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Rational egoism

January 20, 2023

Not to be confused with Egotism. For broader coverage of egoist philosophy, see Egoism. For other uses, see Egoist (disambiguation).

Rational egoism (also called rational selfishness) is the principle that an action is rational if and only if it maximizes one's self-interest.[1][2] As such, it is considered a normative form of egoism,[3] though historically has been associated with both positive and normative forms.[4] In its strong form, rational egoism holds that to not pursue one's own interest is unequivocally irrational. Its weaker form, however, holds that while it is rational to pursue self-interest, failing to pursue self-interest is not always irrational.[5]

Originally an element of nihilist philosophy in Russia, it was later popularised in English-speaking countries by Russian-American author Ayn Rand.

Origins

Rational egoism (Russian: разумный эгоизм) emerged as the dominant social philosophy of the Russian nihilist movement, having developed in the works of nihilist philosophers Nikolay Chernyshevsky and Dmitry Pisarev. However, their terminology was largely obfuscated to avoid government censorship and the name rational egoism explicitly is unmentioned in the writings of both philosophers.[4][6] Rational egoism was further embodied in Chernyshevsky's 1863 novel What Is to Be Done?,[7] and was criticised in response by Fyodor Dostoyevsky in his 1864 work Notes from Underground. For Chernyshevsky, rational egoism served as the basis for the socialist development of human society.[4][8]

English philosopher Henry Sidgwick discussed rational egoism in his book The Methods of Ethics, first published in 1872.[9] A method of ethics is "any rational procedure by which we determine what individual human beings 'ought'—or what it is 'right' for them—to do, or seek to realize by voluntary action".[10] Sidgwick considers three such procedures, namely, rational egoism, dogmatic intuitionism, and utilitarianism. Rational egoism is the view that, if rational, "an agent regards quantity of consequent pleasure and pain to himself alone important in choosing between alternatives of action; and seeks always the greatest attainable surplus of pleasure over pain".[11]

Sidgwick found it difficult to find any persuasive reason for preferring rational egoism over utilitarianism. Although utilitarianism can be provided with a rational basis and reconciled with the morality of common sense, rational egoism appears to be an equally plausible doctrine regarding what we have most reason to do. Thus we must "admit an ultimate and fundamental contradiction in our apparent intuitions of what is Reasonable in conduct; and from this admission it would seem to follow that the apparently intuitive operation of Practical Reason, manifested in these contradictory judgments, is after all illusory".[12]

Ayn Rand

The author and philosopher Ayn Rand also discusses a theory that she called rational egoism. She holds that it is both irrational and immoral to act against one's self-interest.[13] Thus, her view is a conjunction of both rational egoism (in the standard sense) and ethical egoism, because according to Objectivist philosophy, egoism cannot be properly justified without an epistemology based on reason.

Her book The Virtue of Selfishness (1964) explains the concept of rational egoism in depth. According to Rand, a rational man holds his own life as his highest value, rationality as his highest virtue, and his happiness as the final purpose of his life.

Conversely, Rand was sharply critical of the ethical doctrine of altruism:

Do not confuse altruism with kindness, good will or respect for the rights of others. These are not primaries, but consequences, which, in fact, altruism makes impossible. The irreducible primary of altruism, the basic absolute is self-sacrifice—which means self-immolation, self-abnegation, self-denial self-destruction—which means the self as a standard of evil, the selfless as a standard of the good. Do not hide behind such superficialities as whether you should or should not give a dime to a beggar. This is not the issue. The issue is whether you do or do not have the right to exist without giving him that dime. The issue is whether you must keep buying your life, dime by dime, from any beggar who might choose to approach you. The issue is whether the need of others is the first mortgage on your life and the moral purpose of your existence. The issue is whether man is to be regarded as a sacrificial animal. Any man of self-esteem will answer: No. Altruism says: Yes.[14]

Criticism

Two objections to rational egoism are given by the English philosopher Derek Parfit, who discusses the theory at length in Reasons and Persons (1984). First, from the rational egoist point of view, it is rational to contribute to a pension scheme now, even though this is detrimental to one's present interests (which are to spend the money now). But it seems equally reasonable to maximize one's interests now, given that one's reasons are not only relative to him, but to him as he is now (and not his future self, who is argued to be a "different" person). Parfit also argues that since the connections between the present mental state and the mental state of one's future self may decrease, it is not plausible to claim that one should be indifferent between one's present and future self.[15]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Baier (1990), p. 201; Gert (1998), p. 69; Shaver (2002), §3; Moseley (2006), §2.
  2. ^ Shaver, Robert (2019), "Egoism", in Zalta, Edward N. (ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2019 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, retrieved 2020-05-27
  3. ^ Shaver, Robert (2019). "Egoism". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2019 ed.). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University.
  4. ^ a b c Scanlan, James P. (1999). "The Case against Rational Egoism in Dostoevsky's Notes from Underground". Journal of the History of Ideas. University of Pennsylvania Press. 60 (3): 549–567. doi:10.2307/3654018. JSTOR 3654018.
  5. ^ Moseley, Alexander (2006). "Egoism". In J. Fieser; B. Dowden (eds.). The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
  6. ^ St. John Murphy, Sasha (2016). "The Debate around Nihilism in 1860s Russian Literature". Slovo. School of Slavonic and Eastern European Studies, University College London. 28 (2): 48–68. doi:10.14324/111.0954-6839.045 (inactive 31 December 2022).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of December 2022 (link)
  7. ^ Andrzej Walicki; Hilda Andrews-Rusiecka (1979). A History of Russian Thought: From the Enlightenment to Marxism. Stanford University Press. p. 196. ISBN 978-0-8047-1132-6.
  8. ^ "SparkNotes: Notes from Underground: Context". SparkNotes. Retrieved 2015-05-30.
  9. ^ Sidgwick (1907)
  10. ^ Sidgwick (1907), p. 1
  11. ^ Sidgwick (1907), p. 95
  12. ^ Sidgwick (1907), p. 508
  13. ^ Smith (2006); Moseley (2006), §2a.
  14. ^ Ayn Rand, "Faith and Force: Destroyers of the Modern World," Philosophy: Who Needs it, 1982, New American Library, p. 74.
  15. ^ D. Parfit (1984), parts II and III

References and further reading

  • Baier, Kurt (1990). "Egoism" in A Companion to Ethics. Peter Singer (ed.), Blackwell: Oxford.
  • Brink, D. 1992, "Sidgwick and the Rationale for Rational Egoism," in Essays on Henry Sidgwick, ed. B. Schultz, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Gauthier, David (1986). Morals by Agreement. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Gert, Bernard (1998). Morality: Its Nature and Justification. Oxford University Press.
  • Kagan, S., 1986, "The Present-Aim Theory of Rationality," Ethics 96: 746–59. JSTOR 2381097
  • McKenzie, Alexander J. (2003). "Evolutionary Game Theory". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.). link
  • Moseley, Alexander (2006). "Egoism". The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. J. Fieser & B. Dowden (eds.). link
  • Mueller, D. (1989). Public Choice II. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
  • Parfit, D., 1984, Reasons and Persons, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Parfit, D., 1986, Reply to Kagan, Ethics, 96: 843–46, 868–69.
  • Paul, E. & F. Miller & J. Paul (1997). Self-Interest. Cambridge University Press
  • Shaver, Robert (1998). Rational Egoism: A Selective and Critical History. Cambridge University Press.
  • Shaver, Robert (2002). "Egoism". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.). link
  • Sigwick, H., The Methods of Ethics. London, 1874, 7th ed. 1907.
  • Smith, Tara (2006). Ayn Rand's Normative Ethics. Cambridge University Press.
  • Sober, E. & D.S. Wilson (1998). Unto Others: The Evolution and Psychology of Unselfish Behavior. Harvard University Press.

External links

January 20, 2023
rational, egoism, confused, with, egotism, broader, coverage, egoist, philosophy, egoism, other, uses, egoist, disambiguation, also, called, rational, selfishness, principle, that, action, rational, only, maximizes, self, interest, such, considered, normative,. Not to be confused with Egotism For broader coverage of egoist philosophy see Egoism For other uses see Egoist disambiguation Rational egoism also called rational selfishness is the principle that an action is rational if and only if it maximizes one s self interest 1 2 As such it is considered a normative form of egoism 3 though historically has been associated with both positive and normative forms 4 In its strong form rational egoism holds that to not pursue one s own interest is unequivocally irrational Its weaker form however holds that while it is rational to pursue self interest failing to pursue self interest is not always irrational 5 Originally an element of nihilist philosophy in Russia it was later popularised in English speaking countries by Russian American author Ayn Rand Contents 1 Origins 2 Ayn Rand 3 Criticism 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References and further reading 7 External linksOrigins EditRational egoism Russian razumnyj egoizm emerged as the dominant social philosophy of the Russian nihilist movement having developed in the works of nihilist philosophers Nikolay Chernyshevsky and Dmitry Pisarev However their terminology was largely obfuscated to avoid government censorship and the name rational egoism explicitly is unmentioned in the writings of both philosophers 4 6 Rational egoism was further embodied in Chernyshevsky s 1863 novel What Is to Be Done 7 and was criticised in response by Fyodor Dostoyevsky in his 1864 work Notes from Underground For Chernyshevsky rational egoism served as the basis for the socialist development of human society 4 8 English philosopher Henry Sidgwick discussed rational egoism in his book The Methods of Ethics first published in 1872 9 A method of ethics is any rational procedure by which we determine what individual human beings ought or what it is right for them to do or seek to realize by voluntary action 10 Sidgwick considers three such procedures namely rational egoism dogmatic intuitionism and utilitarianism Rational egoism is the view that if rational an agent regards quantity of consequent pleasure and pain to himself alone important in choosing between alternatives of action and seeks always the greatest attainable surplus of pleasure over pain 11 Sidgwick found it difficult to find any persuasive reason for preferring rational egoism over utilitarianism Although utilitarianism can be provided with a rational basis and reconciled with the morality of common sense rational egoism appears to be an equally plausible doctrine regarding what we have most reason to do Thus we must admit an ultimate and fundamental contradiction in our apparent intuitions of what is Reasonable in conduct and from this admission it would seem to follow that the apparently intuitive operation of Practical Reason manifested in these contradictory judgments is after all illusory 12 Ayn Rand EditThe author and philosopher Ayn Rand also discusses a theory that she called rational egoism She holds that it is both irrational and immoral to act against one s self interest 13 Thus her view is a conjunction of both rational egoism in the standard sense and ethical egoism because according to Objectivist philosophy egoism cannot be properly justified without an epistemology based on reason Her book The Virtue of Selfishness 1964 explains the concept of rational egoism in depth According to Rand a rational man holds his own life as his highest value rationality as his highest virtue and his happiness as the final purpose of his life Conversely Rand was sharply critical of the ethical doctrine of altruism Do not confuse altruism with kindness good will or respect for the rights of others These are not primaries but consequences which in fact altruism makes impossible The irreducible primary of altruism the basic absolute is self sacrifice which means self immolation self abnegation self denial self destruction which means the self as a standard of evil the selfless as a standard of the good Do not hide behind such superficialities as whether you should or should not give a dime to a beggar This is not the issue The issue is whether you do or do not have the right to exist without giving him that dime The issue is whether you must keep buying your life dime by dime from any beggar who might choose to approach you The issue is whether the need of others is the first mortgage on your life and the moral purpose of your existence The issue is whether man is to be regarded as a sacrificial animal Any man of self esteem will answer No Altruism says Yes 14 Criticism EditTwo objections to rational egoism are given by the English philosopher Derek Parfit who discusses the theory at length in Reasons and Persons 1984 First from the rational egoist point of view it is rational to contribute to a pension scheme now even though this is detrimental to one s present interests which are to spend the money now But it seems equally reasonable to maximize one s interests now given that one s reasons are not only relative to him but to him as he is now and not his future self who is argued to be a different person Parfit also argues that since the connections between the present mental state and the mental state of one s future self may decrease it is not plausible to claim that one should be indifferent between one s present and future self 15 See also EditCarvaka Egoist anarchism School of anarchist thought Enlightened self interest Ethical philosophy Hedonism Family of theories in which pleasure plays a central role Homo economicus Model of humans as rational self interested agents Instrumental rationality Invisible hand Concept in economics Practical reason Use of reason to decide how to act Praxeology Theory of human action Preference economics Concept in economics Prisoner s dilemma Standard example in game theoryNotes Edit Baier 1990 p 201 Gert 1998 p 69 Shaver 2002 3 Moseley 2006 2 Shaver Robert 2019 Egoism in Zalta Edward N ed The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Spring 2019 ed Metaphysics Research Lab Stanford University retrieved 2020 05 27 Shaver Robert 2019 Egoism In Zalta Edward N ed The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Spring 2019 ed Metaphysics Research Lab Stanford University a b c Scanlan James P 1999 The Case against Rational Egoism in Dostoevsky s Notes from Underground Journal of the History of Ideas University of Pennsylvania Press 60 3 549 567 doi 10 2307 3654018 JSTOR 3654018 Moseley Alexander 2006 Egoism In J Fieser B Dowden eds The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy St John Murphy Sasha 2016 The Debate around Nihilism in 1860s Russian Literature Slovo School of Slavonic and Eastern European Studies University College London 28 2 48 68 doi 10 14324 111 0954 6839 045 inactive 31 December 2022 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint DOI inactive as of December 2022 link Andrzej Walicki Hilda Andrews Rusiecka 1979 A History of Russian Thought From the Enlightenment to Marxism Stanford University Press p 196 ISBN 978 0 8047 1132 6 SparkNotes Notes from Underground Context SparkNotes Retrieved 2015 05 30 Sidgwick 1907 Sidgwick 1907 p 1 Sidgwick 1907 p 95 Sidgwick 1907 p 508 Smith 2006 Moseley 2006 2a Ayn Rand Faith and Force Destroyers of the Modern World Philosophy Who Needs it 1982 New American Library p 74 D Parfit 1984 parts II and IIIReferences and further reading EditBaier Kurt 1990 Egoism in A Companion to Ethics Peter Singer ed Blackwell Oxford Brink D 1992 Sidgwick and the Rationale for Rational Egoism in Essays on Henry Sidgwick ed B Schultz Cambridge Cambridge University Press Gauthier David 1986 Morals by Agreement Oxford Oxford University Press Gert Bernard 1998 Morality Its Nature and Justification Oxford University Press Kagan S 1986 The Present Aim Theory of Rationality Ethics 96 746 59 JSTOR 2381097 McKenzie Alexander J 2003 Evolutionary Game Theory The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Summer Edition Edward N Zalta ed link Moseley Alexander 2006 Egoism The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy J Fieser amp B Dowden eds link Mueller D 1989 Public Choice II Cambridge UK Cambridge University Press Parfit D 1984 Reasons and Persons Oxford Oxford University Press Parfit D 1986 Reply to Kagan Ethics 96 843 46 868 69 Paul E amp F Miller amp J Paul 1997 Self Interest Cambridge University Press Shaver Robert 1998 Rational Egoism A Selective and Critical History Cambridge University Press Shaver Robert 2002 Egoism The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Winter Edition Edward N Zalta ed link Sigwick H The Methods of Ethics London 1874 7th ed 1907 Smith Tara 2006 Ayn Rand s Normative Ethics Cambridge University Press Sober E amp D S Wilson 1998 Unto Others The Evolution and Psychology of Unselfish Behavior Harvard University Press External links EditEgoism in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Egoism in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy The Red Black Game Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Rational egoism amp oldid 1131370016, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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