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Professional practice of behavior analysis

January 01, 1970

The professional practice of behavior analysis is a domain of behavior analysis, the others being radical behaviorism, experimental analysis of behavior and applied behavior analysis.[1] The practice of behavior analysis is the delivery of interventions to consumers that are guided by the principles of radical behaviorism and the research of both experimental and applied behavior analysis. Professional practice seeks to change specific behavior through the implementation of these principles.[1] In many states, practicing behavior analysts hold a license, certificate, or registration. In other states, there are no laws governing their practice and, as such, the practice may be prohibited as falling under the practice definition of other mental health professionals. This is rapidly changing as behavior analysts are becoming more and more common.

The professional practice of behavior analysis is a hybrid discipline with specific influences coming from counseling, psychology, education, special education, communication disorders, physical therapy and criminal justice. As a discipline it has its own conferences, organizations, certification processes, and awards.

Defining the scope of practice edit

Main article: Licensed behavior analysts

The Behavior Analysis Certification Board (BACB) defines behavior analysis as:[2]

The field of behavior analysis grew out of the scientific study of principles of learning and behavior. It has two main branches: experimental and applied behavior analysis. The experimental analysis of behavior (EAB) is the basic science of this field and has over many decades accumulated a substantial and well-respected research literature. This literature provides the scientific foundation for applied behavior analysis (ABA), which is both an applied science that develops methods of changing behavior and a profession that provides services to meet diverse behavioral needs. Briefly, professionals in applied behavior analysis engage in the specific and comprehensive use of principles of learning, including operant and respondent learning, in order to address behavioral needs of widely varying individuals in diverse settings. Examples of these applications include: managing behavior of children in school settings; enhancing the abilities, and choices of children and adults with different kinds of disabilities; training animals; and augmenting the performance and satisfaction of employees in organizations and businesses.[3]

Behavior analysis is based on the principles of operant and respondent conditioning. Applied behavior analysis (ABA) include the use of behavior management, behavioral engineering and behavior therapy.

Currently in the U.S. some behavior analysts at the masters level are licensed; others work with an international certification where licenses are unavailable, although this may not be allowed in some states or jurisdictions. At the doctoral level many are licensed as psychologists with Diplomate status in behavioral psychology or licensed as licensed behavior analysts. Diplomate status alone, however, does not allow one to practice in every state and each state's regulatory statute must be reviewed for the appropriateness and legality of practice.

Certification edit

The Behavior Analyst Certification Board (BACB) offers a technical certificate in behavior analysis. The American Psychological Association offers a diplomate (post PhD and licensed certification) in behavioral psychology.[4]

The meaning of certification edit

BACB is a private non-profit organization without governmental powers to regulate behavior analytic practice. However, it does wield the power to suspend or revoke certification from those certified if they violate the strict ethical guidelines of practice. As many states are without a licensure act, this has been sufficient to deter violators as it removes their ability to vendor with the state, schools, and insurance companies under that certification. While the BACB certification means that candidates have satisfied entry-level requirements in behavior analytic training, certificants are able to practice independently within the scope of their practice and training. Thus, a BCBA (such as those who go into marketing, engineering, or other approved fields in which BCBAs work) who has never trained to work nor worked with children diagnosed with autism are discouraged to do so independently. Most health insurance companies also recognize the BCBA credential as one conferring the capability and the right to practice independently in many states (including California with the passage of SB 946 into law).

Some states still require certificants to be licensed by their respective jurisdictions for independent practice when treating behavioral health or medical problems, and a number of states including Arizona and Nevada have created a specific BCBA licensing program. Licensed certificants must operate within the scope of their license and within their areas of expertise. Where the government regulates behavior analytic services, unlicensed certificants may be supervised by a licensed professional and operate within the scope of their supervisor's license when treating disorders if that jurisdiction allows such supervision. Unlicensed certificants who provide behavior analytic training for educational or optimal performance purposes do not require licensed supervision, unless the law or precedent prohibits such practice. Where the government does not regulate the treatment of medical or psychological disorders certificants should practice in accord with the laws of their state, province, or country. All certificants must practice within their personal areas of expertise.

Licensure edit

The model licensing act for behavior analysts has been revised several times to reflect best practices and policy. Previous versions included provisions that would have made it in practice more difficult to obtain the necessary experiential hours for license and independent practice as a clinical psychologist.[5]

Once the person is licensed public protection is still monitored by the licensing board as well as the BACB, both of which make sure that the person receives sufficient ongoing education, and the BACB and licensing board investigate ethical complaints. In February 2008, Indiana, Arizona, Massachusetts, Vermont, Oklahoma and other states now have legislation pending to create licensure for behavior analysts. Pennsylvania was the first state in 2008 to license behavior specialists to cover behavior analysts. Arizona, less than three weeks later, became the first state to license behavior analysts. Other states such as Nevada and Wisconsin have also passed behavior analytic licensure.

In California, after the defeat of a bill to create a license for BCBAs in 2011, the state government instead passed SB 946 which mandates that all non-governmental insurance agencies reimburse for BCBA for behavior therapy in treating autism, starting in 2012. Unlike many other bills mandating that autism be covered by insurance, SB 946 does not currently impose a cap on services by age or funding amount – in this it is similar to other treatments such as those for heart attacks or other chronic conditions.[6]

Service delivery models edit

Definitions edit

Behavior analytic services can be and often are delivered through various treatment modalities. These include:

  • Consultation – an indirect model in which the consultant works with the consultee to change the behavior of the client.
  • Therapy – (individual, group, or family) in which the therapist works directly with a person with some form of pathology to lessen the pathology.
  • Counseling – where the counselor works directly with a person who has problems but no pathology.
  • Coaching – in which the coach works with a person to achieve a life goal.

Primary methods edit

The two primary methods for delivering behavior analytic services are consultation and/or direct therapy; the former involves three parties: consultant, consultee and a client whose behavior is changed (who may or may not be present for all meetings).[7]

Consultation can involve working with the consultee (i.e., a parent or teacher) to build a plan around the behavior of a client (i.e., a child or student), or training the consultees themselves to modify the behavior of the client. Within the domain of parent–child consultation, standard intervention includes teaching parents skills such as basic reinforcement, time-out and how to manipulate different factors to modify behavior.[8]

Direct therapy involves the relationship of behavior analyst and client, usually one-on-one, in which the analyst is responsible for directly modifying the behavior of their client. Direct therapy is also used in schools but can also be found in group homes, in a behavior modification facility and in behavior therapy[7] (where the focus may be on tasks such as quitting smoking, modifying behaviors for sex offenders or other types of offenders, modifying behaviors related to mood disorders) or to encourage job seeking behavior in psychiatric patients.[9][10]

History of behavior models edit

Two older and less used models still exist for the delivery of behavior analytic services. These models were used mostly with normal or typically developing populations. These two models are the Behavioral Coaching and the Behavioral Counseling model. Both were very popular in the 1960s–1980s but have recently seen a decline in popularity, as proponents argued the merits of holding strictly to learning theory.[11][12][13][14][15][16][17] The Association for Behavior Analysis International still retains a special interest group in behavioral counseling and coaching.

History of behavioral counseling edit

Behavioral counseling was very popular throughout the 1970s and at least into the early 1980s.[18][19] Behavioral counseling is an active action–oriented approach that works with the typically developing population but also assists people with specific/discrete problems such as career decision making, drinking, smoking or rehabilitation after injury.[20][21]

Life coaching edit

The behavioral coaching model is sometimes referred to as life coaching. However, like counselors and psychologists, life coaches can have varied orientations/change theories (see behavioral change theories). Behavioral life coaches operate mainly from a behavior analytic orientation. Unlike therapy, this model is applied to people who desire to achieve a specific goal[22] such as increasing their assertiveness with others.[23][24] This model is educational and is usually presented as an alternative to therapy. Coaches use behavioral techniques such as objective setting, goal setting, self-control training and behavioral activation to help clients achieve specific life goals. Behavioral coaching was sometimes used to teach job skills to people having mental retardation or head injury. In this area the model made extensive use of task analysis, direct instruction, role play, reinforcement and error correction.[9] Often this approach employs techniques of direct instruction.

Goal of increasing reinforcement edit

Behavioral counseling was largely seen as a growth model that tried to increase the individuals sense of "freedom" by helping the client reduce punishment or coercion in their lives, build skills, and increase access to reinforcement.[25] B.F. Skinner created a video discussing the processes involved and the importance of reinforcement to increase the sense of "freedom".[26] Behavioral counseling attempts to use in-session reinforcement to improve decision-making,[25][27] functional assessment of the clients problem,[28] and behavioral interventions to reduce problem behaviors.[29]

Social learning in behavioral counseling edit

Some behavioral counselors approach therapy from a social learning perspective[30] but many held a position based on the use of behavioral psychology with a focus on the use of operant, respondent conditioning procedures.[31] Some who did adopt a position on modeling held closer to the behavioral view of modeling as generalized imitation developed through learning processes.[32]

Weight loss edit

The behavioral counseling approach became very popular in weight reduction[33][34][35] and is on the American Psychological Association's list of evidence-based practices for weight loss. Behavioral counseling for weight loss by Richard B. Stuart led to the commercial program Weight Watchers.[36] Recently, efforts have been made to resurrect interest in behavioral counseling as a method to effectively deliver services to normal problemed populations.[37][38]

Treatment of autism edit

Main articles: Lovaas model, Natural language procedures, and Pivotal response training

Among the available approaches to treating autism, early intensive behavioral interventions (EIBIs) have been used to promote social and language development and to reduce behaviors that interfere with learning and cognitive functioning.[39][40][41][42][43] Such therapies also aim to increase intellectual skills and adaptive functioning.[39][40][41] Behavior therapists are continuing to develop models of social skills.[44]

Therapy qualifications edit

These are generally treatments based on applied behavior analysis (ABA) and involve intensive training of the therapists, extensive time spent in ABA therapy (20–40 hours per week) and weekly supervision by experienced clinical supervisors—known as board certified behavior analysts.[45] ABA therapy often employs principles of overlearning to help acquire mastery and fluency of skills.

Children with autism edit

The ABA approach attempts to teach skills such as appropriate play, which behavioral psychologists believe to be a precursor to social interaction and engagement with the world and others.[46][47] It also aims to increase appropriate social, motor, verbal, and reasoning skills as well as the ability to self-regulate.[48] ABA therapy is used to teach behaviors to individuals with autism who may not otherwise observe these behaviors spontaneously through imitation.

In recent years the ABA approach has been criticized by members of the autistic community.[49] Many have reported suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder as a result of being forced to comply with training procedures.[50]

Imitation edit

Imitation can also be directly trained.[51] ABA therapies teach these skills through use of behavioral observation and reinforcement or prompting to teach each step of a behavior.[52]

Research and treatments edit

Some research exists to show that behavior analysis is an effective treatment for autism with many studies showing its effectiveness with persons of all ages in enhancing functioning, building skills and independence as well as improving life quality.[53] ABA has been criticized for sometimes claiming to "cure autism". This controversy exists because behavior analysis is used to alter rates of behavior, and not the condition of "autism." Nonetheless, behavior analysis is used to treat the behaviors of many in the autistic population.[54] While several small studies exist showing that behavior analysis holds promise in this area[which?], the number of well-controlled studies do not rise to the level required by the American Psychological Association to hold the treatment as empirically supported in this area.[54]

An increasing amount of research in the field of applied behavior analysis (ABA) is concerned with autism; and it is a common misconception that behavior analysts work almost exclusively with individuals with autism and that ABA is synonymous with discrete trials teaching. ABA principles can also be used with a range of typical or atypical individuals whose issues vary from developmental delays, significant behavioral problems or undesirable habits.

According to practitioners, curriculums should carefully task analyze the skill(s) needed to be learned and then ensure that proper tool skills have been taught before the skill itself is attempted to be taught.[55] Properly performed, applied behavior analysis should be done in both artificial (table) and natural environments depending on the student's progress and needs.[56] Once a student has mastered a skill at the table the team should move the student into a natural environment for further training and generalization of the skill.

Frequently standardized assessments such as the Assessment of Basic Language and Learning Skills (ABLLS) is used to create a baseline of the learner's functional skill set. The ABLLS breaks down the learner's strengths and weaknesses to best tailor the applied behavior analysis curriculum to them. By focusing on the exact skills that need help the teacher does not teach a skill the student knows. This can also prevent student frustration at attempting a skill for which they are not ready.

Many families have fought school districts for such programs.

Discrete trials edit

Discrete trials were originally used by people studying classical conditioning to demonstrate stimulus–stimulus pairing.[citation needed] Discrete trials are often contrasted with free operant procedures, like ones used by B.F. Skinner in learning experiments with rats and pigeons, to show how learning was influenced by rates of reinforcement.[citation needed] The discrete trials method was adapted as a therapy for developmentally delayed children and individuals with autism. For example, Ole Ivar Lovaas used discrete trials to teach autistic children skills including making eye contact, following simple instructions, advanced language and social skills. These discrete trials involved breaking a behavior into its most basic functional unit and presenting the units in a series.

A discrete trial usually consists of the following: the antecedent, the behavior of the student and a consequence. If the student's behavior matches what is desired the consequence is something positive: food, candy, a game, praise, etc. If the behavior was not correct the teacher offers the correct answer then repeats the trial possibly with more prompting, if needed, and may also use aversives.[57]

There is usually an inter-trial interval that allows for a few seconds to separate each trial to allow the student to process the information, teach the student to wait and make the onset of the next trial more discrete. Discrete trials can be used to develop most skills which includes cognitive, verbal communication, play, social and self-help skills. There is a carefully laid out procedure for error correction and a problem solving model to use if the program gets stuck.[56] Discrete trial is sometimes referred to as the Lovaas technique. Discrete trials have been helpful in the treatment of pediatric feeding problems[58] as well as in the prevention of feeding problems.[59]

Free operant procedures edit

Main article: Natural language procedures

In language training, many free operant procedures emerged in the late 1960s and early 1970s.[60] These procedures did not try to train discrimination first, and then passively wait for generalization, but instead worked from the start on actively promoting generalization.<ref>Stokes, T.F. & Baer, D.M. (1977). "An implicit technology of generalization". Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 10 (2): 349–367. doi:10.1901/jaba.1977.10-349. PMC 1311194. PMID 16795561.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)</ref> Initially the model was referred to as incidental teaching but later was called milieu language teaching and finally natural language teaching. Peterson (2007)[citation needed] completed a comprehensive review of 57 studies on these training procedures. This review found that 84% of the studies of the natural language procedures looked at maintenance and 94% looked at generalization and were able to provide direct support of its occurrence as part of the training.

Other applications of applied behavior analysis edit

Clinical behavior analysis edit

Main articles: Clinical behavior analysis and Behavioral psychotherapy

Clinical Behavior Analysis[61] highlights the application of behavior analysis to adult outpatients. Michael Dougher identified four comprehensive behavior analytic programs: Steven Hayes’ et al.'s acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT), Jacobson et al. behavioral activation (BA), Kohlenberg & Tsai's functional analytic psychotherapy, exposure therapies (i.e., Systematic desensitization), and the community reinforcement approach for treating addictions. In addition, the book highlights several recent areas of functional analysis research for common clinical problems. Many of these areas are specified in the section on behavior therapy.

Community reinforcement approach and family training edit

Main article: Community Reinforcement Approach and Family Training

The study of behavioral factors related to addictions has a long history.[62] The community reinforcement approach has considerable research supporting it as efficacious.[63] Started in the 1970s by Nathan H. Azrin and his graduate student Hunt[who?], the community reinforcement approach is a comprehensive operant program built on a functional assessment of a client's drinking behavior and the use of positive reinforcement and contingency management for nondrinking.[64] When combined with disulfiram (an aversive procedure) community reinforcement showed remarkable effects.[65] One component of the program that appears to be particularly strong is the non-drinking club.[66] Applications of community reinforcement to public policy has become the recent focus of this approach.[67]

An offshoot of the community reinforcement approach is the community reinforcement approach and family training.[63] This program is designed to help family members of substance abusers feel empowered to engage in treatment. The rates of success have varied somewhat by study but seem to cluster around 70%.[68][69][70][71] The program uses a variety of interventions based on functional assessment including a module to prevent domestic violence. Partners are trained to use positive reinforcement, various communication skills and natural consequences.

Children with disruptive disorders and parenting edit

Main articles: Behavior analysis of child development, Positive behavior support, and Parent Management Training

With children, applied behavior analysis provides the core of the positive behavior support movement[72][73] and creates the basis of Teaching-Family Model homes. Teaching-Family homes have been found to reduce recidivism for delinquent youths both while they are in the homes and after they leave.[74] Operant procedures form the basis of behavioral parent training developed from social learning theorists. The etiological models for antisocial behavior show considerable correlation with negative reinforcement and response matching.[75][76][77] Behavioral parent training or Parent Management Training has been very successful in the treatment of conduct disorders in children and adolescents with recent research focusing on making it more culturally sensitive.[78] In addition, behavioral parent training has been shown to reduce corporal or abusive child discipline tactics.[79] Behavior analysts typically adhere to a behavioral model of child development in their practice (see child development).

Recidivism edit

Main articles: Teaching-Family Model and Radical_behaviorism

Recent studies showing that behavior analysis can reduce recidivism have led to a resurgence in behavior therapy facilities.[80] Of particular interest has been the growing research on the Teaching-Family Model which was developed by Montrose Wolf and reduces recidivism rates. In addition, behaviorally-based early intervention programs have shown effectiveness.[81]

Exposure therapy edit

Main article: Exposure therapy

Methods of counter-conditioning and respondent extinction, called exposure therapy, are often employed by many behavior therapists in the treatment of phobias, anxiety disorders such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and addictions (cue exposure). Prolonged exposure therapy has been particularly helpful with PTSD.[82] Several procedures to block respondent conditioning such as blocking and overshadowing are sometimes used in behavioral medicine to prevent conditioned taste aversion for patients with chemotherapy treatments. Exposure with Response Prevention (ERP) is a respondent extinction procedure often used to treat obsessive–compulsive behavior. Escape response blocking is critical for this procedure. For PTSDs exposure therapy is one of the few evidence-based techniques.[83] Recent research suggests exposure therapy is an excellent means of alleviating both the anxiety and cognitive symptoms specific to PTSD with no additive effect for additional cognitive components.[83] Several authors have argued that exposure by itself is necessary and sufficient to produce behavior change in reducing fear in social phobics and helping them engage more effectively with others.[84] The Washington Post ran a story that only exposure therapy is proven for PTSD and that cognitive therapy or even drug therapy are not shown at this time to be effective.[85]

Operant-based EEG biofeedback edit

Main article: Biofeedback

Kamiya (1968) demonstrated that the alpha rhythm in humans could be operantly conditioned.[86] He published an influential article in Psychology Today that summarized research showing subjects learn to discriminate when alpha was present or absent, and that they could use feedback to shift the dominant alpha frequency about 1 Hz. Almost half of his subjects reported experiencing a pleasant "alpha state" characterized as an "alert calmness". These reports may have contributed to the perception of alpha biofeedback as a shortcut to a meditative state. He also studied the electroencephalography (EEG) correlates of meditative states.[87] Operant conditioning of EEG has had considerable support in many areas including attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)[88] and even seizure disorders. Early studies of the procedure included the treatment of seizure disorders. Luber and colleagues (1981) conducted a double blind crossover study showing that seizure activity decreased by 50% in the contingent conditioning of inhibiting brain waves as opposed to the non-contingent use.[89] Sterman (2000) reviewed 18 studies of a total of 174 clients and found 82% of the participants had significant seizure reduction (30% less weekly seizures).[90]

Organizational edit

Main articles: Organizational behavior management, Behavioral engineering, and Behavior-based safety

Behavior analysis with organizations is sometimes combined with systems theory in an approach called organizational behavior management. This approach has shown success particularly in the area of behavior-based safety. Behavior safety research has lately become focused on factors that lead programs to being retained in institutions long after the designer leaves.[91]

Educational edit

Main articles: Direct instruction, Positive behavior support, Curriculum-based measurement, and Functional analysis (psychology)

Direct instruction and Direct Instruction: the former representing the process and the latter a specific curriculum that highlights that process remain both current and controversial in behavior analysis.[92] The essential features are a carefully structured fast-paced program based on teacher-directed small group instruction.[93] One controversy that remains is that teacher creativity is admonished in the program.[94] Even with such issues to be worked out positive gains in reading for the approach have been reported in the literature since 1968.[95][96] An example of the positive gains reported by Meyer (1984) found that 34% of children in the DISTAR group were accepted to college as compared to only 17% of the control school.[97] Current research is focused on peer delivery of the program.[98]

School-wide positive behavior support[72] is based on the use of behavior analytic procedures delivered in an organizational behavior management approach. School-wide behavioral support has been increasingly accepted by administrators, lawmakers and teachers as a way to improve safety in classrooms.[99][100]

Curriculum-based measurement and curriculum matching is another active area of application.[101] Curriculum-based measurement uses rate and reading performance as the primary variable in determining reading levels. The goal is to better match children to the appropriate curriculum level to remove frustration as well as to track reading performance over time to see if it is improving with intervention. This model also serves as the basis for response to intervention models.

Functional behavioral assessment was mandated in the United States for children who meet criteria under the individuals with disabilities education act.[102] This approach has precluded many procedures for modifying and maintaining children in not just the school system, but in many cases in the regular education setting.[103][104] Even children with severe behavior problems appear to be helped.[105][106][107]

Teaching children to recruit attention[108] has become a very important area in education. In many cases one function of children's disruptive behavior is to get attention.[109]

Hospital settings edit

One area of interest in hospitals is the blocking effect—especially for conditioned taste aversion. This area of interest is considered important in the prevention of weigh loss during chemotherapy for cancer patients. Another area of growing interest in the hospital setting is the use of operant-based biofeedback with those suffering from cerebral palsy[110][111][112] or minor spinal injuries.[113][114]

Brucker's group at the University of Miami has had some success with specific operant conditioning-based biofeedback procedures to enhance functioning.[115][116] While such methods are not a cure, and gains tend to be in the moderate range, they do show ability to help remaining central nervous system cells to regain some control over lost areas of functioning.[113]

Residential treatment edit

Main article: Residential treatment center

Behavioral interventions have been very helpful in reducing problem behaviors in residential treatment centers.[117] The type of residential versus mental retardation does not appear to be a factor.[118] Behavioral interventions have been found to be successful even when medication interventions fail.[119]

Space program edit

Probably one of the most interesting applications of behavior analysis in the 1960s was its contribution to the space program.[120] Research in this area is used to train astronauts including the chimpanzees sent into space. Continued work in this area focuses on ensuring that astronauts who live in confined areas and space do not develop behavioral health problems.[121] Most of this work was led by pioneer behaviorist Joseph V. Brady.

Consumer and professional relationships edit

Open communication and a supportive relationship between educational systems and families allow the student to receive a beneficial education. This pertains to typical learners as well as to individuals who need additional services. It was not until the 1960s that researchers began exploring behavior analysis as a method to educate those children who fall somewhere along the autism spectrum. Behavior analysts agree that consistency in and out of the school classroom is key in order for children with autism to maintain proper standing in school and continue to develop to their greatest potential.

Applied behavior analysts sometimes work with a team to address a person's educational or behavioral needs. Other professionals such as speech therapists, physicians and the primary caregivers are treated as key to the implementation of successful therapy in the applied behavior analysis (ABA) model. The ABA method relies on behavior principles to develop treatments appropriate for the individual. Regular meetings with professionals to discuss programming are one way to establish a successful working relationship between a family and their school. It is beneficial when a caregiver can conduct generalization procedures outside of school. In the ABA framework, developing and maintaining a structured working relationship between parents or guardians and professionals is essential to ensure consistent treatment.

Intervention goals edit

When working directly with clients, behavior analysts engage in a process of collaborative goal setting.[122] Goal setting ensures that the client is already under stimulus control of the goal and is thus more likely to engage in behavior to achieve it.[123] Behavior analytic programs are ultimately skill building,[124] they enhance functioning, lead to higher quality of life, and build self-control.[125][126][127][128][129][130][131][132][133] One of the most distinguishing features of behavior analysis has been its core belief that all individuals have a right to the most effective treatment for their condition.[134] and a right to the most effective educational strategy available.[135]

History edit

Applied behavior analysis is the applied side of the experimental analysis of behavior. It is based on the principles of operant and respondent conditioning and represents a major approach to behavior therapies. Its origin can be traced back to Teodoro Ayllon and Jack Michael's 1959 article "The psychiatric nurse as a behavioral engineer"[136] as well as to initial efforts to implement teaching machines.[137]

The research basis of ABA can be found in the theoretical work of behaviorism and radical behaviorism originating with the work of B.F. Skinner. In 1968 Baer, Wolf and Risley wrote an article[138] that was the source of contemporary applied behavior analysis providing the criteria to judge the adequacy of research and practice in applied behavior analysis. It became the core and centerpiece behavioral engineering.

Work in respondent conditioning (what some would term classical conditioning) began with the work of Joseph Wolpe in the 1960s. It was improved by the work of Edna B Foa who did extensive research on exposure and response prevention for obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD). In addition, she worked on exposure therapy for post-traumatic stress disorder.

Over the years most behavior analysts have existed and conducted research in many areas and University departments: behavior analysis, psychology, special education, regular education, speech–language pathology, communication disorders, school psychology, criminal justice and family life. They have belonged to many organizations including the American Psychological Association (APA) and have most often found a core intellectual home in the Association for Behavior Analysis International.[139][140]

Current research edit

Behavior analysis remains one of the most active research areas in all of psychology, developmental disability, mental health and other studies of human behavior. Current research in behavior analysis focuses on expanding the tradition by looking at setting events, behavioral activation, the Matching law, relational frame theory, stimulus equivalences and covert conditioning as exemplified in Skinner's model of rule-governed behavior Verbal Behavior.[132][141]

Experimental psychopathology edit

Experimental psychopathology is a behavior therapy area in which animal models are developed to simulate human pathology. For example, Wolpe studied cats to build his theory of human anxiety. This work continues today in the study of both pathology and treatment.[142]

Controversy edit

Initially, applied behavior analysis used punishment such as shouting and slaps to reduce unwanted behaviors.[143] Ethical opposition to such aversive practices caused them to fall out of favor and has stimulated development of less aversive methods, although such practices are still occasionally used, such as at the Judge Rotenberg Center.[144] In general, aversion therapy and punishment are now less frequently used as ABA treatments due to legal restrictions.[145] However, procedures such as odor aversion, covert sensitization and other covert conditioning procedures, based on punishment or aversion strategies, are still used effectively in the treatment of pedophiles.[146] In addition, with some populations such as conduct disorder in children there is considerable evidence that has developed to show that all positive programs can produce change but that children will not enter into the normal range without punishment procedures.[147][148] These programs have shifted to using child time-out and response–cost procedures to ensure that clients rights to effective interventions are met.

Homosexuality edit

In 1973 the APA removed homosexuality from its Diagnostic and Statistical Manual yet it kept "ego dystonic" homosexuality as a condition until the DSM III-R (1987).[citation needed] In 1974 Ole Ivar Lovaas, pioneer of the use of discrete trial teaching (DTT) to treat autism, was the second author on a journal article describing the use of ABA to reduce "feminine" behaviors and increase "masculine" behaviors of a male child in an effort to prevent adult transsexualism.[149] Treatments designed to uphold traditional sex-role behaviors were opposed by some behavior analysts who argued that the intervention was not justified.[150] In the late 1960s Wolpe refused to treat homosexual behavior arguing that it was easier and more productive to treat the religious guilt than the homosexuality. He instead provided assertiveness training to a homosexual client.[151] Most behavior analysts and behavior therapists have not worked in sexual re–orientation therapy since Gerald Davison argued that the issue was not one of effectiveness but of ethics.[152] When he wrote the paper presenting this position, Davison was president of the Association for the Advancement of Behavior Therapy, now the Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies, and thus his views carried much weight. Davison argued that homosexuality is not pathological and is only a problem if it is regarded as one by society and the therapist.

Ethical practice edit

Punishment and aversion therapies edit

The use of punishment and aversion therapy procedures are a constant ethical challenge for behavior analysts. One of the original reasons for the development of the Behavior Analyst Certification Board were cases of abuse from behaviorists.[153] Both continue to draw proponents and opposition, however, in some of the more controversial cases some middle ground has been found through legislation (see Judge Rotenberg Educational Center).[145][154]

Sex offenders and recidivism edit

A study in 1991 showed that behavior modification was effective in sex offender treatment and covert sensitization, and it has been shown to have some effects on reducing recidivism.[146] However Gene Able, who has done extensive research in this area, suggests that it is not as effective outside of the package which contains odor aversion, satiation therapy (masturbatory reconditioning),[155] and various social skills training programs including empathy training. Current behavior analysis programs offer this type of comprehensive treatment approach.[156] In addition they use a combination of functional assessment, behavior chain analysis and risk assessment to create relapse prevention strategies and to help the offender to develop better self-control.[157]

With sex offenders who have retardation, comprehensive behavioral programming has been effective at least in the short run.[158] This treatment included formal academic and vocational training, sex education, a unit token economy, and individual behavior therapy including sexual reconditioning. In addition it included supported competitive employment, fading of program structure, and increased community participation.

Journals edit

There are multiple journals which produce articles on the clinical applications of applied behavior analysis.[159] The most popular, and widely used, of these journals is the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis.[160] There are many other journals dedicated to this field. Some of these include The Behavior Analyst Today, the International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy and three new journals scheduled for release in 2008: Behavior Analysis in Sports, Health, Fitness and Behavioral Medicine, the Journal of Behavior Analysis in Crime and Victim: Treatment and Prevention as well as the Association for Behavior Analysis International's Behavior Analysis in Practice.[161]

Professional organizations edit

The Association for Behavior Analysis International has a special interest group for practitioner issues, behavioral counseling, and clinical behavior analysis. The Association for Behavior Analysis International has larger special interest groups for autism and behavioral medicine. The Association for Behavior Analysis International serves as the core intellectual home for behavior analysts.[139][140] The Association for Behavior Analysis International sponsors multiple conferences/year, including the annual conference, annual autism conference, biannual international conference, and other conferences on specific issues such as behavioral theory and sustainability.

The Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies (ABCT) also has an interest group in behavior analysis, which focuses on clinical behavior analysis. In addition, the Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies has a special interest group on addictions.

Doctoral level behavior analysts who are psychologists belong to the American Psychological Association's division 25: Behavior analysis. APA offers a diplomate in behavioral psychology.

References edit

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  3. ^ "Behavior Analysis Certification Board". from the original on 29 November 2011. Retrieved 23 December 2011.
  4. ^ Dowd, E.T. (2001). "Board Certification (Diplomate) in Behavioral Psychology". The Behavior Analyst Today. 2 (1): 15–28. doi:10.1037/h0099904.
  5. ^ . Behavior Analyst Certification Board, Inc. February 2009
  6. ^ The full text of SB 946 can be found here: ([1])
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January 01, 1970
professional, practice, behavior, analysis, this, article, contains, content, that, written, like, advertisement, please, help, improve, removing, promotional, content, inappropriate, external, links, adding, encyclopedic, content, written, from, neutral, poin. This article contains content that is written like an advertisement Please help improve it by removing promotional content and inappropriate external links and by adding encyclopedic content written from a neutral point of view May 2014 Learn how and when to remove this template message The professional practice of behavior analysis is a domain of behavior analysis the others being radical behaviorism experimental analysis of behavior and applied behavior analysis 1 The practice of behavior analysis is the delivery of interventions to consumers that are guided by the principles of radical behaviorism and the research of both experimental and applied behavior analysis Professional practice seeks to change specific behavior through the implementation of these principles 1 In many states practicing behavior analysts hold a license certificate or registration In other states there are no laws governing their practice and as such the practice may be prohibited as falling under the practice definition of other mental health professionals This is rapidly changing as behavior analysts are becoming more and more common The professional practice of behavior analysis is a hybrid discipline with specific influences coming from counseling psychology education special education communication disorders physical therapy and criminal justice As a discipline it has its own conferences organizations certification processes and awards Contents 1 Defining the scope of practice 1 1 Certification 1 2 The meaning of certification 1 3 Licensure 2 Service delivery models 2 1 Definitions 2 2 Primary methods 2 3 History of behavior models 2 4 History of behavioral counseling 2 5 Life coaching 2 6 Goal of increasing reinforcement 2 7 Social learning in behavioral counseling 2 8 Weight loss 3 Treatment of autism 3 1 Therapy qualifications 3 2 Children with autism 3 3 Imitation 3 4 Research and treatments 3 5 Discrete trials 3 6 Free operant procedures 4 Other applications of applied behavior analysis 4 1 Clinical behavior analysis 4 2 Community reinforcement approach and family training 4 3 Children with disruptive disorders and parenting 4 4 Recidivism 4 5 Exposure therapy 4 6 Operant based EEG biofeedback 4 7 Organizational 4 8 Educational 4 9 Hospital settings 4 10 Residential treatment 4 11 Space program 5 Consumer and professional relationships 6 Intervention goals 7 History 7 1 Current research 7 2 Experimental psychopathology 8 Controversy 8 1 Homosexuality 9 Ethical practice 9 1 Punishment and aversion therapies 9 2 Sex offenders and recidivism 10 Journals 11 Professional organizations 12 ReferencesDefining the scope of practice editMain article Licensed behavior analysts The Behavior Analysis Certification Board BACB defines behavior analysis as 2 The field of behavior analysis grew out of the scientific study of principles of learning and behavior It has two main branches experimental and applied behavior analysis The experimental analysis of behavior EAB is the basic science of this field and has over many decades accumulated a substantial and well respected research literature This literature provides the scientific foundation for applied behavior analysis ABA which is both an applied science that develops methods of changing behavior and a profession that provides services to meet diverse behavioral needs Briefly professionals in applied behavior analysis engage in the specific and comprehensive use of principles of learning including operant and respondent learning in order to address behavioral needs of widely varying individuals in diverse settings Examples of these applications include managing behavior of children in school settings enhancing the abilities and choices of children and adults with different kinds of disabilities training animals and augmenting the performance and satisfaction of employees in organizations and businesses 3 Behavior analysis is based on the principles of operant and respondent conditioning Applied behavior analysis ABA include the use of behavior management behavioral engineering and behavior therapy Currently in the U S some behavior analysts at the masters level are licensed others work with an international certification where licenses are unavailable although this may not be allowed in some states or jurisdictions At the doctoral level many are licensed as psychologists with Diplomate status in behavioral psychology or licensed as licensed behavior analysts Diplomate status alone however does not allow one to practice in every state and each state s regulatory statute must be reviewed for the appropriateness and legality of practice Certification edit The Behavior Analyst Certification Board BACB offers a technical certificate in behavior analysis The American Psychological Association offers a diplomate post PhD and licensed certification in behavioral psychology 4 The meaning of certification edit This section does not cite any sources Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed March 2019 Learn how and when to remove this template message BACB is a private non profit organization without governmental powers to regulate behavior analytic practice However it does wield the power to suspend or revoke certification from those certified if they violate the strict ethical guidelines of practice As many states are without a licensure act this has been sufficient to deter violators as it removes their ability to vendor with the state schools and insurance companies under that certification While the BACB certification means that candidates have satisfied entry level requirements in behavior analytic training certificants are able to practice independently within the scope of their practice and training Thus a BCBA such as those who go into marketing engineering or other approved fields in which BCBAs work who has never trained to work nor worked with children diagnosed with autism are discouraged to do so independently Most health insurance companies also recognize the BCBA credential as one conferring the capability and the right to practice independently in many states including California with the passage of SB 946 into law Some states still require certificants to be licensed by their respective jurisdictions for independent practice when treating behavioral health or medical problems and a number of states including Arizona and Nevada have created a specific BCBA licensing program Licensed certificants must operate within the scope of their license and within their areas of expertise Where the government regulates behavior analytic services unlicensed certificants may be supervised by a licensed professional and operate within the scope of their supervisor s license when treating disorders if that jurisdiction allows such supervision Unlicensed certificants who provide behavior analytic training for educational or optimal performance purposes do not require licensed supervision unless the law or precedent prohibits such practice Where the government does not regulate the treatment of medical or psychological disorders certificants should practice in accord with the laws of their state province or country All certificants must practice within their personal areas of expertise Licensure edit The model licensing act for behavior analysts has been revised several times to reflect best practices and policy Previous versions included provisions that would have made it in practice more difficult to obtain the necessary experiential hours for license and independent practice as a clinical psychologist 5 Once the person is licensed public protection is still monitored by the licensing board as well as the BACB both of which make sure that the person receives sufficient ongoing education and the BACB and licensing board investigate ethical complaints In February 2008 Indiana Arizona Massachusetts Vermont Oklahoma and other states now have legislation pending to create licensure for behavior analysts Pennsylvania was the first state in 2008 to license behavior specialists to cover behavior analysts Arizona less than three weeks later became the first state to license behavior analysts Other states such as Nevada and Wisconsin have also passed behavior analytic licensure In California after the defeat of a bill to create a license for BCBAs in 2011 the state government instead passed SB 946 which mandates that all non governmental insurance agencies reimburse for BCBA for behavior therapy in treating autism starting in 2012 Unlike many other bills mandating that autism be covered by insurance SB 946 does not currently impose a cap on services by age or funding amount in this it is similar to other treatments such as those for heart attacks or other chronic conditions 6 Service delivery models editDefinitions edit Behavior analytic services can be and often are delivered through various treatment modalities These include Consultation an indirect model in which the consultant works with the consultee to change the behavior of the client Therapy individual group or family in which the therapist works directly with a person with some form of pathology to lessen the pathology Counseling where the counselor works directly with a person who has problems but no pathology Coaching in which the coach works with a person to achieve a life goal Primary methods edit The two primary methods for delivering behavior analytic services are consultation and or direct therapy the former involves three parties consultant consultee and a client whose behavior is changed who may or may not be present for all meetings 7 Consultation can involve working with the consultee i e a parent or teacher to build a plan around the behavior of a client i e a child or student or training the consultees themselves to modify the behavior of the client Within the domain of parent child consultation standard intervention includes teaching parents skills such as basic reinforcement time out and how to manipulate different factors to modify behavior 8 Direct therapy involves the relationship of behavior analyst and client usually one on one in which the analyst is responsible for directly modifying the behavior of their client Direct therapy is also used in schools but can also be found in group homes in a behavior modification facility and in behavior therapy 7 where the focus may be on tasks such as quitting smoking modifying behaviors for sex offenders or other types of offenders modifying behaviors related to mood disorders or to encourage job seeking behavior in psychiatric patients 9 10 History of behavior models edit Two older and less used models still exist for the delivery of behavior analytic services These models were used mostly with normal or typically developing populations These two models are the Behavioral Coaching and the Behavioral Counseling model Both were very popular in the 1960s 1980s but have recently seen a decline in popularity as proponents argued the merits of holding strictly to learning theory 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 The Association for Behavior Analysis International still retains a special interest group in behavioral counseling and coaching History of behavioral counseling edit Behavioral counseling was very popular throughout the 1970s and at least into the early 1980s 18 19 Behavioral counseling is an active action oriented approach that works with the typically developing population but also assists people with specific discrete problems such as career decision making drinking smoking or rehabilitation after injury 20 21 Life coaching edit The behavioral coaching model is sometimes referred to as life coaching However like counselors and psychologists life coaches can have varied orientations change theories see behavioral change theories Behavioral life coaches operate mainly from a behavior analytic orientation Unlike therapy this model is applied to people who desire to achieve a specific goal 22 such as increasing their assertiveness with others 23 24 This model is educational and is usually presented as an alternative to therapy Coaches use behavioral techniques such as objective setting goal setting self control training and behavioral activation to help clients achieve specific life goals Behavioral coaching was sometimes used to teach job skills to people having mental retardation or head injury In this area the model made extensive use of task analysis direct instruction role play reinforcement and error correction 9 Often this approach employs techniques of direct instruction Goal of increasing reinforcement edit Behavioral counseling was largely seen as a growth model that tried to increase the individuals sense of freedom by helping the client reduce punishment or coercion in their lives build skills and increase access to reinforcement 25 B F Skinner created a video discussing the processes involved and the importance of reinforcement to increase the sense of freedom 26 Behavioral counseling attempts to use in session reinforcement to improve decision making 25 27 functional assessment of the clients problem 28 and behavioral interventions to reduce problem behaviors 29 Social learning in behavioral counseling edit Some behavioral counselors approach therapy from a social learning perspective 30 but many held a position based on the use of behavioral psychology with a focus on the use of operant respondent conditioning procedures 31 Some who did adopt a position on modeling held closer to the behavioral view of modeling as generalized imitation developed through learning processes 32 Weight loss edit The behavioral counseling approach became very popular in weight reduction 33 34 35 and is on the American Psychological Association s list of evidence based practices for weight loss Behavioral counseling for weight loss by Richard B Stuart led to the commercial program Weight Watchers 36 Recently efforts have been made to resurrect interest in behavioral counseling as a method to effectively deliver services to normal problemed populations 37 38 Treatment of autism editMain articles Lovaas model Natural language procedures and Pivotal response training Among the available approaches to treating autism early intensive behavioral interventions EIBIs have been used to promote social and language development and to reduce behaviors that interfere with learning and cognitive functioning 39 40 41 42 43 Such therapies also aim to increase intellectual skills and adaptive functioning 39 40 41 Behavior therapists are continuing to develop models of social skills 44 Therapy qualifications edit These are generally treatments based on applied behavior analysis ABA and involve intensive training of the therapists extensive time spent in ABA therapy 20 40 hours per week and weekly supervision by experienced clinical supervisors known as board certified behavior analysts 45 ABA therapy often employs principles of overlearning to help acquire mastery and fluency of skills Children with autism edit The ABA approach attempts to teach skills such as appropriate play which behavioral psychologists believe to be a precursor to social interaction and engagement with the world and others 46 47 It also aims to increase appropriate social motor verbal and reasoning skills as well as the ability to self regulate 48 ABA therapy is used to teach behaviors to individuals with autism who may not otherwise observe these behaviors spontaneously through imitation In recent years the ABA approach has been criticized by members of the autistic community 49 Many have reported suffering from post traumatic stress disorder as a result of being forced to comply with training procedures 50 Imitation edit Imitation can also be directly trained 51 ABA therapies teach these skills through use of behavioral observation and reinforcement or prompting to teach each step of a behavior 52 Research and treatments edit Some research exists to show that behavior analysis is an effective treatment for autism with many studies showing its effectiveness with persons of all ages in enhancing functioning building skills and independence as well as improving life quality 53 ABA has been criticized for sometimes claiming to cure autism This controversy exists because behavior analysis is used to alter rates of behavior and not the condition of autism Nonetheless behavior analysis is used to treat the behaviors of many in the autistic population 54 While several small studies exist showing that behavior analysis holds promise in this area which the number of well controlled studies do not rise to the level required by the American Psychological Association to hold the treatment as empirically supported in this area 54 An increasing amount of research in the field of applied behavior analysis ABA is concerned with autism and it is a common misconception that behavior analysts work almost exclusively with individuals with autism and that ABA is synonymous with discrete trials teaching ABA principles can also be used with a range of typical or atypical individuals whose issues vary from developmental delays significant behavioral problems or undesirable habits According to practitioners curriculums should carefully task analyze the skill s needed to be learned and then ensure that proper tool skills have been taught before the skill itself is attempted to be taught 55 Properly performed applied behavior analysis should be done in both artificial table and natural environments depending on the student s progress and needs 56 Once a student has mastered a skill at the table the team should move the student into a natural environment for further training and generalization of the skill Frequently standardized assessments such as the Assessment of Basic Language and Learning Skills ABLLS is used to create a baseline of the learner s functional skill set The ABLLS breaks down the learner s strengths and weaknesses to best tailor the applied behavior analysis curriculum to them By focusing on the exact skills that need help the teacher does not teach a skill the student knows This can also prevent student frustration at attempting a skill for which they are not ready Many families have fought school districts for such programs Discrete trials edit Discrete trials were originally used by people studying classical conditioning to demonstrate stimulus stimulus pairing citation needed Discrete trials are often contrasted with free operant procedures like ones used by B F Skinner in learning experiments with rats and pigeons to show how learning was influenced by rates of reinforcement citation needed The discrete trials method was adapted as a therapy for developmentally delayed children and individuals with autism For example Ole Ivar Lovaas used discrete trials to teach autistic children skills including making eye contact following simple instructions advanced language and social skills These discrete trials involved breaking a behavior into its most basic functional unit and presenting the units in a series A discrete trial usually consists of the following the antecedent the behavior of the student and a consequence If the student s behavior matches what is desired the consequence is something positive food candy a game praise etc If the behavior was not correct the teacher offers the correct answer then repeats the trial possibly with more prompting if needed and may also use aversives 57 There is usually an inter trial interval that allows for a few seconds to separate each trial to allow the student to process the information teach the student to wait and make the onset of the next trial more discrete Discrete trials can be used to develop most skills which includes cognitive verbal communication play social and self help skills There is a carefully laid out procedure for error correction and a problem solving model to use if the program gets stuck 56 Discrete trial is sometimes referred to as the Lovaas technique Discrete trials have been helpful in the treatment of pediatric feeding problems 58 as well as in the prevention of feeding problems 59 Free operant procedures edit Main article Natural language procedures In language training many free operant procedures emerged in the late 1960s and early 1970s 60 These procedures did not try to train discrimination first and then passively wait for generalization but instead worked from the start on actively promoting generalization lt ref gt Stokes T F amp Baer D M 1977 An implicit technology of generalization Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis 10 2 349 367 doi 10 1901 jaba 1977 10 349 PMC 1311194 PMID 16795561 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link lt ref gt Initially the model was referred to as incidental teaching but later was called milieu language teaching and finally natural language teaching Peterson 2007 citation needed completed a comprehensive review of 57 studies on these training procedures This review found that 84 of the studies of the natural language procedures looked at maintenance and 94 looked at generalization and were able to provide direct support of its occurrence as part of the training Other applications of applied behavior analysis editClinical behavior analysis edit Main articles Clinical behavior analysis and Behavioral psychotherapy Clinical Behavior Analysis 61 highlights the application of behavior analysis to adult outpatients Michael Dougher identified four comprehensive behavior analytic programs Steven Hayes et al s acceptance and commitment therapy ACT Jacobson et al behavioral activation BA Kohlenberg amp Tsai s functional analytic psychotherapy exposure therapies i e Systematic desensitization and the community reinforcement approach for treating addictions In addition the book highlights several recent areas of functional analysis research for common clinical problems Many of these areas are specified in the section on behavior therapy Community reinforcement approach and family training edit Main article Community Reinforcement Approach and Family Training The study of behavioral factors related to addictions has a long history 62 The community reinforcement approach has considerable research supporting it as efficacious 63 Started in the 1970s by Nathan H Azrin and his graduate student Hunt who the community reinforcement approach is a comprehensive operant program built on a functional assessment of a client s drinking behavior and the use of positive reinforcement and contingency management for nondrinking 64 When combined with disulfiram an aversive procedure community reinforcement showed remarkable effects 65 One component of the program that appears to be particularly strong is the non drinking club 66 Applications of community reinforcement to public policy has become the recent focus of this approach 67 An offshoot of the community reinforcement approach is the community reinforcement approach and family training 63 This program is designed to help family members of substance abusers feel empowered to engage in treatment The rates of success have varied somewhat by study but seem to cluster around 70 68 69 70 71 The program uses a variety of interventions based on functional assessment including a module to prevent domestic violence Partners are trained to use positive reinforcement various communication skills and natural consequences Children with disruptive disorders and parenting edit Main articles Behavior analysis of child development Positive behavior support and Parent Management Training With children applied behavior analysis provides the core of the positive behavior support movement 72 73 and creates the basis of Teaching Family Model homes Teaching Family homes have been found to reduce recidivism for delinquent youths both while they are in the homes and after they leave 74 Operant procedures form the basis of behavioral parent training developed from social learning theorists The etiological models for antisocial behavior show considerable correlation with negative reinforcement and response matching 75 76 77 Behavioral parent training or Parent Management Training has been very successful in the treatment of conduct disorders in children and adolescents with recent research focusing on making it more culturally sensitive 78 In addition behavioral parent training has been shown to reduce corporal or abusive child discipline tactics 79 Behavior analysts typically adhere to a behavioral model of child development in their practice see child development Recidivism edit Main articles Teaching Family Model and Radical behaviorism Recent studies showing that behavior analysis can reduce recidivism have led to a resurgence in behavior therapy facilities 80 Of particular interest has been the growing research on the Teaching Family Model which was developed by Montrose Wolf and reduces recidivism rates In addition behaviorally based early intervention programs have shown effectiveness 81 Exposure therapy edit Main article Exposure therapy Methods of counter conditioning and respondent extinction called exposure therapy are often employed by many behavior therapists in the treatment of phobias anxiety disorders such as post traumatic stress disorder PTSD and addictions cue exposure Prolonged exposure therapy has been particularly helpful with PTSD 82 Several procedures to block respondent conditioning such as blocking and overshadowing are sometimes used in behavioral medicine to prevent conditioned taste aversion for patients with chemotherapy treatments Exposure with Response Prevention ERP is a respondent extinction procedure often used to treat obsessive compulsive behavior Escape response blocking is critical for this procedure For PTSDs exposure therapy is one of the few evidence based techniques 83 Recent research suggests exposure therapy is an excellent means of alleviating both the anxiety and cognitive symptoms specific to PTSD with no additive effect for additional cognitive components 83 Several authors have argued that exposure by itself is necessary and sufficient to produce behavior change in reducing fear in social phobics and helping them engage more effectively with others 84 The Washington Post ran a story that only exposure therapy is proven for PTSD and that cognitive therapy or even drug therapy are not shown at this time to be effective 85 Operant based EEG biofeedback edit Main article Biofeedback Kamiya 1968 demonstrated that the alpha rhythm in humans could be operantly conditioned 86 He published an influential article in Psychology Today that summarized research showing subjects learn to discriminate when alpha was present or absent and that they could use feedback to shift the dominant alpha frequency about 1 Hz Almost half of his subjects reported experiencing a pleasant alpha state characterized as an alert calmness These reports may have contributed to the perception of alpha biofeedback as a shortcut to a meditative state He also studied the electroencephalography EEG correlates of meditative states 87 Operant conditioning of EEG has had considerable support in many areas including attention deficit hyperactivity disorder ADHD 88 and even seizure disorders Early studies of the procedure included the treatment of seizure disorders Luber and colleagues 1981 conducted a double blind crossover study showing that seizure activity decreased by 50 in the contingent conditioning of inhibiting brain waves as opposed to the non contingent use 89 Sterman 2000 reviewed 18 studies of a total of 174 clients and found 82 of the participants had significant seizure reduction 30 less weekly seizures 90 Organizational edit Main articles Organizational behavior management Behavioral engineering and Behavior based safety Behavior analysis with organizations is sometimes combined with systems theory in an approach called organizational behavior management This approach has shown success particularly in the area of behavior based safety Behavior safety research has lately become focused on factors that lead programs to being retained in institutions long after the designer leaves 91 Educational edit Main articles Direct instruction Positive behavior support Curriculum based measurement and Functional analysis psychology Direct instruction and Direct Instruction the former representing the process and the latter a specific curriculum that highlights that process remain both current and controversial in behavior analysis 92 The essential features are a carefully structured fast paced program based on teacher directed small group instruction 93 One controversy that remains is that teacher creativity is admonished in the program 94 Even with such issues to be worked out positive gains in reading for the approach have been reported in the literature since 1968 95 96 An example of the positive gains reported by Meyer 1984 found that 34 of children in the DISTAR group were accepted to college as compared to only 17 of the control school 97 Current research is focused on peer delivery of the program 98 School wide positive behavior support 72 is based on the use of behavior analytic procedures delivered in an organizational behavior management approach School wide behavioral support has been increasingly accepted by administrators lawmakers and teachers as a way to improve safety in classrooms 99 100 Curriculum based measurement and curriculum matching is another active area of application 101 Curriculum based measurement uses rate and reading performance as the primary variable in determining reading levels The goal is to better match children to the appropriate curriculum level to remove frustration as well as to track reading performance over time to see if it is improving with intervention This model also serves as the basis for response to intervention models Functional behavioral assessment was mandated in the United States for children who meet criteria under the individuals with disabilities education act 102 This approach has precluded many procedures for modifying and maintaining children in not just the school system but in many cases in the regular education setting 103 104 Even children with severe behavior problems appear to be helped 105 106 107 Teaching children to recruit attention 108 has become a very important area in education In many cases one function of children s disruptive behavior is to get attention 109 Hospital settings edit One area of interest in hospitals is the blocking effect especially for conditioned taste aversion This area of interest is considered important in the prevention of weigh loss during chemotherapy for cancer patients Another area of growing interest in the hospital setting is the use of operant based biofeedback with those suffering from cerebral palsy 110 111 112 or minor spinal injuries 113 114 Brucker s group at the University of Miami has had some success with specific operant conditioning based biofeedback procedures to enhance functioning 115 116 While such methods are not a cure and gains tend to be in the moderate range they do show ability to help remaining central nervous system cells to regain some control over lost areas of functioning 113 Residential treatment edit Main article Residential treatment center Behavioral interventions have been very helpful in reducing problem behaviors in residential treatment centers 117 The type of residential versus mental retardation does not appear to be a factor 118 Behavioral interventions have been found to be successful even when medication interventions fail 119 Space program edit Probably one of the most interesting applications of behavior analysis in the 1960s was its contribution to the space program 120 Research in this area is used to train astronauts including the chimpanzees sent into space Continued work in this area focuses on ensuring that astronauts who live in confined areas and space do not develop behavioral health problems 121 Most of this work was led by pioneer behaviorist Joseph V Brady Consumer and professional relationships editOpen communication and a supportive relationship between educational systems and families allow the student to receive a beneficial education This pertains to typical learners as well as to individuals who need additional services It was not until the 1960s that researchers began exploring behavior analysis as a method to educate those children who fall somewhere along the autism spectrum Behavior analysts agree that consistency in and out of the school classroom is key in order for children with autism to maintain proper standing in school and continue to develop to their greatest potential Applied behavior analysts sometimes work with a team to address a person s educational or behavioral needs Other professionals such as speech therapists physicians and the primary caregivers are treated as key to the implementation of successful therapy in the applied behavior analysis ABA model The ABA method relies on behavior principles to develop treatments appropriate for the individual Regular meetings with professionals to discuss programming are one way to establish a successful working relationship between a family and their school It is beneficial when a caregiver can conduct generalization procedures outside of school In the ABA framework developing and maintaining a structured working relationship between parents or guardians and professionals is essential to ensure consistent treatment Intervention goals editWhen working directly with clients behavior analysts engage in a process of collaborative goal setting 122 Goal setting ensures that the client is already under stimulus control of the goal and is thus more likely to engage in behavior to achieve it 123 Behavior analytic programs are ultimately skill building 124 they enhance functioning lead to higher quality of life and build self control 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 One of the most distinguishing features of behavior analysis has been its core belief that all individuals have a right to the most effective treatment for their condition 134 and a right to the most effective educational strategy available 135 History editApplied behavior analysis is the applied side of the experimental analysis of behavior It is based on the principles of operant and respondent conditioning and represents a major approach to behavior therapies Its origin can be traced back to Teodoro Ayllon and Jack Michael s 1959 article The psychiatric nurse as a behavioral engineer 136 as well as to initial efforts to implement teaching machines 137 The research basis of ABA can be found in the theoretical work of behaviorism and radical behaviorism originating with the work of B F Skinner In 1968 Baer Wolf and Risley wrote an article 138 that was the source of contemporary applied behavior analysis providing the criteria to judge the adequacy of research and practice in applied behavior analysis It became the core and centerpiece behavioral engineering Work in respondent conditioning what some would term classical conditioning began with the work of Joseph Wolpe in the 1960s It was improved by the work of Edna B Foa who did extensive research on exposure and response prevention for obsessive compulsive disorder OCD In addition she worked on exposure therapy for post traumatic stress disorder Over the years most behavior analysts have existed and conducted research in many areas and University departments behavior analysis psychology special education regular education speech language pathology communication disorders school psychology criminal justice and family life They have belonged to many organizations including the American Psychological Association APA and have most often found a core intellectual home in the Association for Behavior Analysis International 139 140 Current research edit Behavior analysis remains one of the most active research areas in all of psychology developmental disability mental health and other studies of human behavior Current research in behavior analysis focuses on expanding the tradition by looking at setting events behavioral activation the Matching law relational frame theory stimulus equivalences and covert conditioning as exemplified in Skinner s model of rule governed behavior Verbal Behavior 132 141 Experimental psychopathology edit Experimental psychopathology is a behavior therapy area in which animal models are developed to simulate human pathology For example Wolpe studied cats to build his theory of human anxiety This work continues today in the study of both pathology and treatment 142 Controversy editInitially applied behavior analysis used punishment such as shouting and slaps to reduce unwanted behaviors 143 Ethical opposition to such aversive practices caused them to fall out of favor and has stimulated development of less aversive methods although such practices are still occasionally used such as at the Judge Rotenberg Center 144 In general aversion therapy and punishment are now less frequently used as ABA treatments due to legal restrictions 145 However procedures such as odor aversion covert sensitization and other covert conditioning procedures based on punishment or aversion strategies are still used effectively in the treatment of pedophiles 146 In addition with some populations such as conduct disorder in children there is considerable evidence that has developed to show that all positive programs can produce change but that children will not enter into the normal range without punishment procedures 147 148 These programs have shifted to using child time out and response cost procedures to ensure that clients rights to effective interventions are met Homosexuality edit In 1973 the APA removed homosexuality from its Diagnostic and Statistical Manual yet it kept ego dystonic homosexuality as a condition until the DSM III R 1987 citation needed In 1974 Ole Ivar Lovaas pioneer of the use of discrete trial teaching DTT to treat autism was the second author on a journal article describing the use of ABA to reduce feminine behaviors and increase masculine behaviors of a male child in an effort to prevent adult transsexualism 149 Treatments designed to uphold traditional sex role behaviors were opposed by some behavior analysts who argued that the intervention was not justified 150 In the late 1960s Wolpe refused to treat homosexual behavior arguing that it was easier and more productive to treat the religious guilt than the homosexuality He instead provided assertiveness training to a homosexual client 151 Most behavior analysts and behavior therapists have not worked in sexual re orientation therapy since Gerald Davison argued that the issue was not one of effectiveness but of ethics 152 When he wrote the paper presenting this position Davison was president of the Association for the Advancement of Behavior Therapy now the Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies and thus his views carried much weight Davison argued that homosexuality is not pathological and is only a problem if it is regarded as one by society and the therapist Ethical practice editPunishment and aversion therapies edit The use of punishment and aversion therapy procedures are a constant ethical challenge for behavior analysts One of the original reasons for the development of the Behavior Analyst Certification Board were cases of abuse from behaviorists 153 Both continue to draw proponents and opposition however in some of the more controversial cases some middle ground has been found through legislation see Judge Rotenberg Educational Center 145 154 Sex offenders and recidivism edit A study in 1991 showed that behavior modification was effective in sex offender treatment and covert sensitization and it has been shown to have some effects on reducing recidivism 146 However Gene Able who has done extensive research in this area suggests that it is not as effective outside of the package which contains odor aversion satiation therapy masturbatory reconditioning 155 and various social skills training programs including empathy training Current behavior analysis programs offer this type of comprehensive treatment approach 156 In addition they use a combination of functional assessment behavior chain analysis and risk assessment to create relapse prevention strategies and to help the offender to develop better self control 157 With sex offenders who have retardation comprehensive behavioral programming has been effective at least in the short run 158 This treatment included formal academic and vocational training sex education a unit token economy and individual behavior therapy including sexual reconditioning In addition it included supported competitive employment fading of program structure and increased community participation Journals editThere are multiple journals which produce articles on the clinical applications of applied behavior analysis 159 The most popular and widely used of these journals is the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis 160 There are many other journals dedicated to this field Some of these include The Behavior Analyst Today the International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy and three new journals scheduled for release in 2008 Behavior Analysis in Sports Health Fitness and Behavioral Medicine the Journal of Behavior Analysis in Crime and Victim Treatment and Prevention as well as the Association for Behavior Analysis International s Behavior Analysis in Practice 161 Professional organizations editThe Association for Behavior Analysis International has a special interest group for practitioner issues behavioral counseling and clinical behavior analysis The Association for Behavior Analysis International has larger special interest groups for autism and behavioral medicine The Association for Behavior Analysis International serves as the core intellectual home for behavior analysts 139 140 The Association for Behavior Analysis International sponsors multiple conferences year including the annual conference annual autism conference biannual international conference and other conferences on specific issues such as behavioral theory and sustainability The Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies ABCT also has an interest group in behavior analysis which focuses on clinical behavior analysis In addition the Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies has a special interest group on addictions Doctoral level behavior analysts who are psychologists belong to the American Psychological Association s division 25 Behavior analysis APA offers a diplomate in behavioral psychology References edit a b Cooper John Timothy Heron William Heward 2007 Applied Behavior Analysis Prentice Hall ISBN 978 0 13 142113 4 BACB Archived from the original on 2019 11 12 Retrieved 2022 07 22 Behavior Analysis Certification Board Archived from the original on 29 November 2011 Retrieved 23 December 2011 Dowd E T 2001 Board Certification Diplomate in Behavioral Psychology The Behavior Analyst Today 2 1 15 28 doi 10 1037 h0099904 Introduction to the BACB Model Act for Licensing Behavior Analysts Behavior Analyst Certification Board Inc February 2009 The full text of SB 946 can be found here 1 a b Kratochwill Thomas R Bergan John J 1990 Behavioral consultation and therapy New York Plenum Press ISBN 978 0 306 43345 0 Tharp R J Wetzel R G 1969 Behavior Modification in the Natural Environment Academic Press ISBN 978 0 12 686050 4 a b Eisenberg M G amp Cole H W 1986 A behavioral approach to job seeking for psychiatrically impaired persons Journal of Rehabilitation 52 2 46 49 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Wehman P 1975 Behavioral 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CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Rice J M 1985 A behavioral perspective Journal of Applied Rehabilitation Counseling 16 3 26 29 doi 10 1891 0047 2220 16 3 26 S2CID 198102199 Simek T C amp O Brien R M 1981 Total golf A behavioral approach to lowering your score and getting more out of your game New York NY Doubleday McFall R amp Lillesand D 1971 Behavior rehearsal with modeling and coaching in assertion training Journal of Abnormal Psychology 77 3 313 323 doi 10 1037 h0031010 PMID 5556941 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link McFall R amp Twentyman C T 1973 Four experiments on the relative contributions of rehearsal modeling and coaching to assertion training Journal of Abnormal Psychology 81 3 299 318 doi 10 1037 h0034567 PMID 4710042 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link a b Krumboltz J D amp Thoreson C E Eds 1969 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B Ed 1977 Behavioral self management Strategies techniques and outcomes New York Brunner Mazel Stuart R B amp Davis B 1978 Slim Chance in a Fat World Behavioral Control on Obesity ISBN 0878220607 WeightWatchers com About Us Archived from the original on 2007 12 25 Retrieved 2007 12 29 Cautilli J D 2006 Editorial Some Initial Thoughts on a Heritage Based Behavioral Approach to the Counseling of Juvenile Delinquents International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy 2 4 458 465 doi 10 1037 h0100999 Heitzman Powell L S White R amp Perrin N L 2007 Behavior Analysts and Counseling Why are we not there and how can we get there International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy 3 4 571 581 doi 10 1037 h0100824 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link a b U S Dept of Health and Human Services 1999 Autism Mental Health A Report of the Surgeon General Rockville MD U S Department of Health and Human 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2002 Intensive behavioral treatment at school for 4 to 7 year old children with autism A 1 year comparison controlled study Behavior Modif 26 1 49 68 doi 10 1177 0145445502026001004 PMID 11799654 S2CID 14571719 Romanczyk R G White S amp Gillis J M 2005 Social Skills Versus Skilled Social Behavior A Problematic Distinction in Autism Spectrum Disorders Journal of Early and Intensive Behavior Intervention 2 3 177 194 doi 10 1037 h0100312 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Shook G L Neisworth J T 2005 Ensuring appropriate qualifications for applied behavior analyst professionals the Behavior Analyst Certification Board Exceptionality 13 1 3 10 doi 10 1207 s15327035ex1301 2 S2CID 143233756 Stahmer A C 1995 Teaching symbolic play skills to children with autism using Pivotal Response Training J Autism Dev Disord 25 2 123 41 doi 10 1007 BF02178500 PMID 7559281 S2CID 2462565 Stahmer A C Schreibman L amp Palardy Powell N 2006 Social Validation of Symbolic Play Training for Children with Autism Journal of Early and Intensive Behavior Intervention 3 2 196 210 doi 10 1037 h0100332 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Harris S L Delmolino L 2002 Applied behavior analysis its application in the treatment of autism and related disorders in young children Infants Young Child 14 3 11 7 doi 10 1097 00001163 200201000 00006 S2CID 56455795 Andrew Solomon 23 May 2008 The New Wave of Autism Rights Activists New York Magazine Nymag New York Magazine Archived from the original on 2008 05 27 Retrieved 2021 12 05 McGill Owen Robinson Anna 2020 01 01 Recalling hidden harms autistic experiences of childhood applied behavioural analysis ABA Advances in Autism 7 4 269 282 doi 10 1108 AIA 04 2020 0025 ISSN 2056 3868 S2CID 225282499 Archived from the original on 2023 08 13 Retrieved 2021 12 05 Ingersoll B 2007 Teaching Imitation to Children with Autism A focus on Social Reciprocity Journal of Speech Language Pathology and Applied Behavior Analysis 2 3 269 277 doi 10 1037 h0100224 Simpson R L 2001 ABA and students with autism spectrum disorders issues and considerations for effective practice Focus Autism Other Dev Disabl 16 2 68 71 doi 10 1177 108835760101600202 S2CID 143809489 Matson J L Benavidez D A Compton L S Paclawskyj T amp Baglio C 1996 Behavioral treatment of autistic persons A review of research from 1980 to the present Research in Developmental Disabilities 17 6 433 465 doi 10 1016 S0891 4222 96 00030 3 PMID 8946569 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link a b Brandsma L L amp Herbert J D 2001 Applied Behavior Analysis for Childhood Autism Does the Emperor Have Clothes The Behavior Analyst Today 3 1 145 156 doi 10 1037 h0099958 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Lund S K 2004 Selection Based Imitation A Tool Skill in the Development of Receptive Language in Children With Autism The Behavior Analyst Today 5 1 26 34 doi 10 1037 h0100132 a b Ferraioli S Hughes C Smith T 2005 A Model for Problem Solving in Discrete Trial Training for Children With Autism Journal of Early and Intensive Behavior Intervention 2 4 224 240 doi 10 1037 h0100316 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Lovaas O Ivar Schreibman Laura Koegel Robert L June 1974 A Behavior Modification Approach to theTreatment of Autistic Children Journal of Autism and Childhood Schizophrenia 4 2 111 129 doi 10 1007 BF02105365 PMID 4479842 S2CID 198207845 Archived from the original on 2022 07 23 Retrieved 2022 07 23 via SpringerLink Kerwin M L 2003 Pediatric Feeding Problems The Behavior Analyst Today 4 2 162 175 doi 10 1037 h0100114 Archived from the original on 2019 08 12 Retrieved 2019 08 12 Pediatric Feeding Disorders Feeding Clinic of Santa Monica Archived from the original on 2 March 2016 Retrieved 8 July 2013 Hart B M amp Risley T R 1968 Establishing the use of descriptive adjectives in the spontaneous speech of disdvantaged children Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis 1 2 109 120 doi 10 1901 jaba 1968 1 109 PMC 1310986 PMID 16795166 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Dougher Michael ed 2000 Clinical Behavior Analysis Oakland CA New Harbringer Publications ISBN 9781878978387 Wikler A 1984 1965 Conditioning factors in opiate addiction and relapse Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 1 4 279 285 doi 10 1016 0740 5472 84 90008 4 a b Smith J E Milford J L amp Meyers R J 2004 CRA and CRAFT Behavioral Approaches to Treating Substance Abusing Individuals The Behavior Analyst Today 5 4 391 403 doi 10 1037 h0100044 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Hunt G M amp Azrin N H 1973 A community reinforcement approach to alcoholism Behaviour Research and Therapy 11 1 91 104 doi 10 1016 0005 7967 73 90072 7 PMID 4781962 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Azrin N H Sisson R W Meyers R J amp Godley M D 1982 Alcoholism treatment by disulfiram and community reinforcement therapy Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry 3 2 105 112 doi 10 1016 0005 7916 82 90050 7 PMID 7130406 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Mallams J H Godley M D Hall G M amp Meyers R J 1982 A social systems approach to resocializing alcoholics in the community Journal of Studies on Alcohol 43 11 1115 1123 doi 10 15288 jsa 1982 43 1115 PMID 7182672 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Milford Jaime L Austin Julia L and Smith Jane Ellen 2007 Community Reinforcement and the Dissemination of Evidence based Practice Implications for Public Policy International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy 3 1 77 87 doi 10 1037 h0100174 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Kirby K C Marlowe D B Festinger D S Garvey K A amp LaMonaca V 1999 Community reinforcement training for family and significant others of drug abusers Aunilateral intervention to increase treatment entry of drug users Drug and Alcohol Dependence 56 1 85 96 doi 10 1016 S0376 8716 99 00022 8 PMID 10462097 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Meyers R J Miller W R Hill D E amp Tonigan J S 1999 Community reinforcement and family training CRAFT Engaging unmotivated drug users in treatment PDF Journal of Substance Abuse 10 3 1 18 doi 10 1016 S0899 3289 99 00003 6 PMID 10689661 Archived PDF from the original on 2020 09 29 Retrieved 2019 08 12 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Miller W R Meyers R J amp Tonigan J S 1999 Engaging the unmotivated in treatment for alcohol problems A comparison of three strategies for intervention through family members Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 67 5 688 697 doi 10 1037 0022 006X 67 5 688 PMID 10535235 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Meyers R J Smith J E amp Lash D N 2005 A Program for Engaging Treatment Refusing Substance Abusers into Treatment CRAFT International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy 1 2 90 100 doi 10 1037 h0100737 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link a b Tobin T J Lewis Palmer T amp Sugai G 2001 School Wide And Individualized Effective Behavior Support An Explanation And An Example The Behavior Analyst Today 3 1 51 75 doi 10 1037 h0099960 Polirstok S amp Gottlieb J 2006 The Impact of Positive Behavior Intervention Training for Teachers On Referral Rates for Misbehavior Special Education Evaluation and Student Reading Achievement in the Elementary Grades PDF International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy 2 3 354 361 doi 10 1037 h0100789 S2CID 3141698 Archived from the original PDF on 2019 08 12 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Kingsley D E 2006 The Teaching Family Model and Post Treatment Recidivism A Critical Review of the Conventional Wisdom The International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy 2 4 481 496 doi 10 1037 h0101002 Patterson G R 2002 Etiology and Treatment of Child and Adolescent Antisocial Behavior The Behavior Analyst Today 3 2 133 145 doi 10 1037 h0099971 Snyder J Stoolmiller M Patterson G R Schrepferman L Oeser J Johnson K amp Soetaert D 2003 The Application of Response Allocation Matching to Understanding Risk Mechanisms in Development The Case of Young Children s Deviant Talk and Play and Risk for Early Onset Antisocial Behavior The Behavior Analyst Today 4 4 435 453 doi 10 1037 h0100130 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Snyder J amp Patterson G R 1995 Individual differences in social aggression A test of a reinforcement model of socialization in the natural environment Behavior Therapy 26 2 371 391 doi 10 1016 S0005 7894 05 80111 X a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Shaffer A Kotchick B A Dorsey St amp Forehand R 2001 The Past Present and Future of Behavioral Parent Training Interventions for Child and Adolescent Problem Behavior The Behavior Analyst Today 2 2 91 105 doi 10 1037 h0099922 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Ware Lisa M Fortson Beverly L McNeil Cheryl B 2003 Parent Child Interaction Therapy A Promising Intervention for Abusive Families The Behavior Analyst Today 3 4 375 382 doi 10 1037 h0099993 Illescas S R Sanchez Meca J amp Genoves V G 2001 TREATMENT OF OFFENDERS AND RECIDIVISM ASSESSMENT OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF PROGRAMMES APPLIED IN EUROPE PDF Psychology in Spain 5 47 62 Archived PDF from the original on 2020 07 20 Retrieved 2019 08 12 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Strain S P and Timm Matthew A 2001 Remediation and Prevention of Aggression An Evaluation of the Regional Intervention Program Over a Quarter Century PDF Behavioral Disorders 26 4 297 313 doi 10 1177 019874290102600409 JSTOR 23889086 S2CID 67761205 Archived PDF from the original on 2021 07 09 Retrieved 2019 08 12 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Eftekhari A Stines L R amp Zoellner L A 2005 Do You Need To Talk About It Prolonged Exposure for the Treatment of Chronic PTSD The Behavior Analyst Today 7 1 70 83 doi 10 1037 h0100141 PMC 2770710 PMID 19881894 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link a b Hassija C M amp Gray M J 2007 Behavioral Interventions for Trauma and Post Traumatic Stress Disorder International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy 3 2 166 175 doi 10 1037 h0100797 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Moreno Gil P J Mendez Carrillo F X Sanchez Meca J 2001 Effectiveness of cognitive behavioural treatment in social phobia a meta analytic review Psychology in Spain 5 17 25 Archived from the original on 2008 05 18 Retrieved 2007 12 30 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Vedantam Shankar Most PTSD Treatments Not Proven Effective The Washington Post Archived from the original on 4 November 2012 Retrieved 7 July 2010 Kamiya J 1968 Conscious control of brain waves Psychology Today 1 57 60 Kamiya J 1969 Operant control of the EEG alpha rhythm In C Tart Ed Altered states of consciousness NY Wiley Alhambra M A Fowler T P amp Alhambra A A 1995 EEG biofeedback A new treatment option for ADD ADHD Journal of Neurotherapy 1 2 39 43 doi 10 1300 J184v01n02 03 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Lubar J F Shabsin H S Natelson S E Holder G S Whitsett S F Pamplin W E amp Krulikowski D I 1981 EEG operant conditioning in intractable epileptics Archives of Neurology 38 11 700 704 doi 10 1001 archneur 1981 00510110060009 PMID 7305698 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Sterman M B 2000 Basic concepts and clinical findings in the treatment of seizure disorders with EEG operant conditioning Clinical Electroencephalography 31 1 45 55 doi 10 1177 155005940003100111 PMID 10638352 S2CID 43506749 Roman H R amp Boyce T E 2001 Institutionalizing Behavior Based Safety Theories Concepts And Practical Suggestions The Behavior Analyst Today 3 1 76 82 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Kim T amp Axelrod S 2005 Direct Instruction An Educators Guide and a Plea for Action The Behavior Analyst Today 6 2 111 doi 10 1037 h0100061 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Becker W C 1977 Teaching reading and language to the disadvantaged What we have learned from field research Harvard Educational Review 47 4 518 543 doi 10 17763 haer 47 4 51431w6022u51015 Aukerman R C 1984 Approaches to reading New York Wiley Biloine Y W 1968 A new approach to head start Phi Delta Kappan XLX 7 386 388 Meyer L A Gerten R M amp Gutkin J 1983 Direct instruction A project follow through success story in an inner city school Elementary School Journal 84 2 241 252 doi 10 1086 461360 S2CID 109635089 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Meyer L A 1984 Long term academic effects on the direct instruction project follow through Elementary School Journal 84 4 380 394 doi 10 1086 461371 S2CID 143747749 An Overview and Research Summary of Peer Delivered Corrective Reading The Behavior Analyst Today 3 2 214 221 2002 doi 10 1037 h0099966 Sugai G amp Horner R H Schoolwide positive behaviour supports Achieving and sustaining effective learning environments for all students In W L Hewards T E Heron N A Neef et al 2005 Focus on behavior analysis in education Achievements challenges and opportunities Pearson Merill Precentice Hall ISBN 9780131113398 Luiselli J K Putnam R F amp Handler M W 2001 Improving Discipline Practices In Public Schools Description of a Whole School and District Wide Model Of Behavior Analysis Consultation The Behavior Analyst Today 2 1 18 27 doi 10 1037 h0099907 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Hale A D Skinner C H Williams J Hawkins R Neddenriep C E amp Dizer J 2007 Comparing Comprehension Following Silent and Aloud Reading across Elementary and Secondary Students Implication for Curriculum Based Measurement The Behavior Analyst Today 8 1 9 23 doi 10 1037 h0100101 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Roberts M 2001 Research in Practice Practical Approaches to Conducting Functional Analyses that all Educators Can Use The Behavior Analyst Today 3 1 83 88 doi 10 1037 h0099961 Scott T M Park K L Swain Bradway J amp Landers E 2007 Positive Behavior Support in the Classroom Facilitating Behaviorally Inclusive Learning Environments International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy 3 2 223 235 doi 10 1037 h0100800 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Waguespack Angela Vaccaro Terrence Continere Lauren 2006 Functional Behavioral Assessment and Intervention with Emotional Behaviorally Disordered Students In Pursuit of State of the Art PDF International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy 2 4 463 472 doi 10 1037 h0101000 Archived PDF from the original on 2021 04 08 Retrieved 2019 08 12 Mueller M M amp Nkosi A 2007 State of the science in the Assessment and Management of Severe Behavior Problems in School Settings Behavior Analytic Consultation to Schools 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Integrating functional analysis and actuarial measures Journal of Behavior Analysis of Offender and Victim Treatment and Prevention 1 4 28 41 doi 10 1037 h0100454 Losada Paisey Gloria amp Paisey Timothy J H 1987 Program evaluation of a comprehensive treatment package for mentally retarded offenders Behavioral Interventions 3 4 247 265 doi 10 1002 bin 2360030403 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Cooper J O Heron T E amp Heward W L 2007 Applied behavior analysis Pearson Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis doi 10 1002 ISSN 1938 3703 Behavior Analysis in Practice abainternational org Archived from the original on September 28 2016 Retrieved August 19 2016 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Professional practice of behavior analysis amp oldid 1207750209, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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