should understand the claims that al-Mahdi will impose Islam on everyone.[34] In Twelver belief, al-Mahdi will also reveal the unaltered scriptures of the past prophets,[38] and bring wisdom to mankind by revealing the esoteric secrets of these texts.[18]

Al-Mahdi is expected to announce his return next to Kaaba in Mecca.[39][40] The Meccans will kill two successive deputies of al-Mahdi, according to a hadith ascribed to Ja'far al-Sadiq, the sixth Imam.[41] Soon, however, the Hejaz, Iraq, the east, Egypt, Syria, and then Constantinople would fall to the army of al-Mahdi before the complete extermination of the forces of evil, after which the rule of justice would be established on earth and the humanity would be revived. There is no consensus on the duration of his rule,[42][34] but the power remains in the hands of his initiates until the Day of Judgment.[34] Al-Mufid (d. 1022), however, holds that there would be no government after that of al-Mahdi.[43]

Madelung notes that Sunni and Shia traditions have much in common about the career of the eschatological Mahdi.[37] Indeed, the belief in Mahdi remains popular among all Muslims, possibly owing to numerous traditions to this effect in canonical Sunni and Shia sources.[37]

Signs of his reappearance

Numerous Shia hadiths predict that the reappearance of al-Mahdi would be heralded by some signs.[44] Momen lists several such signs which are said to be common to both Sunni and Shia beliefs.[44] Among the signs for the advent of al-Mahdi, some are inevitable, and others are conditional, i.e., might change by divine decision. Alternatively, some of these signs are general, and some are specific. The foremost general sign of the second coming of al-Mahdi is the prevalence of evil on earth in the form of tyranny, injustice, and religious and moral degradation.[34] In particular, at the time, Islam would be devoid of its soul and practiced only outwardly.[44] Only a fraction of the Shia, those who truly practice their Imams' teachings, will remain on the righteous path in the end of time.[34]

Among the special signs are the rise of Sufyani, who would later command the enemies of al-Mahdi,[34] the rise of Yamani, who would later support al-Mahdi,[34] the divine cry (sayha, neda) which calls upon men to join al-Mahdi,[34][45] often followed shortly by another supernatural cry from the earth that invites men to join the enemies of al-Mahdi,[34][46] and would appeal to disbelievers and hypocrites,[46] the swallowing up (kasf) of an army dispatched by Sufyani in a desert, and the assassination by Meccans of the messenger of al-Mahdi, referred to as the pure soul (al-nafs al-zakiya).[34]

Some of the conditions for the return of al-Mahdi are said to have been fulfilled by modern technology. For instance, al-Zanjani suggests that a hadith attributed to Ja'far al-Sadiq, the sixth Imam, refers to television. The hadith predicts that, in the time of al-Mahdi, a believer in the east can see another believer in the west and vice versa.[32]

See also

References

  1. ^ Momen 1985, pp. 43, 44.
  2. ^ Sachedina 1981, pp. 25, 26.
  3. ^ Sachedina 1981, p. 28.
  4. ^ Holt, Lambton & Lewis 1970, p. 126.
  5. ^ a b Momen 1985, p. 44.
  6. ^ Amir-Moezzi 2016, p. 65.
  7. ^ Sachedina 1981, p. 29.
  8. ^ Hulmes 2013.
  9. ^ Eliash 2022.
  10. ^ Sachedina 1981, p. 30.
  11. ^ Tabatabai 1975, pp. 184, 185.
  12. ^ Sachedina 1981, p. 40.
  13. ^ a b Halm 1987.
  14. ^ a b Modarressi 1993, p. 77.
  15. ^ Momen 1985, pp. 162, 163.
  16. ^ a b Sachedina 1981, p. 41.
  17. ^ Daftary 2013, p. 63.
  18. ^ a b c d Amir-Moezzi 2007.
  19. ^ Momen 1985, p. 162.
  20. ^ Gleave 2004.
  21. ^ Modarressi 1993, p. 92.
  22. ^ Modarressi 1993, pp. 79, 80.
  23. ^ a b Momen 1985, p. 60.
  24. ^ Momen 1985, pp. 162–164.
  25. ^ a b Daftary 2013, p. 66.
  26. ^ a b Momen 1985, p. 164.
  27. ^ Sachedina 1981, p. 96.
  28. ^ Sachedina 1981, p. 84.
  29. ^ Sobhani 2001, p. 118.
  30. ^ Momen 1985, p. 165.
  31. ^ Tabatabai 1975, pp. 194–5.
  32. ^ a b c Momen 1985, p. 166.
  33. ^ Sachedina 1981, p. 171.
  34. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Amir-Moezzi 1998.
  35. ^ Sachedina 1981, p. 162.
  36. ^ Sachedina 1981, p. 150.
  37. ^ a b c Madelung 2022.
  38. ^ Sachedina 1981, pp. 163–4.
  39. ^ Momen 1985, p. 169.
  40. ^ Sachedina 1981, p. 161.
  41. ^ Sachedina 1981, pp. 164–5.
  42. ^ Sachedina 1981, p. 176.
  43. ^ Sachedina 1981, p. 177.
  44. ^ a b c Momen 1985, p. 168.
  45. ^ Sachedina 1981, pp. 162–3.
  46. ^ a b Sachedina 1981, p. 163.

Sources

  • Eliash, J. (2022). "Ḥasan Al-ʿAskarī". In Bearman, P. (ed.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (Second ed.). Brill Reference Online.
  • Klemm, Verena (2007). ISLAM IN IRAN ix. THE DEPUTIES OF MAHDI. Vol. XIV/2. pp. 143–6.
  • Sachedina, Abdulaziz Abdulhussein (1981). Islamic Messianism: The Idea of Mahdī in Twelver Shīʻism. Suny press. ISBN 978-0873954426.
  • Daftary, Farhad (2013). A History of Shi'i Islam. I.B. Tauris. ISBN 9780755608669.
  • Hussain, Jassim M. (1986). Occultation of the Twelfth Imam: A Historical Background. Routledge Kegan & Paul. ISBN 9780710301581.
  • Momen, Moojan (1985). An Introduction to Shi'i Islam. Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300034998.
  • Tabatabai, Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn (1975). Shi'ite Islam. Translated by Sayyid Hossein Nasr. State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-87395-390-8.
  • Donaldson, Dwight M. (1933). The Shi'ite Religion: A History of Islam in Persia and Iraḳ. AMS Press.
  • Modarressi, Hossein (1993). Crisis and Consolidation in the Formative Period of Shi'ite Islam: Abū Ja'far Ibn Qiba Al-Rāzī and His Contribution to Imāmite Shī'ite Thought (PDF). Darwin Press. ISBN 9780878500956.
  • Holt, P.M.; Lambton, Ann K.S.; Lewis, Bernard, eds. (1970). The Cambridge history of Islam. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press.
  • Amir-Moezzi, Mohammad Ali (2007). "ISLAM IN IRAN vii. THE CONCEPT OF MAHDI IN TWELVER SHIʿISM". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Vol. XIV/2. pp. 136–143.
  • Amir-Moezzi, Mohammad Ali (1998). "ESCHATOLOGY iii. Imami Shiʿism". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Vol. VIII/6. pp. 575–581.
  • Amir-Moezzi, Mohammad Ali (2016). Divine Guide in Early Shi'ism: The Sources of Esotericism in Islam. SUNY Press. ISBN 9780791494790.
  • Hulmes, Edward D.A. (2013). "HASAN AL-'ASKARI, ABU MUHAMMAD HASAN IBN 'ALI (c. AD 845-74)". In Netton, Ian Richard (ed.). Encyclopedia of Islamic Civilization and Religion. Routledge. p. 217. ISBN 9781135179670.
  • Halm, H. (1987). "ʿASKARĪ". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Vol. II/7. p. 769.
  • Gleave, Robert (2004). "GHAYBA(T)". In Martin, Richard C. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World. Vol. 2. Macmillan Reference. pp. 273, 274. ISBN 0-02-865604-0.
  • Madelung, W. (2022). "Al-Mahdī". In Bearman, P. (ed.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (Second ed.). Brill Reference Online.
  • Sobhani, Ja'far (2001). Doctrines of Shi'i Islam (PDF). Translated by Shah-Kazemi, Reza. I.B.Tauris. ISBN 01860647804.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: ignored ISBN errors (link)

March 16, 2023
reappearance, muhammad, mahdi, reappearance, muhammad, mahdi, twelver, eschatological, belief, return, their, hidden, imam, time, establish, peace, justice, earth, twelvers, this, would, period, occultation, that, began, shortly, after, death, hasan, askari, e. The reappearance of Muhammad al Mahdi is the Twelver eschatological belief in the return of their Hidden Imam in the end of time to establish peace and justice on earth For Twelvers this would end a period of occultation that began shortly after the death of Hasan al Askari in 260 AH 873 874 CE the eleventh Imam While the miraculously prolonged life of the eschatological Mahdi is specific to Shia the signs of his re appearance and his career are largely common in Shia and Sunni and the belief in a messianic Mahdi remains popular among all Muslims possibly owing to numerous traditions to this effect in canonical Sunni and Shia sources Contents 1 Historical background 1 1 Death of al Askari 1 2 Occultation 2 Career of al Mahdi 3 Signs of his reappearance 4 See also 5 References 6 SourcesHistorical background EditUntil their deaths the tenth and eleventh of the Twelve Imams were held under close surveillance in the garrison town of Samarra by the Abbasids 1 2 who are often responsible in Shia sources for poisoning the two Imams namely Ali al Hadi and Hasan al Askari 3 Contemporary to the tenth Imam the Abbasid al Mutawakkil heavily persecuted the Shia 4 5 partly due to a renewed Zaydi opposition 6 The restrictive policies of al Mutawakkil towards the tenth Imam were later adopted by his son al Mu tamid who is reported to have kept the eleventh Imam under house arrest without any visitors 7 Instead al Askari is known to have mainly communicated with his followers through a network of representatives 5 8 Among them was Uthman ibn Sa id 9 who is said to have disguised himself as a seller of cooking fat to avoid the Abbasid officers 10 Tabatabai suggests that these restrictions were placed on al Askari because the caliphate had come to know about traditions among the Shia elite predicting that the eleventh Imam would father the eschatological Mahdi 11 Death of al Askari Edit Al Askari died in 260 873 874 without an obvious heir 12 13 Immediately after the death of the eleventh Imam 14 his main representative Uthman ibn Sa id 15 claimed that the Imam had an infant son named Muhammad 16 14 This infant was kept hidden from the public out of fear of Abbasid persecution 17 who sought to eliminate an expected child of al Askari whom persistent rumors described as a savior 18 Uthman also claimed that he had been appointed to represent the son of al Askari 19 who is more commonly known as Muhammad al Mahdi lit the rightly guided 20 Being the closest associate of al Askari 21 Uthman s assertions were largely accepted by other representatives of al Askari 16 22 Those followers who accepted the imamate of this Muhammad later formed the Twelvers 23 The other sects created over the succession of al Askari disappeared within a hundred years 23 13 Occultation Edit Thus began a period of about seventy years later termed the Minor Occultation al ghaybat al sughra 260 329 AH 874 941 CE during which it is believed that four successive agents represented Muhammad al Mahdi the Hidden Imam starting with Uthman ibn Sa id as the first agent 18 The fourth agent Abu al Hasan al Samarri is said to have received a letter from Muhammad al Mahdi shortly before his death in 941 CE 24 25 The letter predicted the death of al Samarri in six days and announced the beginning of the complete occultation 26 27 25 later called the Major Occultation which continues to this day 28 The letter ascribed to al Mahdi added that the complete occultation would continue until God permitted him to manifest himself again in a time when the earth would be filled with tyranny 26 In Twelver belief the life of al Mahdi has been miraculously prolonged 29 Al Mahdi is also viewed responsible for the affairs of men and in particular their inward spiritual guidance during the occultation 30 31 Career of al Mahdi EditShortly before the Day of Judgment when commanded by God al Mahdi will return to lead the forces of righteousness against the forces of evil in an apocalyptic war that would ultimately establish peace and justice on earth according to the Twelvers 32 In his mission al Mahdi will be assisted by Jesus who will kill al Dajjal antichrist in some Islamic accounts 33 Al Mahdi would also be accompanied by 313 loyal followers their number identical to the number of Muslim warriors in the Battle of Badr 34 35 He is expected to reemerge as a young man in possession of the relics of the past prophets such as the staff and arc of Moses 34 The time of his reappearance is unknown however and Shia hadiths expressly forbid haste este jal and setting time tawqit for his return 34 36 In Twelver thought al Mahdi is also expected to avenge the injustices suffered by Husayn grandson of the prophet whose innocent blood is believed to have plunged the Muslim community into a cycle of violence corruption and oppression This vengeance is necessary it is said to rid the Muslim community of the most odious crime ever committed in their name 34 It also involves the return to life of the evildoers and their victims which is known as the doctrine of return al raj a 34 32 Al Mahdi is also viewed by the Twelvers as the restorer of true Islam 37 and the restorer of other monotheistic religions after their distortion and abandonment 34 In their true form it is believed all monotheistic religions are essentially identical to Islam as submission to God 34 18 It is in this sense according to Amir Moezzi that one should understand the claims that al Mahdi will impose Islam on everyone 34 In Twelver belief al Mahdi will also reveal the unaltered scriptures of the past prophets 38 and bring wisdom to mankind by revealing the esoteric secrets of these texts 18 Al Mahdi is expected to announce his return next to Kaaba in Mecca 39 40 The Meccans will kill two successive deputies of al Mahdi according to a hadith ascribed to Ja far al Sadiq the sixth Imam 41 Soon however the Hejaz Iraq the east Egypt Syria and then Constantinople would fall to the army of al Mahdi before the complete extermination of the forces of evil after which the rule of justice would be established on earth and the humanity would be revived There is no consensus on the duration of his rule 42 34 but the power remains in the hands of his initiates until the Day of Judgment 34 Al Mufid d 1022 however holds that there would be no government after that of al Mahdi 43 Madelung notes that Sunni and Shia traditions have much in common about the career of the eschatological Mahdi 37 Indeed the belief in Mahdi remains popular among all Muslims possibly owing to numerous traditions to this effect in canonical Sunni and Shia sources 37 Signs of his reappearance EditNumerous Shia hadiths predict that the reappearance of al Mahdi would be heralded by some signs 44 Momen lists several such signs which are said to be common to both Sunni and Shia beliefs 44 Among the signs for the advent of al Mahdi some are inevitable and others are conditional i e might change by divine decision Alternatively some of these signs are general and some are specific The foremost general sign of the second coming of al Mahdi is the prevalence of evil on earth in the form of tyranny injustice and religious and moral degradation 34 In particular at the time Islam would be devoid of its soul and practiced only outwardly 44 Only a fraction of the Shia those who truly practice their Imams teachings will remain on the righteous path in the end of time 34 Among the special signs are the rise of Sufyani who would later command the enemies of al Mahdi 34 the rise of Yamani who would later support al Mahdi 34 the divine cry sayha neda which calls upon men to join al Mahdi 34 45 often followed shortly by another supernatural cry from the earth that invites men to join the enemies of al Mahdi 34 46 and would appeal to disbelievers and hypocrites 46 the swallowing up kasf of an army dispatched by Sufyani in a desert and the assassination by Meccans of the messenger of al Mahdi referred to as the pure soul al nafs al zakiya 34 Some of the conditions for the return of al Mahdi are said to have been fulfilled by modern technology For instance al Zanjani suggests that a hadith attributed to Ja far al Sadiq the sixth Imam refers to television The hadith predicts that in the time of al Mahdi a believer in the east can see another believer in the west and vice versa 32 See also EditMahdi Narjis List of Mahdi claimants Signs of the appearance of Mahdi Al Nafs al Zakiyyah Final letter of Muhammad al Mahdi to al SamarriReferences Edit Momen 1985 pp 43 44 Sachedina 1981 pp 25 26 Sachedina 1981 p 28 Holt Lambton amp Lewis 1970 p 126 a b Momen 1985 p 44 Amir Moezzi 2016 p 65 Sachedina 1981 p 29 Hulmes 2013 Eliash 2022 Sachedina 1981 p 30 Tabatabai 1975 pp 184 185 Sachedina 1981 p 40 a b Halm 1987 a b Modarressi 1993 p 77 Momen 1985 pp 162 163 a b Sachedina 1981 p 41 Daftary 2013 p 63 a b c d Amir Moezzi 2007 Momen 1985 p 162 Gleave 2004 Modarressi 1993 p 92 Modarressi 1993 pp 79 80 a b Momen 1985 p 60 Momen 1985 pp 162 164 a b Daftary 2013 p 66 a b Momen 1985 p 164 Sachedina 1981 p 96 Sachedina 1981 p 84 Sobhani 2001 p 118 Momen 1985 p 165 Tabatabai 1975 pp 194 5 a b c Momen 1985 p 166 Sachedina 1981 p 171 a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Amir Moezzi 1998 Sachedina 1981 p 162 Sachedina 1981 p 150 a b c Madelung 2022 Sachedina 1981 pp 163 4 Momen 1985 p 169 Sachedina 1981 p 161 Sachedina 1981 pp 164 5 Sachedina 1981 p 176 Sachedina 1981 p 177 a b c Momen 1985 p 168 Sachedina 1981 pp 162 3 a b Sachedina 1981 p 163 Sources EditEliash J 2022 Ḥasan Al ʿAskari In Bearman P ed Encyclopaedia of Islam Second ed Brill Reference Online Klemm Verena 2007 ISLAM IN IRAN ix THE DEPUTIES OF MAHDI Vol XIV 2 pp 143 6 Sachedina Abdulaziz Abdulhussein 1981 Islamic Messianism The Idea of Mahdi in Twelver Shiʻism Suny press ISBN 978 0873954426 Daftary Farhad 2013 A History of Shi i Islam I B Tauris ISBN 9780755608669 Hussain Jassim M 1986 Occultation of the Twelfth Imam A Historical Background Routledge Kegan amp Paul ISBN 9780710301581 Momen Moojan 1985 An Introduction to Shi i Islam Yale University Press ISBN 9780300034998 Tabatabai Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn 1975 Shi ite Islam Translated by Sayyid Hossein Nasr State University of New York Press ISBN 0 87395 390 8 Donaldson Dwight M 1933 The Shi ite Religion A History of Islam in Persia and Iraḳ AMS Press Modarressi Hossein 1993 Crisis and Consolidation in the Formative Period of Shi ite Islam Abu Ja far Ibn Qiba Al Razi and His Contribution to Imamite Shi ite Thought PDF Darwin Press ISBN 9780878500956 Holt P M Lambton Ann K S Lewis Bernard eds 1970 The Cambridge history of Islam Vol 1 Cambridge University Press Amir Moezzi Mohammad Ali 2007 ISLAM IN IRAN vii THE CONCEPT OF MAHDI IN TWELVER SHIʿISM Encyclopaedia Iranica Vol XIV 2 pp 136 143 Amir Moezzi Mohammad Ali 1998 ESCHATOLOGY iii Imami Shiʿism Encyclopaedia Iranica Vol VIII 6 pp 575 581 Amir Moezzi Mohammad Ali 2016 Divine Guide in Early Shi ism The Sources of Esotericism in Islam SUNY Press ISBN 9780791494790 Hulmes Edward D A 2013 HASAN AL ASKARI ABU MUHAMMAD HASAN IBN ALI c AD 845 74 In Netton Ian Richard ed Encyclopedia of Islamic Civilization and Religion Routledge p 217 ISBN 9781135179670 Halm H 1987 ʿASKARi Encyclopaedia Iranica Vol II 7 p 769 Gleave Robert 2004 GHAYBA T In Martin Richard C ed Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World Vol 2 Macmillan Reference pp 273 274 ISBN 0 02 865604 0 Madelung W 2022 Al Mahdi In Bearman P ed Encyclopaedia of Islam Second ed Brill Reference Online Sobhani Ja far 2001 Doctrines of Shi i Islam PDF Translated by Shah Kazemi Reza I B Tauris ISBN 01860647804 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint ignored ISBN errors link Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Reappearance of Muhammad al Mahdi amp oldid 1136750858, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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