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Psocoptera

January 01, 1970

Psocoptera (/soʊˈkɒptərə/) are a paraphyletic group of insects that are commonly known as booklice, barklice or barkflies.[1] The name Psocoptera has been replaced with Psocodea in recent literature, with the inclusion of the former order Phthiraptera into Psocodea (as part of the suborder Troctomorpha).[2][3][4][5]

Psocoptera
Temporal range: 163–0 Ma Late Jurassic – Recent
Echmepteryx hageni
Unidentified barklouse
Scientific classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
(unranked): Paraneoptera
(unranked): Psocoptera
Groups included
Cladistically included but traditionally excluded taxa

These insects first appeared in the Permian period, 295–248 million years ago.[citation needed] They are often regarded as the most primitive of the hemipteroids.[6] Their name originates from the Greek word ψῶχος (psokhos), meaning "gnawed" or "rubbed" and πτερά (ptera), meaning "wings".[7] There are more than 5,500 species in 41 families in three suborders. Many of these species have only been described in the early twenty-first century.[8] They range in size from 1–10 millimetres (1/32–13/32 in) in length.

The species known as booklice received their common name because they are commonly found amongst old books—they feed upon the paste used in binding. The barklice are found on trees, feeding on algae and lichen.

Anatomy and biology edit

Psocids are small, scavenging insects with a relatively generalized body plan. They feed primarily on fungi, algae, lichen, and organic detritus in nature but are also known to feed on starch-based household items like grains, wallpaper glue and book bindings.[9] They have chewing mandibles, and the central lobe of the maxilla is modified into a slender rod. This rod is used to brace the insect while it scrapes up detritus with its mandibles. They also have a swollen forehead, large compound eyes, and three ocelli. Their bodies are soft with a segmented abdomen.[10] Some species can spin silk from glands in their mouth.[11] They may festoon large sections of trunk and branches in dense swathes of silk.[12]

Some psocids have small ovipositors that are up to 1.5 times as long as the hindwings, and all four wings have a relatively simple venation pattern, with few cross-veins. The wings, if present, are held tent-like over the body.[10] The legs are slender and adapted for jumping, rather than gripping, as in the true lice. The abdomen has nine segments, and no cerci.[11]

There is often considerable variation in the appearance of individuals within the same species. Many have no wings or ovipositors, and may have a different shape to the thorax. Other, more subtle, variations are also known, such as changes to the development of the setae. The significance of such changes is uncertain, but their function appears to be different from similar variations in, for example, aphids. Like aphids, however, many psocids are parthenogenic, and the presence of males may even vary between different races of the same species.[11]

Psocids lay their eggs in minute crevices or on foliage, although a few species are known to be viviparous. The young are born as miniature, wingless versions of the adult. These nymphs typically molt six times before reaching full adulthood. The total lifespan of a psocid is rarely more than a few months.[11]

Booklice range from approximately 1–2 millimetres (1/32–3/32 in). Some species are wingless and they are easily mistaken for bedbug nymphs and vice versa. Booklouse eggs take two to four weeks to hatch and can reach adulthood approximately two months later. Adult booklice can live for six months. Besides damaging books, they also sometimes infest food storage areas, where they feed on dry, starchy materials. Although some psocids feed on starchy household products, the majority of psocids are woodland insects with little to no contact with humans, therefore they are of little economic importance. They are scavengers and do not bite humans.[13]

Psocids can affect the ecosystems in which they reside. Many psocids can affect decomposition by feeding on detritus, especially in environments with lower densities of predacious micro arthropods that may eat psocids.[14] The nymph of a psocid species, Psilopsocus mimulus, is the first known wood-boring psocopteran. These nymphs make their own burrows in woody material, rather than inhabiting vacated, existing burrows. This boring activity can create habitats that other organisms may use.[15]

Interaction with humans edit

Some species of psocids, such as Liposcelis bostrychophila, are common pests of stored products.[16] Psocids, among other arthropods, have been studied to develop new pest control techniques in food manufacturing. One study found that modified atmospheres during packing (MAP) helped to control the reoccurrence of pests during the manufacturing process and prevented further infestation in the final products that go to consumers.[17]

Classification edit

In the 2000s, morphological and molecular phylogenetic evidence has shown that the parasitic lice (Phthiraptera) evolved from within the psocopteran suborder Troctomorpha, thus making Psocoptera paraphyletic with respect to Phthiraptera.[18][19] In modern systematics, Psocoptera and Phthiraptera are therefore treated together in the order Psocodea.[20]

Here is a cladogram showing the relationships within Psocodea, with the former grouping Psocoptera highlighted:[2]

References edit

  1. ^ "National Barkfly (Outdoor Psocoptera) Recording Scheme". www.brc.ac.uk.
  2. ^ a b De Moya, Robert S.; Yoshizawa, Kazunori; Walden, Kimberly K. O.; Sweet, Andrew D.; et al. (2021). "Phylogenomics of Parasitic and Nonparasitic Lice (Insecta: Psocodea): Combining Sequence Data and Exploring Compositional Bias Solutions in Next Generation Data Sets". Systematic Biology. 70 (4): 719–738. doi:10.1093/sysbio/syaa075. PMID 32979270.
  3. ^ Johnson, Kevin P.; Smith, Vincent S. (2021). "Psocodea species file online, Version 5.0". Retrieved 2021-11-01.
  4. ^ "Psocodea". GBIF. Retrieved 2021-11-01.
  5. ^ "Psocodea". ITIS. Retrieved 2021-11-01.
  6. ^ Christopher O'Toole (2002). Firefly Encyclopedia of Insects and Spiders. Toronto: Firefly Books. ISBN 978-1-55297-612-8.
  7. ^ John R. Meyer (5 March 2005). . North Carolina State University. Archived from the original on 5 February 2007.
  8. ^ Alfonso N. García Aldrete (2006). "New genera of Psocoptera (Insecta), from Mexico, Belize and Ecuador (Psoquillidae, Ptiloneuridae, Lachesillidae)" (PDF). Zootaxa. 1319: 1–14. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.1319.1.1.
  9. ^ Green, P.W.C.; Turner, B.D. (January 15, 2004). "Food-selection by the booklouse, Liposcelis bostrychophila Badonnel (Psocoptera: Liposcelididae)". Journal of Stored Products Research. 41 (1): 103–113. doi:10.1016/j.jspr.2004.01.002.
  10. ^ a b Gullan & Granston (2005). The Insects: An Outline of Entomology 3rd Edition. pp. 499–505.
  11. ^ a b c d Hoell, H.V., Doyen, J.T. & Purcell, A.H. (1998). Introduction to Insect Biology and Diversity, 2nd ed. Oxford University Press. pp. 404–406. ISBN 978-0-19-510033-4.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  12. ^ "Psocoptera - Barklice, Booklice, Psocids -- Discover Life". www.discoverlife.org.
  13. ^ "Stored Product Pests: Booklice (Psocids) FAC". US Army Public Health Command fact sheet.
  14. ^ Whitford, W.G. (2000). Invertebrates as webmasters in ecosystems: Keystone arthropods as webmasters in desert ecosystems. UK: CAB International. pp. 25–43. ISBN 0-85199-394-X.
  15. ^ Smithers, C.N. (1995). "Psilopsocus mimulus Smithers (Psocoptera: Psilopsocidae), The first known wood boring psocopteran". Australian Journal of Entomology. 34 (2): 117–120. doi:10.1111/j.1440-6055.1995.tb01299.x.
  16. ^ Stejskal, V.; Hubert, J.; Aulicky, R.; Kucerova, Z. (October 2015). "Overview of present and past and pest-associated risks in stored food and feed products: European perspective". Journal of Stored Products Research. 64: 122–132. doi:10.1016/j.jspr.2014.12.006.
  17. ^ Riudavets, Jordi; Castañé, Cristina; Alomar, Oscar; Pons, María José; Gabarra, Rosa (April 2009). "Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) as an alternative measure for controlling ten pests that attack processed food products". Journal of Stored Products Research. 45 (2): 91–96. doi:10.1016/j.jspr.2008.10.001.
  18. ^ Yoshizawa, K.; Johnson, K. P. (2006). "Morphology of male genitalia in lice and their relatives and phylogenetic implications". Systematic Entomology. 31 (2): 350–361. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3113.2005.00323.x.
  19. ^ Johnson, K. P.; Yoshizawa, K.; Smith, V. S. (2004). "Multiple origins of parasitism in lice". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. 271 (1550): 1771–1776. doi:10.1098/rspb.2004.2798. PMC 1691793. PMID 15315891.
  20. ^ Bess, Emilie, Vince Smith, Charles Lienhard, and Kevin P. Johnson (2006) Psocodea. Parasitic Lice (=Phthiraptera), Book Lice, and Bark Lice. Version 8 October 2006 (under construction). http://tolweb.org/Psocodea/8235/2006.10.08 in The Tree of Life Web Project, http://tolweb.org/

External links edit

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Psocoptera.
 
Wikispecies has information related to Psocoptera.
  • National Barkfly Recording Scheme
  • Psoco Net
  • Tree of Life: Psocodea
  • Archipsocus nomas, a webbing barklouse on the UF / IFAS Featured Creatures Web site

January 01, 1970
psocoptera, paraphyletic, group, insects, that, commonly, known, booklice, barklice, barkflies, name, been, replaced, with, psocodea, recent, literature, with, inclusion, former, order, phthiraptera, into, psocodea, part, suborder, troctomorpha, temporal, rang. Psocoptera s oʊ ˈ k ɒ p t er e are a paraphyletic group of insects that are commonly known as booklice barklice or barkflies 1 The name Psocoptera has been replaced with Psocodea in recent literature with the inclusion of the former order Phthiraptera into Psocodea as part of the suborder Troctomorpha 2 3 4 5 PsocopteraTemporal range 163 0 Ma PreꞒ Ꞓ O S D C P T J K Pg N Late Jurassic Recent Echmepteryx hageni Unidentified barklouse Scientific classification Domain Eukaryota Kingdom Animalia Phylum Arthropoda Class Insecta unranked Paraneoptera unranked Psocoptera Groups included Psocomorpha 26 families Troctomorpha 34 families Trogiomorpha 7 families Parapsocida Cladistically included but traditionally excluded taxa Phthiraptera These insects first appeared in the Permian period 295 248 million years ago citation needed They are often regarded as the most primitive of the hemipteroids 6 Their name originates from the Greek word psῶxos psokhos meaning gnawed or rubbed and ptera ptera meaning wings 7 There are more than 5 500 species in 41 families in three suborders Many of these species have only been described in the early twenty first century 8 They range in size from 1 10 millimetres 1 32 13 32 in in length The species known as booklice received their common name because they are commonly found amongst old books they feed upon the paste used in binding The barklice are found on trees feeding on algae and lichen Contents 1 Anatomy and biology 2 Interaction with humans 3 Classification 4 References 5 External linksAnatomy and biology editPsocids are small scavenging insects with a relatively generalized body plan They feed primarily on fungi algae lichen and organic detritus in nature but are also known to feed on starch based household items like grains wallpaper glue and book bindings 9 They have chewing mandibles and the central lobe of the maxilla is modified into a slender rod This rod is used to brace the insect while it scrapes up detritus with its mandibles They also have a swollen forehead large compound eyes and three ocelli Their bodies are soft with a segmented abdomen 10 Some species can spin silk from glands in their mouth 11 They may festoon large sections of trunk and branches in dense swathes of silk 12 Some psocids have small ovipositors that are up to 1 5 times as long as the hindwings and all four wings have a relatively simple venation pattern with few cross veins The wings if present are held tent like over the body 10 The legs are slender and adapted for jumping rather than gripping as in the true lice The abdomen has nine segments and no cerci 11 There is often considerable variation in the appearance of individuals within the same species Many have no wings or ovipositors and may have a different shape to the thorax Other more subtle variations are also known such as changes to the development of the setae The significance of such changes is uncertain but their function appears to be different from similar variations in for example aphids Like aphids however many psocids are parthenogenic and the presence of males may even vary between different races of the same species 11 Psocids lay their eggs in minute crevices or on foliage although a few species are known to be viviparous The young are born as miniature wingless versions of the adult These nymphs typically molt six times before reaching full adulthood The total lifespan of a psocid is rarely more than a few months 11 Booklice range from approximately 1 2 millimetres 1 32 3 32 in Some species are wingless and they are easily mistaken for bedbug nymphs and vice versa Booklouse eggs take two to four weeks to hatch and can reach adulthood approximately two months later Adult booklice can live for six months Besides damaging books they also sometimes infest food storage areas where they feed on dry starchy materials Although some psocids feed on starchy household products the majority of psocids are woodland insects with little to no contact with humans therefore they are of little economic importance They are scavengers and do not bite humans 13 Psocids can affect the ecosystems in which they reside Many psocids can affect decomposition by feeding on detritus especially in environments with lower densities of predacious micro arthropods that may eat psocids 14 The nymph of a psocid species Psilopsocus mimulus is the first known wood boring psocopteran These nymphs make their own burrows in woody material rather than inhabiting vacated existing burrows This boring activity can create habitats that other organisms may use 15 Interaction with humans editSome species of psocids such as Liposcelis bostrychophila are common pests of stored products 16 Psocids among other arthropods have been studied to develop new pest control techniques in food manufacturing One study found that modified atmospheres during packing MAP helped to control the reoccurrence of pests during the manufacturing process and prevented further infestation in the final products that go to consumers 17 Classification editIn the 2000s morphological and molecular phylogenetic evidence has shown that the parasitic lice Phthiraptera evolved from within the psocopteran suborder Troctomorpha thus making Psocoptera paraphyletic with respect to Phthiraptera 18 19 In modern systematics Psocoptera and Phthiraptera are therefore treated together in the order Psocodea 20 Here is a cladogram showing the relationships within Psocodea with the former grouping Psocoptera highlighted 2 Psocodea Troctomorpha Phthiraptera Liposcelididae Pachytroctidae Sphaeropsocidae Amphientometae Psocomorpha Trogiomorpha PsocopteraReferences edit National Barkfly Outdoor Psocoptera Recording Scheme www brc ac uk a b De Moya Robert S Yoshizawa Kazunori Walden Kimberly K O Sweet Andrew D et al 2021 Phylogenomics of Parasitic and Nonparasitic Lice Insecta Psocodea Combining Sequence Data and Exploring Compositional Bias Solutions in Next Generation Data Sets Systematic Biology 70 4 719 738 doi 10 1093 sysbio syaa075 PMID 32979270 Johnson Kevin P Smith Vincent S 2021 Psocodea species file online Version 5 0 Retrieved 2021 11 01 Psocodea GBIF Retrieved 2021 11 01 Psocodea ITIS Retrieved 2021 11 01 Christopher O Toole 2002 Firefly Encyclopedia of Insects and Spiders Toronto Firefly Books ISBN 978 1 55297 612 8 John R Meyer 5 March 2005 Psocoptera North Carolina State University Archived from the original on 5 February 2007 Alfonso N Garcia Aldrete 2006 New genera of Psocoptera Insecta from Mexico Belize and Ecuador Psoquillidae Ptiloneuridae Lachesillidae PDF Zootaxa 1319 1 14 doi 10 11646 zootaxa 1319 1 1 Green P W C Turner B D January 15 2004 Food selection by the booklouse Liposcelis bostrychophila Badonnel Psocoptera Liposcelididae Journal of Stored Products Research 41 1 103 113 doi 10 1016 j jspr 2004 01 002 a b Gullan amp Granston 2005 The Insects An Outline of Entomology 3rd Edition pp 499 505 a b c d Hoell H V Doyen J T amp Purcell A H 1998 Introduction to Insect Biology and Diversity 2nd ed Oxford University Press pp 404 406 ISBN 978 0 19 510033 4 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Psocoptera Barklice Booklice Psocids Discover Life www discoverlife org Stored Product Pests Booklice Psocids FAC US Army Public Health Command fact sheet Whitford W G 2000 Invertebrates as webmasters in ecosystems Keystone arthropods as webmasters in desert ecosystems UK CAB International pp 25 43 ISBN 0 85199 394 X Smithers C N 1995 Psilopsocus mimulus Smithers Psocoptera Psilopsocidae The first known wood boring psocopteran Australian Journal of Entomology 34 2 117 120 doi 10 1111 j 1440 6055 1995 tb01299 x Stejskal V Hubert J Aulicky R Kucerova Z October 2015 Overview of present and past and pest associated risks in stored food and feed products European perspective Journal of Stored Products Research 64 122 132 doi 10 1016 j jspr 2014 12 006 Riudavets Jordi Castane Cristina Alomar Oscar Pons Maria Jose Gabarra Rosa April 2009 Modified atmosphere packaging MAP as an alternative measure for controlling ten pests that attack processed food products Journal of Stored Products Research 45 2 91 96 doi 10 1016 j jspr 2008 10 001 Yoshizawa K Johnson K P 2006 Morphology of male genitalia in lice and their relatives and phylogenetic implications Systematic Entomology 31 2 350 361 doi 10 1111 j 1365 3113 2005 00323 x Johnson K P Yoshizawa K Smith V S 2004 Multiple origins of parasitism in lice Proceedings of the Royal Society of London 271 1550 1771 1776 doi 10 1098 rspb 2004 2798 PMC 1691793 PMID 15315891 Bess Emilie Vince Smith Charles Lienhard and Kevin P Johnson 2006 Psocodea Parasitic Lice Phthiraptera Book Lice and Bark Lice Version 8 October 2006 under construction http tolweb org Psocodea 8235 2006 10 08 in The Tree of Life Web Project http tolweb org External links edit nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to Psocoptera nbsp Wikispecies has information related to Psocoptera National Barkfly Recording Scheme Psoco Net Tree of Life Psocodea Archipsocus nomas a webbing barklouse on the UF IFAS Featured Creatures Web site Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Psocoptera amp oldid 1222163219, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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