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Ayn Rand

Alice O'Connor (born Alisa Zinovyevna Rosenbaum;[c] February 2 [O.S. January 20], 1905 – March 6, 1982), better known by her pen name Ayn Rand (/n/), was a Russian-born American writer and philosopher.[3] She is known for her fiction and for developing a philosophical system she named Objectivism. Born and educated in Russia, she moved to the United States in 1926. After two early novels that were initially unsuccessful and two Broadway plays, she achieved fame with her 1943 novel, The Fountainhead. In 1957, Rand published her best-selling work, the novel Atlas Shrugged. Afterward, until her death in 1982, she turned to non-fiction to promote her philosophy, publishing her own periodicals and releasing several collections of essays.

Ayn Rand
Rand in 1943
Native name
Алиса Зиновьевна Розенбаум
BornAlisa Zinovyevna Rosenbaum
(1905-02-02)February 2, 1905
Saint Petersburg, Saint Petersburg Governorate, Russian Empire
DiedMarch 6, 1982(1982-03-06) (aged 77)
New York City, U.S.
Pen nameAyn Rand
OccupationWriter
LanguageEnglish
Citizenship
  • Russia (1905–1931)[a]
  • United States (1931–1982)
Alma materLeningrad State University
Period1934–1982
Notable works
Spouse
(m. 1929; died 1979)
[b]
Signature

Rand advocated reason as the only means of acquiring knowledge; she rejected faith and religion. She supported rational and ethical egoism as opposed to altruism. In politics, she condemned the initiation of force as immoral and opposed collectivism, statism, and anarchism. Instead, she supported laissez-faire capitalism, which she defined as the system based on recognizing individual rights, including private property rights. Although Rand opposed libertarianism, which she viewed as anarchism, she is often associated with the modern libertarian movement in the United States. In art, Rand promoted romantic realism. She was sharply critical of most philosophers and philosophical traditions known to her, except for Aristotle, Thomas Aquinas, and classical liberals.

Rand's books have sold over 37 million copies. Her fiction received mixed reviews from literary critics, with reviews becoming more negative for her later work.[4] Although academic interest in her ideas has grown since her death,[5] academic philosophers have generally ignored or rejected her philosophy because of her polemical approach and lack of methodological rigor.[3] Her writings have politically influenced some right-libertarians and conservatives. The Objectivist movement circulates her ideas, both to the public and in academic settings.

Life

Early life

Rand was born Alisa Zinovyevna Rosenbaum on February 2, 1905, to a Russian-Jewish bourgeois family living in Saint Petersburg.[6] She was the eldest of three daughters of Zinovy Zakharovich Rosenbaum, a pharmacist, and Anna Borisovna (née Kaplan).[7] She was twelve when the October Revolution and the rule of the Bolsheviks under Vladimir Lenin disrupted the life the family had enjoyed previously. Her father's business was seized,[8] and the family fled to the city of Yevpatoria in Crimea, which was initially under the control of the White Army during the Russian Civil War.[9] After graduating high school there in June 1921,[10] she returned with her family to Petrograd (as Saint Petersburg was then named),[d] where they faced desperate conditions, occasionally nearly starving.[12]

 
Rand's first published work was a monograph in Russian about actress Pola Negri.

When Russian universities were opened to women after the revolution, Rand was among the first to enroll at Petrograd State University.[13] At 16, she began her studies in the department of social pedagogy, majoring in history.[14] Along with many other bourgeois students, she was purged from the university shortly before graduating. After complaints from a group of visiting foreign scientists, many of the purged students were reinstated in the university.[15][16] Rand was among these reinstated students and she completed her studies at the renamed Leningrad State University in October 1924.[13][17] She then studied for a year at the State Technicum for Screen Arts in Leningrad. For an assignment, Rand wrote an essay about the Polish actress Pola Negri; it became her first published work.[18] By this time, she had decided her professional surname for writing would be Rand,[19] and she adopted the first name Ayn (pronounced /n/).[20][e]

In late 1925, Rand was granted a visa to visit relatives in Chicago.[26] She departed on January 17, 1926,[27] and arrived in New York City on February 19, 1926.[28] Intent on staying in the United States to become a screenwriter, she lived for a few months with her relatives learning English[29] before leaving for Hollywood, California.[30]

In Hollywood, a chance meeting with famed director Cecil B. DeMille led to work as an extra in his film The King of Kings and a subsequent job as a junior screenwriter.[31] While working on The King of Kings, she met an aspiring young actor, Frank O'Connor;[b] the two married on April 15, 1929. She became a permanent American resident in July 1929 and an American citizen on March 3, 1931.[32][33][f] She made several attempts to bring her parents and sisters to the United States, but they were unable to obtain permission to emigrate.[36][37]

Early fiction

 
Rand's play Night of January 16th opened on Broadway in 1935.

Rand's first literary success came with the sale of her screenplay Red Pawn to Universal Studios in 1932, although it was never produced.[38][g] Her courtroom drama Night of January 16th, first staged in Hollywood in 1934, reopened successfully on Broadway in 1935. Each night, a jury was selected from members of the audience; based on its vote, one of two different endings would be performed.[40][h] Rand and O'Connor moved to New York City in December 1934 so she could handle revisions for the Broadway production.[43]

Her first novel, the semi-autobiographical[i] We the Living, was published in 1936. Set in Soviet Russia, it focused on the struggle between the individual and the state. Initial sales were slow, and the American publisher let it go out of print,[45] although European editions continued to sell.[46] She adapted the story as a stage play, but the Broadway production was a failure and closed in less than a week.[47][j] After the success of her later novels, Rand was able to release a revised version in 1959 that has since sold over three million copies.[49]

Rand started her next major novel, The Fountainhead, in December 1935,[50] but took a break from it in 1937 to write her novella Anthem.[51] The novella presents a vision of a dystopian future world in which totalitarian collectivism has triumphed to such an extent that the word I has been forgotten and replaced with we.[52][53] It was published in England in 1938, but Rand could not find an American publisher at that time. As with We the Living, Rand's later success allowed her to get a revised version published in 1946, and this sold over 3.5 million copies.[54]

The Fountainhead and political activism

During the 1940s, Rand became politically active. She and her husband were full-time volunteers for Republican Wendell Willkie's 1940 presidential campaign.[55] This work brought her into contact with other intellectuals sympathetic to free-market capitalism. She became friends with journalist Henry Hazlitt, who introduced her to the Austrian School economist Ludwig von Mises. Despite philosophical differences with them, Rand strongly endorsed the writings of both men throughout her career, and they expressed admiration for her. Mises once referred to her as "the most courageous man in America", a compliment that particularly pleased her because he said "man" instead of "woman".[56][57] Rand became friends with libertarian writer Isabel Paterson. Rand questioned her about American history and politics long into the night during their many meetings, and gave Paterson ideas for her only non-fiction book, The God of the Machine.[58][k]

 
The Fountainhead was Rand's first bestseller.

Rand's first major success as a writer came in 1943 with The Fountainhead,[61] a novel about an uncompromising young architect named Howard Roark and his struggle against what Rand described as "second-handers"—those who attempt to live through others, placing others above themselves. Twelve publishers rejected it before Bobbs-Merrill Company accepted it at the insistence of editor Archibald Ogden, who threatened to quit if his employer did not publish it.[62] While completing the novel, Rand was prescribed the amphetamine Benzedrine to fight fatigue.[63] The drug helped her to work long hours to meet her deadline for delivering the novel, but afterwards she was so exhausted that her doctor ordered two weeks' rest.[64] Her use of the drug for approximately three decades may have contributed to mood swings and outbursts described by some of her later associates.[65][66]

The success of The Fountainhead brought Rand fame and financial security.[67] In 1943, she sold the film rights to Warner Bros. and returned to Hollywood to write the screenplay. Producer Hal B. Wallis hired her afterwards as a screenwriter and script-doctor. Her work for him included the screenplays for Love Letters and You Came Along.[68] Her contract with Wallis also allowed time for other projects, including a never-completed nonfiction treatment of her philosophy to be called The Moral Basis of Individualism.[69][l]

While working in Hollywood, Rand became involved with the anti-Communist Motion Picture Alliance for the Preservation of American Ideals and wrote articles on the group's behalf. She also joined the anti-Communist American Writers Association.[70] In 1947, during the Second Red Scare, Rand testified as a "friendly witness" before the United States House Un-American Activities Committee that the 1944 film Song of Russia grossly misrepresented conditions in the Soviet Union, portraying life there as much better and happier than it was.[71] She also wanted to criticize the lauded 1946 film The Best Years of Our Lives for what she interpreted as its negative presentation of the business world, but was not allowed to do so.[72] When asked after the hearings about her feelings on the investigations' effectiveness, Rand described the process as "futile".[73]

After several delays, the film version of The Fountainhead was released in 1949. Although it used Rand's screenplay with minimal alterations, she "disliked the movie from beginning to end" and complained about its editing, the acting and other elements.[74]

Atlas Shrugged and Objectivism

 
Rand's novella Anthem was reprinted in the June 1953 issue of the pulp magazine Famous Fantastic Mysteries.[75]

Following the publication of The Fountainhead, Rand received many letters from readers, some of whom the book had influenced profoundly.[76] In 1951, Rand moved from Los Angeles to New York City, where she gathered a group of these admirers that included future chair of the Federal Reserve Alan Greenspan, a young psychology student named Nathan Blumenthal (later Nathaniel Branden) and his wife Barbara, and Barbara's cousin Leonard Peikoff. Initially, the group was an informal gathering of friends who met with Rand at her apartment on weekends to discuss philosophy. Later, Rand began allowing them to read the manuscript drafts of her new novel, Atlas Shrugged.[77] In 1954, her close relationship with Nathaniel Branden turned into a romantic affair, with the knowledge of their spouses.[78]

Published in 1957, Atlas Shrugged is considered Rand's magnum opus.[79][80] She described the novel's theme as "the role of the mind in man's existence—and, as a corollary, the demonstration of a new moral philosophy: the morality of rational self-interest".[81] It advocates the core tenets of Rand's philosophy of Objectivism and expresses her concept of human achievement. The plot involves a dystopian United States in which the most creative industrialists, scientists, and artists respond to a welfare state government by going on strike and retreating to a hidden valley where they build an independent free economy. The novel's hero and leader of the strike, John Galt, describes it as stopping "the motor of the world" by withdrawing the minds of the individuals contributing most to the nation's wealth and achievements.[82] The novel contains an exposition of Objectivism in a lengthy monologue delivered by Galt.[83]

Despite many negative reviews, Atlas Shrugged became an international bestseller,[84] but the reaction of intellectuals to the novel discouraged and depressed Rand.[65][85] Atlas Shrugged was her last completed work of fiction, marking the end of her career as a novelist and the beginning of her role as a popular philosopher.[86]

In 1958, Nathaniel Branden established the Nathaniel Branden Lectures, later incorporated as the Nathaniel Branden Institute (NBI), to promote Rand's philosophy through public lectures. He and Rand co-founded The Objectivist Newsletter (later renamed The Objectivist) in 1962 to circulate articles about her ideas;[87] she later republished some of these articles in book form. Rand was unimpressed by many of the NBI students[88] and held them to strict standards, sometimes reacting coldly or angrily to those who disagreed with her.[89][90][91] Critics, including some former NBI students and Branden himself, later described the culture of the NBI as one of intellectual conformity and excessive reverence for Rand. Some described the NBI or the Objectivist movement as a cult or religion.[92][93] Rand expressed opinions on a wide range of topics, from literature and music to sexuality and facial hair. Some of her followers mimicked her preferences, wearing clothes to match characters from her novels and buying furniture like hers.[94] Some former NBI students believed the extent of these behaviors was exaggerated, and the problem was concentrated among Rand's closest followers in New York.[91][95]

Later years

Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, Rand developed and promoted her Objectivist philosophy through her nonfiction works and by giving talks to students at colleges and universities.[96][97] She began delivering annual lectures at the Ford Hall Forum, responding to questions from the audience.[98] During these appearances, she often took controversial stances on the political and social issues of the day. These included: supporting abortion rights,[99] opposing the Vietnam War and the military draft (but condemning many draft dodgers as "bums"),[100][101] supporting Israel in the Yom Kippur War of 1973 against a coalition of Arab nations as "civilized men fighting savages",[102][103] claiming European colonists had the right to invade and take land inhabited by American Indians,[103][104] and calling homosexuality "immoral" and "disgusting", despite advocating the repeal of all laws concerning it.[105] She endorsed several Republican candidates for president of the United States, most strongly Barry Goldwater in 1964, whose candidacy she promoted in several articles for The Objectivist Newsletter.[106][107]

 
Grave marker for Rand and her husband at Kensico Cemetery in Valhalla, New York[108]

In 1964, Nathaniel Branden began an affair with the young actress Patrecia Scott, whom he later married. Nathaniel and Barbara Branden kept the affair hidden from Rand. When she learned of it in 1968, though her romantic involvement with Branden was already over,[109] Rand ended her relationship with both Brandens, and the NBI was closed.[110] She published an article in The Objectivist repudiating Nathaniel Branden for dishonesty and other "irrational behavior in his private life".[111] In subsequent years, Rand and several more of her closest associates parted company.[112]

Rand underwent surgery for lung cancer in 1974 after decades of heavy smoking.[113] In 1976, she retired from writing her newsletter and, after her initial objections, allowed a social worker employed by her attorney to enroll her in Social Security and Medicare.[114][115] During the late 1970s, her activities within the Objectivist movement declined, especially after the death of her husband on November 9, 1979.[116] One of her final projects was work on a never-completed television adaptation of Atlas Shrugged.[117]

On March 6, 1982, Rand died of heart failure at her home in New York City.[118] At her funeral, a 6-foot (1.8 m) floral arrangement in the shape of a dollar sign was placed near her casket.[119] In her will, Rand named Peikoff as her heir.[120]

Literary approach and influences

Rand described her approach to literature as "romantic realism".[121] She wanted her fiction to present the world "as it could be and should be", rather than as it was.[122] This approach led her to create highly stylized situations and characters. Her fiction typically has protagonists who are heroic individualists, depicted as fit and attractive.[123] Her villains support duty and collectivist moral ideals. Rand often describes them as unattractive, and some have names that suggest negative traits, such as Wesley Mouch in Atlas Shrugged.[124][125]

Rand considered plot a critical element of literature,[126] and her stories typically have what biographer Anne Heller described as "tight, elaborate, fast-paced plotting".[127] Romantic triangles are a common plot element in Rand's fiction; in most of her novels and plays, the main female character is romantically involved with at least two men.[128][129]

Influences

 
Rand admired the novels of Victor Hugo.

In school Rand read works by Fyodor Dostoevsky, Victor Hugo, Edmond Rostand, and Friedrich Schiller, who became her favorites.[130] She considered them to be among the "top rank" of Romantic writers because of their focus on moral themes and their skill at constructing plots.[131] Hugo was an important influence on her writing, especially her approach to plotting. In the introduction she wrote for an English-language edition of his novel Ninety-Three, Rand called him "the greatest novelist in world literature".[132]

Although Rand disliked most Russian literature, her depictions of her heroes show the influence of the Russian Symbolists[133] and other nineteenth-century Russian writing, most notably the 1863 novel What Is to Be Done? by Nikolay Chernyshevsky.[134][135] Rand's experience of the Russian Revolution and early Communist Russia influenced the portrayal of her villains. Beyond We the Living, which is set in Russia, this influence can be seen in the ideas and rhetoric of Ellsworth Toohey in The Fountainhead,[136] and in the destruction of the economy in Atlas Shrugged.[137][138]

Rand's descriptive style echoes her early career writing scenarios and scripts for movies; her novels have many narrative descriptions that resemble early Hollywood movie scenarios. They often follow common film editing conventions, such as having a broad establishing shot description of a scene followed by close-up details, and her descriptions of women characters often take a "male gaze" perspective.[139]

Philosophy

Rand called her philosophy "Objectivism", describing its essence as "the concept of man as a heroic being, with his own happiness as the moral purpose of his life, with productive achievement as his noblest activity, and reason as his only absolute".[140] She considered Objectivism a systematic philosophy and laid out positions on metaphysics, aesthetics, epistemology, ethics, and political philosophy.[141]

Metaphysics and epistemology

In metaphysics, Rand supported philosophical realism and opposed anything she regarded as mysticism or supernaturalism, including all forms of religion.[142] Rand believed in free will as a form of agent causation and rejected determinism.[143]

In aesthetics, Rand defined art as a "selective re-creation of reality according to an artist's metaphysical value-judgments".[144] According to her, art allows philosophical concepts to be presented in a concrete form that can be grasped easily, thereby fulfilling a need of human consciousness.[145] As a writer, the art form Rand focused on most closely was literature. She considered romanticism to be the approach that most accurately reflected the existence of human free will.[146]

In epistemology, Rand considered all knowledge to be based on sense perception, the validity of which she considered axiomatic,[147] and reason, which she described as "the faculty that identifies and integrates the material provided by man's senses".[148] Rand rejected all claims of non-perceptual knowledge, including "'instinct,' 'intuition,' 'revelation,' or any form of 'just knowing'".[149] In her Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology, Rand presented a theory of concept formation and rejected the analytic–synthetic dichotomy.[150][151] She believed epistemology was a foundational branch of philosophy and considered the advocacy of reason to be the single most significant aspect of her philosophy.[152][m]

Commentators, including Hazel Barnes, Nathaniel Branden, and Albert Ellis, have criticized Rand's focus on the importance of reason. Barnes and Ellis said Rand was too dismissive of emotion and failed to recognize its importance in human life. Branden said Rand's emphasis on reason led her to denigrate emotions and create unrealistic expectations of how consistently rational human beings should be.[154]

Ethics and politics

In ethics, Rand argued for rational and ethical egoism (rational self-interest), as the guiding moral principle. She said the individual should "exist for his own sake, neither sacrificing himself to others nor sacrificing others to himself".[155] Rand referred to egoism as "the virtue of selfishness" in her book of that title.[156] In it, she presented her solution to the is–ought problem by describing a meta-ethical theory that based morality in the needs of "man's survival qua man".[3] She condemned ethical altruism as incompatible with the requirements of human life and happiness,[3] and held the initiation of force was evil and irrational,[157] writing in Atlas Shrugged that, "Force and mind are opposites".[158]

Rand's ethics and politics are the most criticized areas of her philosophy.[159] Several authors, including Robert Nozick and William F. O'Neill in two of the earliest academic critiques of her ideas,[160] said she failed in her attempt to solve the is–ought problem.[161] Critics have called her definitions of egoism and altruism biased and inconsistent with normal usage.[162] Critics from religious traditions oppose her atheism and her rejection of altruism.[163]

Rand's political philosophy emphasized individual rights, including property rights. She considered laissez-faire capitalism the only moral social system because in her view it was the only system based on protecting those rights.[164] Rand opposed collectivism and statism,[165] which she considered to include many specific forms of government, such as communism, fascism, socialism, theocracy, and the welfare state.[166] Her preferred form of government was a constitutional republic that is limited to the protection of individual rights.[167] Although her political views are often classified as conservative or libertarian, Rand preferred the term "radical for capitalism". She worked with conservatives on political projects, but disagreed with them over issues such as religion and ethics.[168][169] Rand denounced libertarianism, which she associated with anarchism.[170][171] She rejected anarchism as a naive theory based in subjectivism that would lead to collectivism in practice.[172]

Several critics, including Nozick, have said her attempt to justify individual rights based on egoism fails.[173] Others, like libertarian philosopher Michael Huemer, have gone further, saying that her support of egoism and her support of individual rights are inconsistent positions.[174] Some critics, like Roy Childs, have said that her opposition to the initiation of force should lead to support of anarchism, rather than limited government.[175][176]

Relationship to other philosophers

 
 
Rand claimed Aristotle (left) as her primary philosophical influence, and strongly criticized Immanuel Kant (right).

Except for Aristotle, Thomas Aquinas and classical liberals, Rand was sharply critical[177] of most philosophers and philosophical traditions known to her.[178][179] Acknowledging Aristotle as her greatest influence,[84] Rand remarked that in the history of philosophy she could only recommend "three A's"—Aristotle, Aquinas, and Ayn Rand.[179] In a 1959 interview with Mike Wallace, when asked where her philosophy came from, she responded: "Out of my own mind, with the sole acknowledgement of a debt to Aristotle, the only philosopher who ever influenced me."[180]

In an article for the Claremont Review of Books, political scientist Charles Murray criticized Rand's claim that her only "philosophical debt" was to Aristotle. He asserted her ideas were derivative of previous thinkers such as John Locke and Friedrich Nietzsche.[181] Rand took early inspiration from Nietzsche,[182][183] and scholars have found indications of this in Rand's private journals. In 1928, she alluded to his idea of the "superman" in notes for an unwritten novel whose protagonist was inspired by the murderer William Edward Hickman.[184] There are other indications of Nietzsche's influence in passages from the first edition of We the Living (which Rand later revised),[185] and in her overall writing style.[3][186] By the time she wrote The Fountainhead, Rand had turned against Nietzsche's ideas,[187][188] and the extent of his influence on her even during her early years is disputed.[189]

Rand considered her philosophical opposite to be Immanuel Kant, whom she referred to as "the most evil man in mankind's history";[190] she believed his epistemology undermined reason and his ethics opposed self-interest.[191] Philosophers George Walsh and Fred Seddon have argued she misinterpreted Kant and exaggerated their differences.[192][193] She was also critical of Plato, and viewed his differences with Aristotle on questions of metaphysics and epistemology as the primary conflict in the history of philosophy.[194]

Rand's relationship with contemporary philosophers was mostly antagonistic. She was not an academic and did not participate in academic discourse.[195][196] She was dismissive of critics and wrote about ideas she disagreed with in a polemical manner without in-depth analysis.[196][197] She was in turn viewed very negatively by many academic philosophers, who dismissed her as an unimportant figure who need not be given serious consideration.[3][198]

Reception and legacy

Critical reception

 
Rand in 1957

The first reviews Rand received were for Night of January 16th. Reviews of the Broadway production were largely positive, but Rand considered even positive reviews to be embarrassing because of significant changes made to her script by the producer.[199] Although Rand believed that her novel We the Living was not widely reviewed, over 200 publications published approximately 125 different reviews. Overall, they were more positive than those she received for her later work.[200] Her novella Anthem received little review attention, both for its first publication in England and for subsequent re-issues.[201]

Rand's first bestseller, The Fountainhead, received far fewer reviews than We the Living, and reviewers' opinions were mixed.[202] Lorine Pruette's positive review in The New York Times, which called the author "a writer of great power" who wrote "brilliantly, beautifully and bitterly",[203] was one that Rand greatly appreciated.[204] There were other positive reviews, but Rand dismissed most of them for either misunderstanding her message or for being in unimportant publications.[202] Some negative reviews said the novel was too long;[4] others called the characters unsympathetic and Rand's style "offensively pedestrian".[202]

Atlas Shrugged was widely reviewed, and many of the reviews were strongly negative.[4][205] Atlas Shrugged received positive reviews from a few publications,[205] but Rand scholar Mimi Reisel Gladstein later wrote that "reviewers seemed to vie with each other in a contest to devise the cleverest put-downs", with reviews including comments that it was "written out of hate" and showed "remorseless hectoring and prolixity".[4] Whittaker Chambers wrote what was later called the novel's most "notorious" review[206][207] for the conservative magazine National Review. He accused Rand of supporting a godless system (which he related to that of the Soviets), claiming, "From almost any page of Atlas Shrugged, a voice can be heard ... commanding: 'To a gas chamber—go!'".[208][n]

Rand's nonfiction received far fewer reviews than her novels. The tenor of the criticism for her first nonfiction book, For the New Intellectual, was similar to that for Atlas Shrugged.[211] Philosopher Sidney Hook likened her certainty to "the way philosophy is written in the Soviet Union",[212] and author Gore Vidal called her viewpoint "nearly perfect in its immorality".[213] These reviews set the pattern for reaction to her ideas among liberal critics.[214] Her subsequent books got progressively less review attention.[211]

Popular interest

 
Atlas Shrugged has sold more than 10 million copies.[215]

With over 37 million copies sold as of 2020, Rand's books continue to be read widely.[215][o] A survey conducted for the Library of Congress and the Book-of-the-Month Club in 1991 asked club members to name the most influential book in their lives. Rand's Atlas Shrugged was the second most popular choice, after the Bible.[217] Although Rand's influence has been greatest in the United States, there has been international interest in her work.[218][219]

Rand's contemporary admirers included fellow novelists, like Ira Levin, Kay Nolte Smith and L. Neil Smith; she has influenced later writers like Erika Holzer, Terry Goodkind,[220] and comic book artist Steve Ditko.[221] Rand provided a positive view of business and subsequently many business executives and entrepreneurs have admired and promoted her work.[222] Businessmen such as John Allison of BB&T and Ed Snider of Comcast Spectacor have funded the promotion of Rand's ideas.[223][224]

Television shows, movies, and video games have referred to Rand and her works.[225][226] Throughout her life she was the subject of many articles in popular magazines,[227] as well as book-length critiques by authors such as the psychologist Albert Ellis[228] and Trinity Foundation president John W. Robbins.[229] Rand or characters based on her figure prominently in novels by American authors,[230] including Kay Nolte Smith, Mary Gaitskill, Matt Ruff, and Tobias Wolff.[231] Nick Gillespie, former editor-in-chief of Reason, remarked that, "Rand's is a tortured immortality, one in which she's as likely to be a punch line as a protagonist. Jibes at Rand as cold and inhuman run through the popular culture."[232] Two movies have been made about Rand's life. A 1997 documentary film, Ayn Rand: A Sense of Life, was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature.[233] The Passion of Ayn Rand, a 1999 television adaptation of the book of the same name, won several awards.[234] Rand's image also appears on a 1999 U.S. postage stamp illustrated by artist Nick Gaetano.[235]

Rand's works, most commonly Anthem or The Fountainhead, are sometimes assigned as secondary school reading.[236] Since 2002, the Ayn Rand Institute has provided free copies of Rand's novels to teachers who promise to include the books in their curriculum.[237] The Institute had distributed 4.5 million copies in the U.S. and Canada by the end of 2020.[216] In 2017, Rand was added to the required reading list for the A Level Politics exam in the United Kingdom.[238]

Political influence

Although she rejected the labels "conservative" and "libertarian",[239][240] Rand has had a continuing influence on right-wing politics and libertarianism.[241][242] Rand is often considered one of the three most important women (along with Rose Wilder Lane and Isabel Paterson) in the early development of modern American libertarianism.[243][244] David Nolan, one founder of the Libertarian Party, said that "without Ayn Rand, the libertarian movement would not exist".[245] In his history of that movement, journalist Brian Doherty described her as "the most influential libertarian of the twentieth century to the public at large".[217] Political scientist Andrew Koppelman called her "the most widely read libertarian".[246] Historian Jennifer Burns referred to her as "the ultimate gateway drug to life on the right".[241]

The political figures who cite Rand as an influence are usually conservatives (often members of the Republican Party),[247] despite Rand taking some atypical positions for a conservative, like being pro-choice and an atheist.[248] She faced intense opposition from William F. Buckley Jr. and other contributors to the conservative National Review magazine, which published numerous criticisms of her writings and ideas.[249] Nevertheless, a 1987 article in The New York Times referred to her as the Reagan administration's "novelist laureate".[250] Republican congressmen and conservative pundits have acknowledged her influence on their lives and have recommended her novels.[251][252][253] She has influenced some conservative politicians outside the U.S., such as Sajid Javid in the United Kingdom, Siv Jensen in Norway, and Ayelet Shaked in Israel.[254][255]

 
A protester's sign at a 2009 Tea Party rally refers to John Galt, the hero of Rand's Atlas Shrugged.

The financial crisis of 2007–2008 spurred renewed interest in her works, especially Atlas Shrugged, which some saw as foreshadowing the crisis.[256][257] Opinion articles compared real-world events with the novel's plot.[247][258] Signs mentioning Rand and her fictional hero John Galt appeared at Tea Party protests.[257] There was increased criticism of her ideas, especially from the political left. Critics blamed the economic crisis on her support of selfishness and free markets, particularly through her influence on Alan Greenspan.[253] In 2015, Adam Weiner said that through Greenspan, "Rand had effectively chucked a ticking time bomb into the boiler room of the US economy".[259] Lisa Duggan said that Rand's novels had "incalculable impact" in encouraging the spread of neoliberal political ideas.[260] In 2021, Cass Sunstein said Rand's ideas could be seen in the tax and regulatory policies of the Trump administration, which he attributed to the "enduring influence" of Rand's fiction.[261]

Academic reaction

During Rand's lifetime, her work received little attention from academic scholars.[262] Since her death, interest in her work has increased gradually.[263][264] In 2009, historian Jennifer Burns identified "three overlapping waves" of scholarly interest in Rand, including "an explosion of scholarship" since 2000.[265] As of that year, few universities included Rand or Objectivism as a philosophical specialty or research area, with many literature and philosophy departments dismissing her as a pop culture phenomenon rather than a subject for serious study.[266] From 2002 to 2012, over 60 colleges and universities accepted grants from the charitable foundation of BB&T Corporation that required teaching Rand's ideas or works; in some cases, the grants were controversial or even rejected because of the requirement to teach about Rand.[267][268]

In 2020, media critic Eric Burns said that, "Rand is surely the most engaging philosopher of my lifetime",[269] but "nobody in the academe pays any attention to her, neither as an author nor a philosopher".[270] That same year, the editor of a collection of critical essays about Rand said academics who disapproved of her ideas had long held "a stubborn resolve to ignore or ridicule" her work,[271] but he believed more academic critics were engaging with her work in recent years.[5]

To her ideas

In 1967, John Hospers discussed Rand's ethical ideas in the second edition of his textbook, An Introduction to Philosophical Analysis. That same year, Hazel Barnes included a chapter critiquing Objectivism in her book An Existentialist Ethics.[272] When the first full-length academic book about Rand's philosophy appeared in 1971, its author declared writing about Rand "a treacherous undertaking" that could lead to "guilt by association" for taking her seriously.[273] A few articles about Rand's ideas appeared in academic journals before her death in 1982, many of them in The Personalist.[274] One of these was "On the Randian Argument" by libertarian philosopher Robert Nozick, who criticized her meta-ethical arguments.[161] Other philosophers, writing in the same publication, argued that Nozick misstated Rand's case.[274] In an article responding to Nozick, Douglas Den Uyl and Douglas B. Rasmussen defended her positions, but described her style as "literary, hyperbolic and emotional".[275]

The Philosophic Thought of Ayn Rand, a 1984 collection of essays about Objectivism edited by Den Uyl and Rasmussen, was the first academic book about Rand's ideas published after her death.[229] In one essay, political writer Jack Wheeler wrote that despite "the incessant bombast and continuous venting of Randian rage", Rand's ethics are "a most immense achievement, the study of which is vastly more fruitful than any other in contemporary thought".[276] In 1987, the Ayn Rand Society was founded as an affiliate of the American Philosophical Association.[277]

In a 1995 entry about Rand in Contemporary Women Philosophers, Jenny A. Heyl described a divergence in how different academic specialties viewed Rand. She said that Rand's philosophy "is regularly omitted from academic philosophy. Yet, throughout literary academia, Ayn Rand is considered a philosopher."[278] Writing in the 1998 edition of the Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, political theorist Chandran Kukathas summarized the mainstream philosophical reception of her work in two parts. He said most commentators view her ethical argument as an unconvincing variant of Aristotle's ethics, and her political theory "is of little interest" because it is marred by an "ill-thought out and unsystematic" effort to reconcile her hostility to the state with her rejection of anarchism.[156] The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies, a multidisciplinary, peer-reviewed academic journal devoted to the study of Rand and her ideas, was established in 1999.[279]

In a 2010 essay for the Cato Institute, Huemer argued very few people find Rand's ideas convincing, especially her ethics. He attributed the attention she receives to her being a "compelling writer", especially as a novelist, noting that Atlas Shrugged outsells Rand's non-fiction works and the works of other philosophers of classical liberalism.[280] In 2012, the Pennsylvania State University Press agreed to take over publication of The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies,[281] and the University of Pittsburgh Press launched an "Ayn Rand Society Philosophical Studies" series based on the Society's proceedings.[282] The Fall 2012 update to the entry about Rand in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy said that "only a few professional philosophers have taken her work seriously".[3] That same year, political scientist Alan Wolfe dismissed Rand as a "nonperson" among academics, an attitude that writer Ben Murnane later described as "the traditional academic view" of Rand.[283] Philosopher Skye C. Cleary wrote in a 2018 article for Aeon that, "Philosophers love to hate Ayn Rand. It's trendy to scoff at any mention of her." However, Cleary said that because many people take Rand's ideas seriously, philosophers "need to treat the Ayn Rand phenomenon seriously" and provide refutations rather than ignoring her.[284]

To her fiction

Academic consideration of Rand as a literary figure during her life was even more limited than the discussion of her philosophy. Mimi Reisel Gladstein could not find any scholarly articles about Rand's novels when she began researching her in 1973, and only three such articles appeared during the rest of the 1970s.[285] Since her death, scholars of English and American literature have continued largely to ignore her work,[286] although attention to her literary work has increased since the 1990s.[287] Several academic book series about important authors cover Rand and her works,[p] as do popular study guides like CliffsNotes and SparkNotes.[289] In The Literary Encyclopedia entry for Rand written in 2001, John David Lewis declared that "Rand wrote the most intellectually challenging fiction of her generation."[290] In 2019, Duggan described Rand's fiction as popular and influential on many readers, despite being easy to criticize for "her cartoonish characters and melodramatic plots, her rigid moralizing, her middle- to lowbrow aesthetic preferences ... and philosophical strivings".[291]

Objectivist movement

 
Rand's heir Leonard Peikoff co-founded the Ayn Rand Institute.

After the closure of the Nathaniel Branden Institute, the Objectivist movement continued in other forms. In the 1970s, Peikoff began delivering courses on Objectivism.[292] In 1979, Peter Schwartz started a newsletter called The Intellectual Activist, which Rand endorsed.[293][294] She also endorsed The Objectivist Forum, a bimonthly magazine founded by Objectivist philosopher Harry Binswanger, which ran from 1980 to 1987.[295]

In 1985, Peikoff worked with businessman Ed Snider to establish the Ayn Rand Institute, a nonprofit organization dedicated to promoting Rand's ideas and works. In 1990, after an ideological disagreement with Peikoff, David Kelley founded the Institute for Objectivist Studies, now known as The Atlas Society.[296][297] In 2001, historian John McCaskey organized the Anthem Foundation for Objectivist Scholarship, which provides grants for scholarly work on Objectivism in academia.[298]

Selected works

Fiction and drama:

Non-fiction:

Notes

  1. ^ Rand's initial citizenship was in the Russian Empire and continued through the Russian Republic and Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, which became part of the Soviet Union.
  2. ^ a b Rand's husband, Charles Francis O'Connor (1897–1979),[1] is not to be confused with the actor Frank A. O'Connor or the writer whose pen name was Frank O'Connor.
  3. ^ Russian: Алиса Зиновьевна Розенбаум, [aˈlʲɪsa zʲɪˈnovʲɪvnə rəzʲɪnˈbaʊm]. Most sources transliterate her given name as either Alisa or Alissa.[2]
  4. ^ The city was renamed Petrograd from the Germanic Saint Petersburg in 1914 because Russia was at war with Germany. In 1924 it was renamed Leningrad following the death of Soviet leader Vladimir Lenin. The name Saint Petersburg was restored in 1991.[11]
  5. ^ She may have taken Rand as her surname because it is graphically similar to a vowelless excerpt Рэнб of her birth surname Розенбаум in Cyrillic.[21][22] Rand said Ayn was adapted from a Finnic name.[23] Some biographical sources question this, suggesting it may come from a nickname based on the Hebrew word עין (ayin, meaning 'eye').[24] Letters from Rand's family do not use such a nickname for her.[25]
  6. ^ Rand's immigration papers anglicized her given name as Alice,[28] so her legal married name became Alice O'Connor, but she did not use that name publicly or with friends.[34][35]
  7. ^ Early in her career, Rand wrote screenplays, plays, and short stories that were not produced or published during her lifetime; some were published later in The Early Ayn Rand.[39]
  8. ^ In 1941, Paramount Pictures produced a movie loosely based on the play. Rand did not participate in the production and was highly critical of the result.[41][42]
  9. ^ In a foreword to the 1959 edition, Rand wrote that We the Living "is as near to an autobiography as I will ever write. ... The plot is invented, the background is not ...".[44]
  10. ^ In 1942, the novel was adapted without Rand's permission into a pair of Italian films, Noi vivi and Addio, Kira. After Rand's post-war legal claims over the piracy were settled, her attorney purchased the negatives. The films were re-edited with Rand's approval and released as We the Living in 1986.[48]
  11. ^ Their friendship ended in 1948 after Paterson made what Rand considered rude comments to valued political allies.[59][60]
  12. ^ A condensed version of the unfinished book was published as an essay titled "The Only Path to Tomorrow" in the January 1944 issue of Reader's Digest.
  13. ^ In summation for the final issue of The Objectivist, she wrote, "I am not primarily an advocate of capitalism, but of egoism; and I am not primarily an advocate of egoism, but of reason. If one recognizes the supremacy of reason and applies it consistently, all the rest follows."[153]
  14. ^ Although she was previously friendly with National Review editor William F. Buckley Jr., Rand cut off all contact with him after the review was published.[209] Historian Jennifer Burns describes the review as a break between Buckley's religious conservatism and non-religious libertarianism.[210]
  15. ^ This total includes 4.5 million copies purchased for free distribution to schools by the Ayn Rand Institute (ARI).[216]
  16. ^ These include Twayne's United States Authors (Ayn Rand by James T. Baker), Twayne's Masterwork Studies (The Fountainhead: An American Novel by Den Uyl and Atlas Shrugged: Manifesto of the Mind by Gladstein), and Re-reading the Canon (Feminist Interpretations of Ayn Rand, edited by Gladstein and Sciabarra).[288]

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Works cited

External links

rand, alice, connor, born, alisa, zinovyevna, rosenbaum, february, january, 1905, march, 1982, better, known, name, russian, born, american, writer, philosopher, known, fiction, developing, philosophical, system, named, objectivism, born, educated, russia, mov. Alice O Connor born Alisa Zinovyevna Rosenbaum c February 2 O S January 20 1905 March 6 1982 better known by her pen name Ayn Rand aɪ n was a Russian born American writer and philosopher 3 She is known for her fiction and for developing a philosophical system she named Objectivism Born and educated in Russia she moved to the United States in 1926 After two early novels that were initially unsuccessful and two Broadway plays she achieved fame with her 1943 novel The Fountainhead In 1957 Rand published her best selling work the novel Atlas Shrugged Afterward until her death in 1982 she turned to non fiction to promote her philosophy publishing her own periodicals and releasing several collections of essays Ayn RandRand in 1943Native nameAlisa Zinovevna RozenbaumBornAlisa Zinovyevna Rosenbaum 1905 02 02 February 2 1905Saint Petersburg Saint Petersburg Governorate Russian EmpireDiedMarch 6 1982 1982 03 06 aged 77 New York City U S Pen nameAyn RandOccupationWriterLanguageEnglishCitizenshipRussia 1905 1931 a United States 1931 1982 Alma materLeningrad State UniversityPeriod1934 1982Notable worksThe Fountainhead 1943 Atlas Shrugged 1957 more SpouseFrank O Connor m 1929 died 1979 wbr b SignatureRand advocated reason as the only means of acquiring knowledge she rejected faith and religion She supported rational and ethical egoism as opposed to altruism In politics she condemned the initiation of force as immoral and opposed collectivism statism and anarchism Instead she supported laissez faire capitalism which she defined as the system based on recognizing individual rights including private property rights Although Rand opposed libertarianism which she viewed as anarchism she is often associated with the modern libertarian movement in the United States In art Rand promoted romantic realism She was sharply critical of most philosophers and philosophical traditions known to her except for Aristotle Thomas Aquinas and classical liberals Rand s books have sold over 37 million copies Her fiction received mixed reviews from literary critics with reviews becoming more negative for her later work 4 Although academic interest in her ideas has grown since her death 5 academic philosophers have generally ignored or rejected her philosophy because of her polemical approach and lack of methodological rigor 3 Her writings have politically influenced some right libertarians and conservatives The Objectivist movement circulates her ideas both to the public and in academic settings Contents 1 Life 1 1 Early life 1 2 Early fiction 1 3 The Fountainhead and political activism 1 4 Atlas Shrugged and Objectivism 1 5 Later years 2 Literary approach and influences 2 1 Influences 3 Philosophy 3 1 Metaphysics and epistemology 3 2 Ethics and politics 3 3 Relationship to other philosophers 4 Reception and legacy 4 1 Critical reception 4 2 Popular interest 4 3 Political influence 4 4 Academic reaction 4 4 1 To her ideas 4 4 2 To her fiction 4 5 Objectivist movement 5 Selected works 6 Notes 7 References 7 1 Works cited 8 External linksLife EditEarly life Edit Rand was born Alisa Zinovyevna Rosenbaum on February 2 1905 to a Russian Jewish bourgeois family living in Saint Petersburg 6 She was the eldest of three daughters of Zinovy Zakharovich Rosenbaum a pharmacist and Anna Borisovna nee Kaplan 7 She was twelve when the October Revolution and the rule of the Bolsheviks under Vladimir Lenin disrupted the life the family had enjoyed previously Her father s business was seized 8 and the family fled to the city of Yevpatoria in Crimea which was initially under the control of the White Army during the Russian Civil War 9 After graduating high school there in June 1921 10 she returned with her family to Petrograd as Saint Petersburg was then named d where they faced desperate conditions occasionally nearly starving 12 Rand s first published work was a monograph in Russian about actress Pola Negri When Russian universities were opened to women after the revolution Rand was among the first to enroll at Petrograd State University 13 At 16 she began her studies in the department of social pedagogy majoring in history 14 Along with many other bourgeois students she was purged from the university shortly before graduating After complaints from a group of visiting foreign scientists many of the purged students were reinstated in the university 15 16 Rand was among these reinstated students and she completed her studies at the renamed Leningrad State University in October 1924 13 17 She then studied for a year at the State Technicum for Screen Arts in Leningrad For an assignment Rand wrote an essay about the Polish actress Pola Negri it became her first published work 18 By this time she had decided her professional surname for writing would be Rand 19 and she adopted the first name Ayn pronounced aɪ n 20 e In late 1925 Rand was granted a visa to visit relatives in Chicago 26 She departed on January 17 1926 27 and arrived in New York City on February 19 1926 28 Intent on staying in the United States to become a screenwriter she lived for a few months with her relatives learning English 29 before leaving for Hollywood California 30 In Hollywood a chance meeting with famed director Cecil B DeMille led to work as an extra in his film The King of Kings and a subsequent job as a junior screenwriter 31 While working on The King of Kings she met an aspiring young actor Frank O Connor b the two married on April 15 1929 She became a permanent American resident in July 1929 and an American citizen on March 3 1931 32 33 f She made several attempts to bring her parents and sisters to the United States but they were unable to obtain permission to emigrate 36 37 Early fiction Edit See also Night of January 16th We the Living and Anthem novella Rand s play Night of January 16th opened on Broadway in 1935 Rand s first literary success came with the sale of her screenplay Red Pawn to Universal Studios in 1932 although it was never produced 38 g Her courtroom drama Night of January 16th first staged in Hollywood in 1934 reopened successfully on Broadway in 1935 Each night a jury was selected from members of the audience based on its vote one of two different endings would be performed 40 h Rand and O Connor moved to New York City in December 1934 so she could handle revisions for the Broadway production 43 Her first novel the semi autobiographical i We the Living was published in 1936 Set in Soviet Russia it focused on the struggle between the individual and the state Initial sales were slow and the American publisher let it go out of print 45 although European editions continued to sell 46 She adapted the story as a stage play but the Broadway production was a failure and closed in less than a week 47 j After the success of her later novels Rand was able to release a revised version in 1959 that has since sold over three million copies 49 Rand started her next major novel The Fountainhead in December 1935 50 but took a break from it in 1937 to write her novella Anthem 51 The novella presents a vision of a dystopian future world in which totalitarian collectivism has triumphed to such an extent that the word I has been forgotten and replaced with we 52 53 It was published in England in 1938 but Rand could not find an American publisher at that time As with We the Living Rand s later success allowed her to get a revised version published in 1946 and this sold over 3 5 million copies 54 The Fountainhead and political activism Edit See also The Fountainhead and The Fountainhead film During the 1940s Rand became politically active She and her husband were full time volunteers for Republican Wendell Willkie s 1940 presidential campaign 55 This work brought her into contact with other intellectuals sympathetic to free market capitalism She became friends with journalist Henry Hazlitt who introduced her to the Austrian School economist Ludwig von Mises Despite philosophical differences with them Rand strongly endorsed the writings of both men throughout her career and they expressed admiration for her Mises once referred to her as the most courageous man in America a compliment that particularly pleased her because he said man instead of woman 56 57 Rand became friends with libertarian writer Isabel Paterson Rand questioned her about American history and politics long into the night during their many meetings and gave Paterson ideas for her only non fiction book The God of the Machine 58 k The Fountainhead was Rand s first bestseller Rand s first major success as a writer came in 1943 with The Fountainhead 61 a novel about an uncompromising young architect named Howard Roark and his struggle against what Rand described as second handers those who attempt to live through others placing others above themselves Twelve publishers rejected it before Bobbs Merrill Company accepted it at the insistence of editor Archibald Ogden who threatened to quit if his employer did not publish it 62 While completing the novel Rand was prescribed the amphetamine Benzedrine to fight fatigue 63 The drug helped her to work long hours to meet her deadline for delivering the novel but afterwards she was so exhausted that her doctor ordered two weeks rest 64 Her use of the drug for approximately three decades may have contributed to mood swings and outbursts described by some of her later associates 65 66 The success of The Fountainhead brought Rand fame and financial security 67 In 1943 she sold the film rights to Warner Bros and returned to Hollywood to write the screenplay Producer Hal B Wallis hired her afterwards as a screenwriter and script doctor Her work for him included the screenplays for Love Letters and You Came Along 68 Her contract with Wallis also allowed time for other projects including a never completed nonfiction treatment of her philosophy to be called The Moral Basis of Individualism 69 l Wikisource has original text related to this article Ayn Rand s testimony before the House of Representatives Committee on Un American Activities While working in Hollywood Rand became involved with the anti Communist Motion Picture Alliance for the Preservation of American Ideals and wrote articles on the group s behalf She also joined the anti Communist American Writers Association 70 In 1947 during the Second Red Scare Rand testified as a friendly witness before the United States House Un American Activities Committee that the 1944 film Song of Russia grossly misrepresented conditions in the Soviet Union portraying life there as much better and happier than it was 71 She also wanted to criticize the lauded 1946 film The Best Years of Our Lives for what she interpreted as its negative presentation of the business world but was not allowed to do so 72 When asked after the hearings about her feelings on the investigations effectiveness Rand described the process as futile 73 After several delays the film version of The Fountainhead was released in 1949 Although it used Rand s screenplay with minimal alterations she disliked the movie from beginning to end and complained about its editing the acting and other elements 74 Atlas Shrugged and Objectivism Edit See also Atlas Shrugged Objectivism and Objectivist movement Rand s novella Anthem was reprinted in the June 1953 issue of the pulp magazine Famous Fantastic Mysteries 75 Following the publication of The Fountainhead Rand received many letters from readers some of whom the book had influenced profoundly 76 In 1951 Rand moved from Los Angeles to New York City where she gathered a group of these admirers that included future chair of the Federal Reserve Alan Greenspan a young psychology student named Nathan Blumenthal later Nathaniel Branden and his wife Barbara and Barbara s cousin Leonard Peikoff Initially the group was an informal gathering of friends who met with Rand at her apartment on weekends to discuss philosophy Later Rand began allowing them to read the manuscript drafts of her new novel Atlas Shrugged 77 In 1954 her close relationship with Nathaniel Branden turned into a romantic affair with the knowledge of their spouses 78 Published in 1957 Atlas Shrugged is considered Rand s magnum opus 79 80 She described the novel s theme as the role of the mind in man s existence and as a corollary the demonstration of a new moral philosophy the morality of rational self interest 81 It advocates the core tenets of Rand s philosophy of Objectivism and expresses her concept of human achievement The plot involves a dystopian United States in which the most creative industrialists scientists and artists respond to a welfare state government by going on strike and retreating to a hidden valley where they build an independent free economy The novel s hero and leader of the strike John Galt describes it as stopping the motor of the world by withdrawing the minds of the individuals contributing most to the nation s wealth and achievements 82 The novel contains an exposition of Objectivism in a lengthy monologue delivered by Galt 83 Despite many negative reviews Atlas Shrugged became an international bestseller 84 but the reaction of intellectuals to the novel discouraged and depressed Rand 65 85 Atlas Shrugged was her last completed work of fiction marking the end of her career as a novelist and the beginning of her role as a popular philosopher 86 In 1958 Nathaniel Branden established the Nathaniel Branden Lectures later incorporated as the Nathaniel Branden Institute NBI to promote Rand s philosophy through public lectures He and Rand co founded The Objectivist Newsletter later renamed The Objectivist in 1962 to circulate articles about her ideas 87 she later republished some of these articles in book form Rand was unimpressed by many of the NBI students 88 and held them to strict standards sometimes reacting coldly or angrily to those who disagreed with her 89 90 91 Critics including some former NBI students and Branden himself later described the culture of the NBI as one of intellectual conformity and excessive reverence for Rand Some described the NBI or the Objectivist movement as a cult or religion 92 93 Rand expressed opinions on a wide range of topics from literature and music to sexuality and facial hair Some of her followers mimicked her preferences wearing clothes to match characters from her novels and buying furniture like hers 94 Some former NBI students believed the extent of these behaviors was exaggerated and the problem was concentrated among Rand s closest followers in New York 91 95 Later years Edit Throughout the 1960s and 1970s Rand developed and promoted her Objectivist philosophy through her nonfiction works and by giving talks to students at colleges and universities 96 97 She began delivering annual lectures at the Ford Hall Forum responding to questions from the audience 98 During these appearances she often took controversial stances on the political and social issues of the day These included supporting abortion rights 99 opposing the Vietnam War and the military draft but condemning many draft dodgers as bums 100 101 supporting Israel in the Yom Kippur War of 1973 against a coalition of Arab nations as civilized men fighting savages 102 103 claiming European colonists had the right to invade and take land inhabited by American Indians 103 104 and calling homosexuality immoral and disgusting despite advocating the repeal of all laws concerning it 105 She endorsed several Republican candidates for president of the United States most strongly Barry Goldwater in 1964 whose candidacy she promoted in several articles for The Objectivist Newsletter 106 107 Grave marker for Rand and her husband at Kensico Cemetery in Valhalla New York 108 In 1964 Nathaniel Branden began an affair with the young actress Patrecia Scott whom he later married Nathaniel and Barbara Branden kept the affair hidden from Rand When she learned of it in 1968 though her romantic involvement with Branden was already over 109 Rand ended her relationship with both Brandens and the NBI was closed 110 She published an article in The Objectivist repudiating Nathaniel Branden for dishonesty and other irrational behavior in his private life 111 In subsequent years Rand and several more of her closest associates parted company 112 Rand underwent surgery for lung cancer in 1974 after decades of heavy smoking 113 In 1976 she retired from writing her newsletter and after her initial objections allowed a social worker employed by her attorney to enroll her in Social Security and Medicare 114 115 During the late 1970s her activities within the Objectivist movement declined especially after the death of her husband on November 9 1979 116 One of her final projects was work on a never completed television adaptation of Atlas Shrugged 117 On March 6 1982 Rand died of heart failure at her home in New York City 118 At her funeral a 6 foot 1 8 m floral arrangement in the shape of a dollar sign was placed near her casket 119 In her will Rand named Peikoff as her heir 120 Literary approach and influences EditRand described her approach to literature as romantic realism 121 She wanted her fiction to present the world as it could be and should be rather than as it was 122 This approach led her to create highly stylized situations and characters Her fiction typically has protagonists who are heroic individualists depicted as fit and attractive 123 Her villains support duty and collectivist moral ideals Rand often describes them as unattractive and some have names that suggest negative traits such as Wesley Mouch in Atlas Shrugged 124 125 Rand considered plot a critical element of literature 126 and her stories typically have what biographer Anne Heller described as tight elaborate fast paced plotting 127 Romantic triangles are a common plot element in Rand s fiction in most of her novels and plays the main female character is romantically involved with at least two men 128 129 Influences Edit Rand admired the novels of Victor Hugo In school Rand read works by Fyodor Dostoevsky Victor Hugo Edmond Rostand and Friedrich Schiller who became her favorites 130 She considered them to be among the top rank of Romantic writers because of their focus on moral themes and their skill at constructing plots 131 Hugo was an important influence on her writing especially her approach to plotting In the introduction she wrote for an English language edition of his novel Ninety Three Rand called him the greatest novelist in world literature 132 Although Rand disliked most Russian literature her depictions of her heroes show the influence of the Russian Symbolists 133 and other nineteenth century Russian writing most notably the 1863 novel What Is to Be Done by Nikolay Chernyshevsky 134 135 Rand s experience of the Russian Revolution and early Communist Russia influenced the portrayal of her villains Beyond We the Living which is set in Russia this influence can be seen in the ideas and rhetoric of Ellsworth Toohey in The Fountainhead 136 and in the destruction of the economy in Atlas Shrugged 137 138 Rand s descriptive style echoes her early career writing scenarios and scripts for movies her novels have many narrative descriptions that resemble early Hollywood movie scenarios They often follow common film editing conventions such as having a broad establishing shot description of a scene followed by close up details and her descriptions of women characters often take a male gaze perspective 139 Philosophy EditMain article Objectivism Rand called her philosophy Objectivism describing its essence as the concept of man as a heroic being with his own happiness as the moral purpose of his life with productive achievement as his noblest activity and reason as his only absolute 140 She considered Objectivism a systematic philosophy and laid out positions on metaphysics aesthetics epistemology ethics and political philosophy 141 Metaphysics and epistemology Edit In metaphysics Rand supported philosophical realism and opposed anything she regarded as mysticism or supernaturalism including all forms of religion 142 Rand believed in free will as a form of agent causation and rejected determinism 143 In aesthetics Rand defined art as a selective re creation of reality according to an artist s metaphysical value judgments 144 According to her art allows philosophical concepts to be presented in a concrete form that can be grasped easily thereby fulfilling a need of human consciousness 145 As a writer the art form Rand focused on most closely was literature She considered romanticism to be the approach that most accurately reflected the existence of human free will 146 In epistemology Rand considered all knowledge to be based on sense perception the validity of which she considered axiomatic 147 and reason which she described as the faculty that identifies and integrates the material provided by man s senses 148 Rand rejected all claims of non perceptual knowledge including instinct intuition revelation or any form of just knowing 149 In her Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology Rand presented a theory of concept formation and rejected the analytic synthetic dichotomy 150 151 She believed epistemology was a foundational branch of philosophy and considered the advocacy of reason to be the single most significant aspect of her philosophy 152 m Commentators including Hazel Barnes Nathaniel Branden and Albert Ellis have criticized Rand s focus on the importance of reason Barnes and Ellis said Rand was too dismissive of emotion and failed to recognize its importance in human life Branden said Rand s emphasis on reason led her to denigrate emotions and create unrealistic expectations of how consistently rational human beings should be 154 Ethics and politics Edit In ethics Rand argued for rational and ethical egoism rational self interest as the guiding moral principle She said the individual should exist for his own sake neither sacrificing himself to others nor sacrificing others to himself 155 Rand referred to egoism as the virtue of selfishness in her book of that title 156 In it she presented her solution to the is ought problem by describing a meta ethical theory that based morality in the needs of man s survival qua man 3 She condemned ethical altruism as incompatible with the requirements of human life and happiness 3 and held the initiation of force was evil and irrational 157 writing in Atlas Shrugged that Force and mind are opposites 158 Rand s ethics and politics are the most criticized areas of her philosophy 159 Several authors including Robert Nozick and William F O Neill in two of the earliest academic critiques of her ideas 160 said she failed in her attempt to solve the is ought problem 161 Critics have called her definitions of egoism and altruism biased and inconsistent with normal usage 162 Critics from religious traditions oppose her atheism and her rejection of altruism 163 Rand s political philosophy emphasized individual rights including property rights She considered laissez faire capitalism the only moral social system because in her view it was the only system based on protecting those rights 164 Rand opposed collectivism and statism 165 which she considered to include many specific forms of government such as communism fascism socialism theocracy and the welfare state 166 Her preferred form of government was a constitutional republic that is limited to the protection of individual rights 167 Although her political views are often classified as conservative or libertarian Rand preferred the term radical for capitalism She worked with conservatives on political projects but disagreed with them over issues such as religion and ethics 168 169 Rand denounced libertarianism which she associated with anarchism 170 171 She rejected anarchism as a naive theory based in subjectivism that would lead to collectivism in practice 172 Several critics including Nozick have said her attempt to justify individual rights based on egoism fails 173 Others like libertarian philosopher Michael Huemer have gone further saying that her support of egoism and her support of individual rights are inconsistent positions 174 Some critics like Roy Childs have said that her opposition to the initiation of force should lead to support of anarchism rather than limited government 175 176 Relationship to other philosophers Edit Rand claimed Aristotle left as her primary philosophical influence and strongly criticized Immanuel Kant right Except for Aristotle Thomas Aquinas and classical liberals Rand was sharply critical 177 of most philosophers and philosophical traditions known to her 178 179 Acknowledging Aristotle as her greatest influence 84 Rand remarked that in the history of philosophy she could only recommend three A s Aristotle Aquinas and Ayn Rand 179 In a 1959 interview with Mike Wallace when asked where her philosophy came from she responded Out of my own mind with the sole acknowledgement of a debt to Aristotle the only philosopher who ever influenced me 180 In an article for the Claremont Review of Books political scientist Charles Murray criticized Rand s claim that her only philosophical debt was to Aristotle He asserted her ideas were derivative of previous thinkers such as John Locke and Friedrich Nietzsche 181 Rand took early inspiration from Nietzsche 182 183 and scholars have found indications of this in Rand s private journals In 1928 she alluded to his idea of the superman in notes for an unwritten novel whose protagonist was inspired by the murderer William Edward Hickman 184 There are other indications of Nietzsche s influence in passages from the first edition of We the Living which Rand later revised 185 and in her overall writing style 3 186 By the time she wrote The Fountainhead Rand had turned against Nietzsche s ideas 187 188 and the extent of his influence on her even during her early years is disputed 189 Rand considered her philosophical opposite to be Immanuel Kant whom she referred to as the most evil man in mankind s history 190 she believed his epistemology undermined reason and his ethics opposed self interest 191 Philosophers George Walsh and Fred Seddon have argued she misinterpreted Kant and exaggerated their differences 192 193 She was also critical of Plato and viewed his differences with Aristotle on questions of metaphysics and epistemology as the primary conflict in the history of philosophy 194 Rand s relationship with contemporary philosophers was mostly antagonistic She was not an academic and did not participate in academic discourse 195 196 She was dismissive of critics and wrote about ideas she disagreed with in a polemical manner without in depth analysis 196 197 She was in turn viewed very negatively by many academic philosophers who dismissed her as an unimportant figure who need not be given serious consideration 3 198 Reception and legacy EditCritical reception Edit Rand in 1957 The first reviews Rand received were for Night of January 16th Reviews of the Broadway production were largely positive but Rand considered even positive reviews to be embarrassing because of significant changes made to her script by the producer 199 Although Rand believed that her novel We the Living was not widely reviewed over 200 publications published approximately 125 different reviews Overall they were more positive than those she received for her later work 200 Her novella Anthem received little review attention both for its first publication in England and for subsequent re issues 201 Rand s first bestseller The Fountainhead received far fewer reviews than We the Living and reviewers opinions were mixed 202 Lorine Pruette s positive review in The New York Times which called the author a writer of great power who wrote brilliantly beautifully and bitterly 203 was one that Rand greatly appreciated 204 There were other positive reviews but Rand dismissed most of them for either misunderstanding her message or for being in unimportant publications 202 Some negative reviews said the novel was too long 4 others called the characters unsympathetic and Rand s style offensively pedestrian 202 Atlas Shrugged was widely reviewed and many of the reviews were strongly negative 4 205 Atlas Shrugged received positive reviews from a few publications 205 but Rand scholar Mimi Reisel Gladstein later wrote that reviewers seemed to vie with each other in a contest to devise the cleverest put downs with reviews including comments that it was written out of hate and showed remorseless hectoring and prolixity 4 Whittaker Chambers wrote what was later called the novel s most notorious review 206 207 for the conservative magazine National Review He accused Rand of supporting a godless system which he related to that of the Soviets claiming From almost any page of Atlas Shrugged a voice can be heard commanding To a gas chamber go 208 n Rand s nonfiction received far fewer reviews than her novels The tenor of the criticism for her first nonfiction book For the New Intellectual was similar to that for Atlas Shrugged 211 Philosopher Sidney Hook likened her certainty to the way philosophy is written in the Soviet Union 212 and author Gore Vidal called her viewpoint nearly perfect in its immorality 213 These reviews set the pattern for reaction to her ideas among liberal critics 214 Her subsequent books got progressively less review attention 211 Popular interest Edit Atlas Shrugged has sold more than 10 million copies 215 With over 37 million copies sold as of 2020 update Rand s books continue to be read widely 215 o A survey conducted for the Library of Congress and the Book of the Month Club in 1991 asked club members to name the most influential book in their lives Rand s Atlas Shrugged was the second most popular choice after the Bible 217 Although Rand s influence has been greatest in the United States there has been international interest in her work 218 219 Rand s contemporary admirers included fellow novelists like Ira Levin Kay Nolte Smith and L Neil Smith she has influenced later writers like Erika Holzer Terry Goodkind 220 and comic book artist Steve Ditko 221 Rand provided a positive view of business and subsequently many business executives and entrepreneurs have admired and promoted her work 222 Businessmen such as John Allison of BB amp T and Ed Snider of Comcast Spectacor have funded the promotion of Rand s ideas 223 224 Television shows movies and video games have referred to Rand and her works 225 226 Throughout her life she was the subject of many articles in popular magazines 227 as well as book length critiques by authors such as the psychologist Albert Ellis 228 and Trinity Foundation president John W Robbins 229 Rand or characters based on her figure prominently in novels by American authors 230 including Kay Nolte Smith Mary Gaitskill Matt Ruff and Tobias Wolff 231 Nick Gillespie former editor in chief of Reason remarked that Rand s is a tortured immortality one in which she s as likely to be a punch line as a protagonist Jibes at Rand as cold and inhuman run through the popular culture 232 Two movies have been made about Rand s life A 1997 documentary film Ayn Rand A Sense of Life was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature 233 The Passion of Ayn Rand a 1999 television adaptation of the book of the same name won several awards 234 Rand s image also appears on a 1999 U S postage stamp illustrated by artist Nick Gaetano 235 Rand s works most commonly Anthem or The Fountainhead are sometimes assigned as secondary school reading 236 Since 2002 the Ayn Rand Institute has provided free copies of Rand s novels to teachers who promise to include the books in their curriculum 237 The Institute had distributed 4 5 million copies in the U S and Canada by the end of 2020 216 In 2017 Rand was added to the required reading list for the A Level Politics exam in the United Kingdom 238 Political influence Edit See also Objectivism and libertarianism Although she rejected the labels conservative and libertarian 239 240 Rand has had a continuing influence on right wing politics and libertarianism 241 242 Rand is often considered one of the three most important women along with Rose Wilder Lane and Isabel Paterson in the early development of modern American libertarianism 243 244 David Nolan one founder of the Libertarian Party said that without Ayn Rand the libertarian movement would not exist 245 In his history of that movement journalist Brian Doherty described her as the most influential libertarian of the twentieth century to the public at large 217 Political scientist Andrew Koppelman called her the most widely read libertarian 246 Historian Jennifer Burns referred to her as the ultimate gateway drug to life on the right 241 The political figures who cite Rand as an influence are usually conservatives often members of the Republican Party 247 despite Rand taking some atypical positions for a conservative like being pro choice and an atheist 248 She faced intense opposition from William F Buckley Jr and other contributors to the conservative National Review magazine which published numerous criticisms of her writings and ideas 249 Nevertheless a 1987 article in The New York Times referred to her as the Reagan administration s novelist laureate 250 Republican congressmen and conservative pundits have acknowledged her influence on their lives and have recommended her novels 251 252 253 She has influenced some conservative politicians outside the U S such as Sajid Javid in the United Kingdom Siv Jensen in Norway and Ayelet Shaked in Israel 254 255 A protester s sign at a 2009 Tea Party rally refers to John Galt the hero of Rand s Atlas Shrugged The financial crisis of 2007 2008 spurred renewed interest in her works especially Atlas Shrugged which some saw as foreshadowing the crisis 256 257 Opinion articles compared real world events with the novel s plot 247 258 Signs mentioning Rand and her fictional hero John Galt appeared at Tea Party protests 257 There was increased criticism of her ideas especially from the political left Critics blamed the economic crisis on her support of selfishness and free markets particularly through her influence on Alan Greenspan 253 In 2015 Adam Weiner said that through Greenspan Rand had effectively chucked a ticking time bomb into the boiler room of the US economy 259 Lisa Duggan said that Rand s novels had incalculable impact in encouraging the spread of neoliberal political ideas 260 In 2021 Cass Sunstein said Rand s ideas could be seen in the tax and regulatory policies of the Trump administration which he attributed to the enduring influence of Rand s fiction 261 Academic reaction Edit During Rand s lifetime her work received little attention from academic scholars 262 Since her death interest in her work has increased gradually 263 264 In 2009 historian Jennifer Burns identified three overlapping waves of scholarly interest in Rand including an explosion of scholarship since 2000 265 As of that year few universities included Rand or Objectivism as a philosophical specialty or research area with many literature and philosophy departments dismissing her as a pop culture phenomenon rather than a subject for serious study 266 From 2002 to 2012 over 60 colleges and universities accepted grants from the charitable foundation of BB amp T Corporation that required teaching Rand s ideas or works in some cases the grants were controversial or even rejected because of the requirement to teach about Rand 267 268 In 2020 media critic Eric Burns said that Rand is surely the most engaging philosopher of my lifetime 269 but nobody in the academe pays any attention to her neither as an author nor a philosopher 270 That same year the editor of a collection of critical essays about Rand said academics who disapproved of her ideas had long held a stubborn resolve to ignore or ridicule her work 271 but he believed more academic critics were engaging with her work in recent years 5 To her ideas Edit In 1967 John Hospers discussed Rand s ethical ideas in the second edition of his textbook An Introduction to Philosophical Analysis That same year Hazel Barnes included a chapter critiquing Objectivism in her book An Existentialist Ethics 272 When the first full length academic book about Rand s philosophy appeared in 1971 its author declared writing about Rand a treacherous undertaking that could lead to guilt by association for taking her seriously 273 A few articles about Rand s ideas appeared in academic journals before her death in 1982 many of them in The Personalist 274 One of these was On the Randian Argument by libertarian philosopher Robert Nozick who criticized her meta ethical arguments 161 Other philosophers writing in the same publication argued that Nozick misstated Rand s case 274 In an article responding to Nozick Douglas Den Uyl and Douglas B Rasmussen defended her positions but described her style as literary hyperbolic and emotional 275 The Philosophic Thought of Ayn Rand a 1984 collection of essays about Objectivism edited by Den Uyl and Rasmussen was the first academic book about Rand s ideas published after her death 229 In one essay political writer Jack Wheeler wrote that despite the incessant bombast and continuous venting of Randian rage Rand s ethics are a most immense achievement the study of which is vastly more fruitful than any other in contemporary thought 276 In 1987 the Ayn Rand Society was founded as an affiliate of the American Philosophical Association 277 In a 1995 entry about Rand in Contemporary Women Philosophers Jenny A Heyl described a divergence in how different academic specialties viewed Rand She said that Rand s philosophy is regularly omitted from academic philosophy Yet throughout literary academia Ayn Rand is considered a philosopher 278 Writing in the 1998 edition of the Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy political theorist Chandran Kukathas summarized the mainstream philosophical reception of her work in two parts He said most commentators view her ethical argument as an unconvincing variant of Aristotle s ethics and her political theory is of little interest because it is marred by an ill thought out and unsystematic effort to reconcile her hostility to the state with her rejection of anarchism 156 The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies a multidisciplinary peer reviewed academic journal devoted to the study of Rand and her ideas was established in 1999 279 In a 2010 essay for the Cato Institute Huemer argued very few people find Rand s ideas convincing especially her ethics He attributed the attention she receives to her being a compelling writer especially as a novelist noting that Atlas Shrugged outsells Rand s non fiction works and the works of other philosophers of classical liberalism 280 In 2012 the Pennsylvania State University Press agreed to take over publication of The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies 281 and the University of Pittsburgh Press launched an Ayn Rand Society Philosophical Studies series based on the Society s proceedings 282 The Fall 2012 update to the entry about Rand in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy said that only a few professional philosophers have taken her work seriously 3 That same year political scientist Alan Wolfe dismissed Rand as a nonperson among academics an attitude that writer Ben Murnane later described as the traditional academic view of Rand 283 Philosopher Skye C Cleary wrote in a 2018 article for Aeon that Philosophers love to hate Ayn Rand It s trendy to scoff at any mention of her However Cleary said that because many people take Rand s ideas seriously philosophers need to treat the Ayn Rand phenomenon seriously and provide refutations rather than ignoring her 284 To her fiction Edit Academic consideration of Rand as a literary figure during her life was even more limited than the discussion of her philosophy Mimi Reisel Gladstein could not find any scholarly articles about Rand s novels when she began researching her in 1973 and only three such articles appeared during the rest of the 1970s 285 Since her death scholars of English and American literature have continued largely to ignore her work 286 although attention to her literary work has increased since the 1990s 287 Several academic book series about important authors cover Rand and her works p as do popular study guides like CliffsNotes and SparkNotes 289 In The Literary Encyclopedia entry for Rand written in 2001 John David Lewis declared that Rand wrote the most intellectually challenging fiction of her generation 290 In 2019 Duggan described Rand s fiction as popular and influential on many readers despite being easy to criticize for her cartoonish characters and melodramatic plots her rigid moralizing her middle to lowbrow aesthetic preferences and philosophical strivings 291 Objectivist movement Edit Rand s heir Leonard Peikoff co founded the Ayn Rand Institute Main article Objectivist movement After the closure of the Nathaniel Branden Institute the Objectivist movement continued in other forms In the 1970s Peikoff began delivering courses on Objectivism 292 In 1979 Peter Schwartz started a newsletter called The Intellectual Activist which Rand endorsed 293 294 She also endorsed The Objectivist Forum a bimonthly magazine founded by Objectivist philosopher Harry Binswanger which ran from 1980 to 1987 295 In 1985 Peikoff worked with businessman Ed Snider to establish the Ayn Rand Institute a nonprofit organization dedicated to promoting Rand s ideas and works In 1990 after an ideological disagreement with Peikoff David Kelley founded the Institute for Objectivist Studies now known as The Atlas Society 296 297 In 2001 historian John McCaskey organized the Anthem Foundation for Objectivist Scholarship which provides grants for scholarly work on Objectivism in academia 298 Selected works EditMain article Bibliography of Ayn Rand and Objectivism Fiction and drama Night of January 16th performed 1934 published 1968 We the Living 1936 revised 1959 Anthem 1938 revised 1946 The Unconquered performed 1940 published 2014 The Fountainhead 1943 Atlas Shrugged 1957 The Early Ayn Rand 1984 Ideal 2015 Non fiction For the New Intellectual 1961 The Virtue of Selfishness 1964 Capitalism The Unknown Ideal 1966 expanded 1967 The Romantic Manifesto 1969 expanded 1975 The New Left 1971 expanded 1975 Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology 1979 expanded 1990 Philosophy Who Needs It 1982 Letters of Ayn Rand 1995 Journals of Ayn Rand 1997 Notes Edit Rand s initial citizenship was in the Russian Empire and continued through the Russian Republic and Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic which became part of the Soviet Union a b Rand s husband Charles Francis O Connor 1897 1979 1 is not to be confused with the actor Frank A O Connor or the writer whose pen name was Frank O Connor Russian Alisa Zinovevna Rozenbaum aˈlʲɪsa zʲɪˈnovʲɪvne rezʲɪnˈbaʊm Most sources transliterate her given name as either Alisa or Alissa 2 The city was renamed Petrograd from the Germanic Saint Petersburg in 1914 because Russia was at war with Germany In 1924 it was renamed Leningrad following the death of Soviet leader Vladimir Lenin The name Saint Petersburg was restored in 1991 11 She may have taken Rand as her surname because it is graphically similar to a vowelless excerpt Renb of her birth surname Rozenbaum in Cyrillic 21 22 Rand said Ayn was adapted from a Finnic name 23 Some biographical sources question this suggesting it may come from a nickname based on the Hebrew word עין ayin meaning eye 24 Letters from Rand s family do not use such a nickname for her 25 Rand s immigration papers anglicized her given name as Alice 28 so her legal married name became Alice O Connor but she did not use that name publicly or with friends 34 35 Early in her career Rand wrote screenplays plays and short stories that were not produced or published during her lifetime some were published later in The Early Ayn Rand 39 In 1941 Paramount Pictures produced a movie loosely based on the play Rand did not participate in the production and was highly critical of the result 41 42 In a foreword to the 1959 edition Rand wrote that We the Living is as near to an autobiography as I will ever write The plot is invented the background is not 44 In 1942 the novel was adapted without Rand s permission into a pair of Italian films Noi vivi and Addio Kira After Rand s post war legal claims over the piracy were settled her attorney purchased the negatives The films were re edited with Rand s approval and released as We the Living in 1986 48 Their friendship ended in 1948 after Paterson made what Rand considered rude comments to valued political allies 59 60 A condensed version of the unfinished book was published as an essay titled The Only Path to Tomorrow in the January 1944 issue of Reader s Digest In summation for the final issue of The Objectivist she wrote I am not primarily an advocate of capitalism but of egoism and I am not primarily an advocate of egoism but of reason If one recognizes the supremacy of reason and applies it consistently all the rest follows 153 Although she was previously friendly with National Review editor William F Buckley Jr Rand cut off all contact with him after the review was published 209 Historian Jennifer Burns describes the review as a break between Buckley s religious conservatism and non religious libertarianism 210 This total includes 4 5 million copies purchased for free distribution to schools by the Ayn Rand Institute ARI 216 These include Twayne s United States Authors Ayn Rand by James T Baker Twayne s Masterwork Studies The Fountainhead An American Novel by Den Uyl and Atlas Shrugged Manifesto of the Mind by Gladstein and Re reading the Canon Feminist Interpretations of Ayn Rand edited by Gladstein and Sciabarra 288 References Edit Heller 2009 p 65 Gladstein 1999 p 121 a b c d e f g Badhwar amp Long 2020 a b c d Gladstein 1999 pp 117 119 a b Cocks 2020 p 15 Heller 2009 p xiii Heller 2009 pp 3 5 Heller 2009 p 31 Heller 2009 p 35 Heller 2009 p 36 Ioffe 2022 Sciabarra 2013 pp 86 87 a b Burns 2009 p 15 Sciabarra 2013 p 72 Heller 2009 p 47 Britting 2004 p 24 Sciabarra 1999 p 1 Heller 2009 pp 49 50 Britting 2004 p 33 Gladstein 1999 p 9 Gladstein 2009 p 7 Heller 2009 p 55 Burns 2009 pp 19 301 Heller 2009 pp 55 57 Milgram Shoshana The Life of Ayn Rand Writing Reading and Related Life Events In Gotthelf amp Salmieri 2016 p 39 Burns 2009 pp 18 19 Heller 2009 pp 50 51 a b Heller 2009 p 53 Hicks Heller 2009 pp 57 60 Britting 2004 pp 34 36 Britting 2004 p 39 Heller 2009 p 71 Milgram Shoshana The Life of Ayn Rand Writing Reading and Related Life Events In Gotthelf amp Salmieri 2016 p 24 Branden 1986 p 72 Heller 2009 pp 96 98 Britting 2004 pp 43 44 52 Britting 2004 pp 40 42 Burns 2009 p 22 Heller 2009 pp 76 92 Heller 2009 p 78 Gladstein 2009 p 87 Heller 2009 p 82 Rand 1995 p xviii Gladstein 2009 p 13 Ralston Richard E Publishing We the Living In Mayhew 2004 p 141 Britting Jeff Adapting We the Living In Mayhew 2004 p 164 Britting Jeff Adapting We the Living In Mayhew 2004 pp 167 176 Ralston Richard E Publishing We the Living In Mayhew 2004 p 143 Heller 2009 p 98 Britting 2004 pp 54 55 Burns 2009 p 50 Heller 2009 p 102 Ralston Richard E Publishing Anthem In Mayhew 2005a pp 24 27 Britting 2004 p 57 Burns 2009 p 114 Heller 2009 p 249 Burns 2009 pp 75 78 Burns 2009 pp 130 131 Heller 2009 pp 214 215 Britting 2004 pp 61 78 Britting 2004 pp 58 61 Burns 2009 p 85 Burns 2009 p 89 a b Burns 2009 p 178 Heller 2009 pp 304 305 Doherty 2007 p 149 Britting 2004 pp 68 71 Heller 2009 p 171 Burns 2009 pp 100 101 123 Mayhew 2005b pp 91 93 188 189 Burns 2009 p 125 Mayhew 2005b p 83 Britting 2004 p 71 Ralston Richard E Publishing Anthem In Mayhew 2005a p 26 Branden 1986 p 181 Heller 2009 pp 240 243 Heller 2009 pp 256 259 Sciabarra 2013 p 106 Mayhew 2005b p 78 Salmieri Gregory Atlas Shrugged on the Role of the Mind in Man s Existence In Mayhew 2009 p 248 Gladstein 1999 p 54 Stolyarov II G The Role and Essence of John Galt s Speech in Ayn Rand s Atlas Shrugged In Younkins 2007 p 99 a b Burns 2009 p 2 Heller 2009 pp 303 306 Younkins 2007 p 1 Heller 2009 p 321 Heller 2009 p 303 Doherty 2007 pp 237 238 Heller 2009 p 329 a b Burns 2009 p 235 Gladstein 2009 pp 105 106 Burns 2009 pp 232 233 Burns 2009 pp 236 237 Doherty 2007 p 235 Branden 1986 pp 315 316 Gladstein 1999 p 14 Gladstein 1999 p 16 Heller 2009 pp 320 321 Burns 2009 pp 228 229 265 Heller 2009 p 352 Bruhwiler 2021 p 202 n114 a b Burns 2009 p 266 Thompson Stephen Topographies of Liberal Thought Rand and Arendt and Race In Cocks 2020 p 237 Heller 2009 pp 362 519 Burns 2009 pp 204 206 Heller 2009 pp 322 323 Heller 2009 p 405 Britting 2004 p 101 Heller 2009 pp 374 375 Heller 2009 pp 378 379 Branden 1986 pp 386 389 Heller 2009 pp 391 393 McConnell 2010 pp 520 521 Weiss 2012 p 62 Branden 1986 pp 392 395 Heller 2009 p 406 Heller 2009 p 410 Gladstein 2009 p 20 Heller 2009 p 400 Burns 2009 p 179 Britting Jeff Adapting The Fountainhead to Film In Mayhew 2006 p 96 Gladstein 1999 p 26 Gladstein 1999 p 27 Baker 1987 pp 99 105 Torres amp Kamhi 2000 p 64 Heller 2009 p 64 Duggan 2019 p 44 Wilt Judith The Romances of Ayn Rand In Gladstein amp Sciabarra 1999 pp 183 184 Britting 2004 pp 17 22 Torres amp Kamhi 2000 p 59 Heller 2009 pp 32 33 Grigorovskaya 2018 pp 315 325 Kizilov 2021 p 106 Weiner 2020 pp 6 7 Rosenthal 2004 pp 220 223 Kizilov 2021 p 109 Rosenthal 2004 pp 200 206 Gladstein Mimi Reisel Ayn Rand s Cinematic Eye In Younkins 2007 pp 109 111 Rand 1992 pp 1170 1171 Gladstein amp Sciabarra 1999 p 2 Den Uyl Douglas J amp Rasmussen Douglas B Ayn Rand s Realism In Den Uyl amp Rasmussen 1986 pp 3 20 Rheins Jason G Objectivist Metaphysics The Primacy of Existence In Gotthelf amp Salmieri 2016 p 260 Torres amp Kamhi 2000 p 26 Sciabarra 2013 pp 191 192 Gotthelf 2000 p 93 Gotthelf 2000 p 54 Salmieri Gregory The Objectivist Epistemology In Gotthelf amp Salmieri 2016 p 283 Sciabarra 2013 p 403 n20 Salmieri amp Gotthelf 2005 p 1997 Gladstein 1999 pp 85 86 Salmieri Gregory The Objectivist Epistemology In Gotthelf amp Salmieri 2016 pp 271 272 Rand 1971 p 1 Sciabarra 2013 pp 173 176 Wright Darryl A Human Society Rand s Social Philosophy In Gotthelf amp Salmieri 2016 p 163 a b Kukathas 1998 p 55 Gotthelf 2000 p 91 Sciabarra 2013 p 252 Den Uyl amp Rasmussen 1986 p 165 Gladstein 1999 pp 100 115 a b Sciabarra 2013 p 224 Sciabarra 2013 p 220 Baker 1987 pp 140 142 Gotthelf 2000 pp 91 92 Lewis John David amp Salmieri Gregory A Philosopher on Her Times Ayn Rand s Political and Cultural Commentary In Gotthelf amp Salmieri 2016 p 353 Ghate Onkar A Free Mind and a Free Market Are Corollaries Rand s Philosophical Perspective on Capitalism In Gotthelf amp Salmieri 2016 p 233 Peikoff 1991 pp 367 368 Burns 2009 pp 174 177 209 230 231 Doherty 2007 pp 189 190 Sciabarra 2013 pp 248 249 Burns 2009 pp 268 269 Sciabarra 2013 pp 261 262 Miller Fred D Jr amp Mossoff Adam Ayn Rand s Theory of Rights An Exposition and Response to Critics In Salmieri amp Mayhew 2019 pp 135 142 Miller Fred D Jr amp Mossoff Adam Ayn Rand s Theory of Rights An Exposition and Response to Critics In Salmieri amp Mayhew 2019 pp 146 148 Sciabarra 2013 p 260 442 n33 Gladstein 1999 p 116 Sciabarra 2013 p 111 O Neill 1977 pp 18 20 a b Sciabarra 2013 p 11 Podritske amp Schwartz 2009 pp 174 175 Murray 2010 Burns 2009 pp 16 22 Sciabarra 2013 pp 94 99 Burns 2009 pp 24 25 Loiret Prunet Valerie Ayn Rand and Feminist Synthesis Rereading We the Living In Gladstein amp Sciabarra 1999 p 97 Sheaffer Robert Rereading Rand on Gender in the Light of Paglia In Gladstein amp Sciabarra 1999 p 313 Heller 2009 p 42 Burns 2009 pp 41 68 Burns 2009 pp 303 304 Rand 1971 p 4 Salmieri Gregory An Introduction to the Study of Ayn Rand In Gotthelf amp Salmieri 2016 p 14 Hill 2001 p 195 Register 2004 p 155 Lennox James G Who Sets the Tone for a Culture Ayn Rand s Approach to the History of Philosophy In Gotthelf amp Salmieri 2016 p 325 Machan 2000 p 121 a b Bruhwiler 2021 pp 24 26 Machan 2000 p 147 Bruhwiler 2021 p 27 Branden 1986 pp 122 124 Berliner Michael S Reviews of We the Living In Mayhew 2004 pp 147 151 Berliner Michael S Reviews of Anthem In Mayhew 2005a pp 55 60 a b c Berliner Michael S The Fountainhead Reviews In Mayhew 2006 pp 77 82 Pruette 1943 p BR7 Heller 2009 p 152 a b Berliner Michael S The Atlas Shrugged Reviews In Mayhew 2009 pp 133 137 Burns 2009 p 174 Doherty 2007 p 659 n4 Chambers 1957 p 596 Heller 2009 pp 285 286 Burns 2009 p 175 a b Gladstein 1999 p 119 Hook 1961 p 28 Vidal 1962 p 234 Burns 2009 pp 193 194 a b Offord 2022 p 12 a b Ayn Rand Institute Annual Report 2020 Ayn Rand Institute December 20 2020 p 17 via Issuu a b Doherty 2007 p 11 Gladstein 2003 pp 384 386 Murnane 2018 pp 2 3 Riggenbach 2004 pp 91 144 Sciabarra 2004 pp 8 11 Burns 2009 pp 168 171 Burns 2009 p 298 Heller 2009 p 412 Sciabarra 2004 pp 4 5 Burns 2009 p 282 Gladstein 1999 p 110 111 Gladstein 1999 p 98 a b Gladstein 1999 p 101 Sciabarra 2004 p 3 Bruhwiler 2021 pp 15 22 Chadwick amp Gillespie 2005 at 1 55 Gladstein 1999 p 128 Gladstein 2009 p 122 Wozniak 2001 p 380 Salmieri Gregory An Introduction to the Study of Ayn Rand In Gotthelf amp Salmieri 2016 p 4 Duffy 2012 Wang 2017 Burns 2009 p 258 Weiss 2012 p 55 a b Burns 2009 p 4 Gladstein 2009 pp 107 108 124 Burns 2015 p 746 Bruhwiler 2021 p 88 Branden 1986 p 414 Koppelman 2022 p 17 a b Doherty 2009 p 54 Weiss 2012 p 155 Burns 2004 pp 139 243 Burns 2009 p 279 Heller 2009 p xii Doherty 2009 p 51 a b Burns 2009 p 283 Bruhwiler 2021 pp 174 184 Rudoren 2015 Burns 2009 pp 283 284 a b Doherty 2009 pp 51 52 Gladstein 2009 p 125 Weiner 2020 p 2 Duggan 2019 p xiii Sunstein 2021 pp 145 146 Sciabarra 2013 pp 1 2 Gladstein 2009 pp 114 122 Salmieri amp Gotthelf 2005 p 1995 Burns 2009 pp 295 296 Gladstein 2009 p 116 Flaherty 2015 Gladstein 2009 pp 116 117 Burns 2020 p 261 Burns 2020 p 259 Cocks 2020 p 11 Burns 2009 pp 188 325 O Neill 1977 p 3 a b Gladstein 1999 p 115 Den Uyl amp Rasmussen 1978 p 203 Wheeler Jack Rand and Aristotle In Den Uyl amp Rasmussen 1986 p 96 Gotthelf 2000 pp 2 25 Heyl 1995 p 223 Sciabarra 2012 p 184 Huemer 2010 Sciabarra 2012 p 183 Seddon 2014 p 75 Murnane 2018 p 3 Cleary 2018 Gladstein 2003 pp 373 374 379 381 Gladstein 2003 p 375 Gladstein 2003 pp 384 391 Sciabarra 2003 p 43 Gladstein 2003 pp 382 389 Lewis 2001 Duggan 2019 p 4 Burns 2009 p 249 Sciabarra 2013 p 402 n5 Burns 2009 p 276 Gladstein 1999 p 79 Burns 2009 pp 280 281 Gladstein 2009 pp 19 114 Gladstein 2009 p 117 Works cited Edit Badhwar Neera amp Long Roderick T Fall 2020 Zalta Edward N ed Ayn Rand Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Archived from the original on March 24 2022 Retrieved May 3 2021 Baker James T 1987 Ayn Rand Twayne s United States Authors Series Boston Twayne Publishers ISBN 978 0 8057 7497 9 Branden Barbara 1986 The Passion of Ayn Rand Garden City New York Doubleday amp Company ISBN 978 0 385 19171 5 Britting Jeff 2004 Ayn Rand Overlook Illustrated Lives New York Overlook Duckworth ISBN 978 1 58567 406 0 Bruhwiler Claudia Franziska 2021 Out of a Gray Fog Ayn Rand s Europe Kindle ed Lanham Maryland Lexington Books ISBN 978 1 79363 686 7 Burns Eric 2020 1957 The Year that Launched the American Future Lanham Maryland Rowman amp Littlefield ISBN 978 1 5381 3995 0 Burns Jennifer November 2004 Godless Capitalism Ayn Rand and the Conservative Movement Modern Intellectual History 1 3 359 385 doi 10 1017 S1479244304000216 S2CID 145596042 Burns Jennifer 2009 Goddess of the Market Ayn Rand and the American Right New York Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 532487 7 Burns Jennifer December 2015 The Three Furies of Libertarianism Rose Wilder Lane Isabel Paterson and Ayn Rand The Journal of American History 102 3 746 774 doi 10 1093 jahist jav504 Chadwick Alex amp Gillespie Nick February 2 2005 Book Bag Marking the Ayn Rand Centennial Day to Day National Public Radio Archived from the original on January 18 2022 Retrieved March 25 2022 Chambers Whittaker December 28 1957 Big Sister is Watching You National Review pp 594 596 Cleary Skye C June 22 2018 Philosophy Shrugged Ignoring Ayn Rand Won t Make Her Go Away Aeon Retrieved September 2 2022 Cocks Neil ed 2020 Questioning Ayn Rand Subjectivity Political Economy and the Arts Palgrave Studies in Literature Culture and Economics Kindle ed Cham Switzerland Palgrave Macmillan ISBN 978 3 030 53072 3 Den Uyl Douglas amp Rasmussen Douglas April 1978 Nozick On the Randian Argument The Personalist 59 2 184 205 Den Uyl Douglas amp Rasmussen Douglas eds 1986 1984 The Philosophic Thought of Ayn Rand paperback ed Chicago University of Illinois Press ISBN 978 0 252 01407 9 Doherty Brian 2007 Radicals for Capitalism A Freewheeling History of the Modern American Libertarian Movement New York Public Affairs Press ISBN 978 1 58648 350 0 Doherty Brian December 2009 She s Back Reason Vol 41 no 7 pp 51 58 Duffy Francesca August 20 2012 Teachers Stocking Up on Ayn Rand Books Education Week Archived from the original on July 21 2021 Retrieved July 21 2021 Duggan Lisa 2019 Mean Girl Ayn Rand and the Culture of Greed Oakland California University of California Press ISBN 978 0 520 96779 3 Flaherty Colleen October 16 2015 Banking on the Curriculum Inside Higher Ed Archived from the original on July 21 2021 Retrieved May 12 2021 Gladstein Mimi Reisel 1999 The New Ayn Rand Companion Westport Connecticut Greenwood Press ISBN 978 0 313 30321 0 Gladstein Mimi Reisel Spring 2003 Ayn Rand Literary Criticism The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies 4 2 373 394 JSTOR 41560226 Gladstein Mimi Reisel 2009 Ayn Rand Major Conservative and Libertarian Thinkers New York Continuum ISBN 978 0 8264 4513 1 Gladstein Mimi Reisel amp Sciabarra Chris Matthew eds 1999 Feminist Interpretations of Ayn Rand Re reading the Canon University Park Pennsylvania Pennsylvania State University Press ISBN 978 0 271 01830 0 Gotthelf Allan 2000 On Ayn Rand Wadsworth Philosophers Series Belmont California Wadsworth Publishing ISBN 978 0 534 57625 7 Gotthelf Allan amp Salmieri Gregory eds 2016 A Companion to Ayn Rand Blackwell Companions to Philosophy Chichester United Kingdom Wiley Blackwell ISBN 978 1 4051 8684 1 Grigorovskaya Anastasiya Vasilievna December 2018 Ayn Rand s Integrated Man and Russian Nietzscheanism The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies 18 2 308 334 doi 10 5325 jaynrandstud 18 2 0308 S2CID 172003322 Heller Anne C 2009 Ayn Rand and the World She Made New York Nan A Talese Doubleday ISBN 978 0 385 51399 9 Heyl Jenny A 1995 Ayn Rand 1905 1982 In Waithe Mary Ellen ed A History of Women Philosophers Contemporary Women Philosophers 1900 Today Vol 4 Boston Kluwer Academic pp 207 224 ISBN 978 0 7923 2807 0 Hicks Stephen R C Ayn Rand 1905 1982 Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Retrieved July 21 2022 Hill R Kevin Fall 2001 Reply to George Walsh Rethinking Rand and Kant The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies 3 1 195 204 JSTOR 41560182 Hook Sidney April 9 1961 Each Man for Himself The New York Times Book Review p 28 Huemer Michael January 22 2010 Why Ayn Rand Some Alternate Answers Cato Unbound Archived from the original on October 12 2012 Retrieved August 18 2012 Ioffe Grigory November 13 2022 St Petersburg Encyclopedia Britannica Retrieved November 17 2022 Kizilov Mikhail July 2021 Re reading Rand through a Russian Lens The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies 21 1 105 110 doi 10 5325 jaynrandstud 21 1 0105 S2CID 235717431 Koppelman Andrew 2022 Burning Down the House How Libertarian Philosophy Was Corrupted by Delusion and Greed Kindle ed New York St Martin s Press ISBN 978 1 250 28014 5 Kukathas Chandran 1998 Rand Ayn 1905 82 In Craig Edward ed Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy Vol 8 New York Routledge pp 55 56 ISBN 978 0 415 07310 3 Lewis John David October 20 2001 Ayn Rand The Literary Encyclopedia Retrieved August 2 2009 Machan Tibor R 2000 Ayn Rand Masterworks in the Western Tradition New York Peter Lang ISBN 978 0 8204 4144 3 Mayhew Robert ed 2004 Essays on Ayn Rand s We the Living Lanham Maryland Lexington Books ISBN 978 0 7391 0697 6 Mayhew Robert ed 2005a Essays on Ayn Rand s Anthem Lanham Maryland Lexington Books ISBN 978 0 7391 1031 7 Mayhew Robert 2005b Ayn Rand and Song of Russia Lanham Maryland Scarecrow Press ISBN 978 0 8108 5276 1 Mayhew Robert ed 2006 Essays on Ayn Rand s The Fountainhead Lanham Maryland Lexington Books ISBN 978 0 7391 1578 7 Mayhew Robert ed 2009 Essays on Ayn Rand s Atlas Shrugged Lanham Maryland Lexington Books ISBN 978 0 7391 2780 3 McConnell Scott 2010 100 Voices An Oral History of Ayn Rand New York New American Library ISBN 978 0 451 23130 7 Murnane Ben 2018 Ayn Rand and the Posthuman The Mind Made Future Cham Switzerland Palgrave Macmillan ISBN 978 3 319 90853 3 Murray Charles Spring 2010 Who Is Ayn Rand Claremont Review of Books Vol 10 no 2 Archived from the original on May 12 2021 Retrieved May 16 2021 Offord Derek 2022 Ayn Rand and the Russian Intelligentsia The Origins of an Icon of the American Right Russian Shorts Kindle ed London Bloomsbury Academic ISBN 978 1 3502 8393 0 O Neill William F 1977 1971 With Charity Toward None An Analysis of Ayn Rand s Philosophy New York Littlefield Adams amp Company ISBN 978 0 8226 0179 1 Peikoff Leonard 1991 Objectivism The Philosophy of Ayn Rand New York E P Dutton ISBN 978 0 452 01101 4 Podritske Marlene amp Schwartz Peter eds 2009 Objectively Speaking Ayn Rand Interviewed Lanham Maryland Lexington Books ISBN 978 0 7391 3195 4 Pruette Lorine May 16 1943 Battle Against Evil The New York Times p BR7 Rand Ayn September 1971 Brief Summary The Objectivist Vol 10 no 9 pp 1 4 Rand Ayn 1992 1957 Atlas Shrugged 35th anniversary ed New York E P Dutton ISBN 978 0 525 94892 6 Rand Ayn 1995 1936 Foreword We the Living 60th Anniversary ed New York Dutton ISBN 978 0 525 94054 8 Register Bryan 2004 Review Ayn Rand Objectivists and the History of Philosophy Utopian Studies 15 1 153 156 JSTOR 20718655 Riggenbach Jeff Fall 2004 Ayn Rand s Influence on American Popular Fiction The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies 6 1 91 144 JSTOR 41560271 Rosenthal Bernice Glatzer Fall 2004 The Russian Subtext of Atlas Shrugged and The Fountainhead The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies 6 1 195 225 JSTOR 41560275 Rudoren Jodi May 15 2015 Ayelet Shaked Israel s New Justice Minister Shrugs Off Critics in Her Path The New York Times Archived from the original on May 26 2021 Retrieved June 14 2021 Salmieri Gregory amp Gotthelf Allan 2005 Rand Ayn 1905 82 In Shook John R ed The Dictionary of Modern American Philosophers Vol 4 London Thoemmes Continuum pp 1995 1999 ISBN 978 1 84371 037 0 Salmieri Gregory amp Mayhew Robert eds 2019 Foundations of a Free Society Reflections on Ayn Rand s Political Philosophy Ayn Rand Society Philosophical Studies Pittsburgh University of Pittsburgh Press ISBN 978 0 8229 4548 2 Sciabarra Chris Matthew Fall 1999 The Rand Transcript The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies 1 1 1 26 JSTOR 41560109 Sciabarra Chris Matthew January 2003 Recent Work Ayn Rand Philosophical Books 44 1 42 52 doi 10 1111 1468 0149 00280 Sciabarra Chris Matthew Fall 2004 The Illustrated Rand The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies 6 1 1 20 JSTOR 41560268 Sciabarra Chris Matthew December 2012 Expanding Boards Expanding Horizons The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies 12 2 183 191 doi 10 5325 jaynrandstud 12 2 0183 JSTOR 41717246 S2CID 246626268 Sciabarra Chris Matthew 2013 Ayn Rand The Russian Radical 2nd ed University Park Pennsylvania Pennsylvania State University Press ISBN 978 0 271 06374 4 Seddon Fred July 2014 Ayn Rand Society Philosophical Studies The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies 14 1 75 79 doi 10 5325 jaynrandstud 14 1 0075 S2CID 169272272 Sunstein Cass R 2021 This Is Not Normal The Politics of Everyday Expectations New Haven Yale University Press ISBN 978 0 300 25350 4 Torres Louis amp Kamhi Michelle Marder 2000 What Art Is The Esthetic Theory of Ayn Rand Chicago Open Court Publishing ISBN 0 8126 9372 8 Vidal Gore 1962 Two Immoralists Orville Prescott and Ayn Rand Rocking the Boat Boston Little Brown pp 226 234 OCLC 291123 Reprinted from Esquire July 1961 Wang Amy X March 27 2017 Ayn Rand s Objectivist Philosophy Is Now Required Reading for British Teens Quartz Archived from the original on August 9 2021 Retrieved July 21 2021 Weiner Adam 2020 2016 How Bad Writing Destroyed the World Ayn Rand and the Literary Origins of the Financial Crisis Kindle ed London Bloomsbury Academic ISBN 978 1 5013 1314 1 Weiss Gary 2012 Ayn Rand Nation The Hidden Struggle for America s Soul New York St Martin s Press ISBN 978 0 312 59073 4 Wozniak Maurice D ed 2001 Krause Minkus Standard Catalog of U S Stamps 5th ed Iola Wisconsin Krause Publications ISBN 978 0 87349 321 5 Younkins Edward W ed 2007 Ayn Rand s Atlas Shrugged A Philosophical and Literary Companion Burlington Vermont Ashgate Publishing ISBN 978 0 7546 5533 6 External links EditAyn Rand at Wikipedia s sister projects Media from Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Frequently Asked Questions About Ayn Rand from the Ayn Rand Institute Works by Ayn Rand at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Ayn Rand at Internet Archive Works by Ayn Rand at LibriVox public domain audiobooks Rand s papers at The Library of Congress Ayn Rand Lexicon searchable database Ayn Rand at IMDb Works by Ayn Rand at Open Library Ayn Rand at Curlie Writings of Ayn Rand from C SPAN s American Writers A Journey Through History Portals Books Libertarianism Philosophy Politics Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Ayn Rand amp oldid 1143152209, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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