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Poles in the Soviet Union

January 29, 2023

The Polish minority in the Soviet Union are Polish diaspora who used to reside near or within the borders of the Soviet Union before its dissolution. Some of them continued to live in the post-Soviet states, most notably in Lithuania, Belarus, and Ukraine, the areas historically associated with the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, as well as in Kazakhstan and Azerbaijan among others.

History of Poles in the Soviet Union

1917–1920

 
Painter Kazimir Malevich (Kazimierz Malewicz)[1] was a prominent artist of Polish descent active in the Soviet Union. His attempt at settling in Warsaw in 1927 failed.[1]

Millions of Poles lived within the Russian Empire (along with Austria-Hungary and the Prussian Kingdom) following the military Partitions of Poland throughout the 19th century, which resulted in the extinction of the Polish state. After the Russian Revolution of 1917, followed by the Russian Civil War, the majority of the Polish population saw cooperation with the Bolshevik forces as betrayal and treachery to Polish national interests.[2] Polish writer and philosopher Stanisław Ignacy Witkiewicz lived through the Russian Revolution while in St. Petersburg. What he saw, had a profound effect on his works, many of which display themes of the horrors of the Civil War he witnessed.[citation needed] Among the many Polish victims of the revolution was the father of Polish eminent composer Witold Lutosławski, Marian Lutosławski and his brother Józef, murdered in Moscow in 1918 as alleged "counter-revolutionaries".[3]

There were also some Poles (or those of partial Polish descent) associated with the communist movement. Famous revolutionaries include Konstantin Rokossovsky, Vyacheslav Menzhinsky, Julian Marchlewski, Stanislaw Kosior, Karol Świerczewski and Felix Dzerzhinsky, founder of the Cheka secret police which would later turn into the NKVD. The Soviet Union also organized Polish units in the Red Army[citation needed] and a Polish Communist government-in-exile, however the former were persecuted and subject to mock trials following the end of the Second World War and the latter being appointed and installed by the Soviet regime as opposed to the legitimate government-in-exile based in London.[citation needed] Provisional Polish Revolutionary Committee was created in 1920 but failed to control Poland.

1921–1938

Polish communities were inherited from Imperial Russia after the creation of the Soviet Union. After World War I, Poland reestablished itself as an independent country, and its borders with the USSR were finalized by the Peace of Riga in 1921 at the end of the Polish-Soviet War, which left significant territories populated by Poles near or within the confines of the Soviet Union. According to the 1926 Soviet census, there were a total of 782,334 Poles in the USSR. The largest concentration of Poles was in what is now modern-day West Ukraine, where according to the Soviet census in 1926 476,435 Poles lived. Those estimates are considered to have been lowered by Soviet officials. Church and independent estimates show estimates of 650,000 to 700,000 Poles living in that area.[2] This suggests that the total Polish population of the USSR was in excess of 1,000,000.

Initially the Soviets pursued a policy where the local national language was used as a tool for eradication of national identity in favour of "communist education of masses". In the case of the Poles this meant a goal of Sovietisation of the Polish population. However this proved extremely difficult as the Soviet communists themselves realised that the Poles were en masse opposed to communist ideology, seeing it as hostile to Polish identity and their predominant Roman Catholic religion. The policy of religious discrimination, plunder[clarification needed] and terror[clarification needed] further strengthened Polish resistance to Soviet rule. As a result, the Soviet authorities started to imprison and forcefully remove all those seen as an obstacle to their policies.[2]

Two Polish Autonomous Districts were created, with one in Belarus and one in Ukraine. The first one was named Dzierzynszczyzna, after Felix Dzierżyński; the second was named Marchlewszczyzna after Julian Marchlewski. Following the failure of the Sovietisation of the USSR's Polish minority, the Soviet rulers decided to portray Poles as enemies of the state and use them to fuel Ukrainian nationalism in order to direct Ukrainian anger away from the Soviet government.[2] After 1928 Soviet policies turned to outright eradication of Polish national identity. Special centers were established where the youth was indoctrinated towards hatred against the Polish state, all contacts with relatives within Poland were dangerous and could result in imprisonment. Newspapers printed out in the Polish language were de facto used to print anti-Polish propaganda.[2] Following attacks on the Polish minority, from 18 February 1930 till 19 March 1930 over 100,000 people from Polish areas were expelled by the Soviet authorities.[2]

Following the collectivization of agriculture under Joseph Stalin, both autonomies were abolished and their populations were subsequently deported to Kazakhstan in 1934–1938.[2] Many people starved during the deportation and after, since the deported were moved to sparsely populated areas, unprepared for migration, lacking basic facilities and infrastructure. The survivors were under the supervision of the OGPU/NKVD, cruelly punished for any sign of discontent. 21,000 Poles died during the Holodomor.

In 1936 the Poles were deported from the territories of Belarus and Ukraine adjacent to the state border (the first recorded deportation of a whole ethnic group in the USSR). Tens of thousands of ethnic Poles became victims of the Great Purge in 1937–1938 (see Polish operation of the NKVD). The Communist Party of Poland was also decimated in the Great Purge and was disbanded in 1938. Another decimated group of Poles was the Roman Catholic clergy, who opposed the forced atheization.

A number of Poles fled to Poland during this time, among them Igor Newerly and Tadeusz Borowski.

1939–1947

See also: Poles in Kazakhstan
 
Polish refugees evacuated from the Soviet Union to Persia, 1942

During World War II, after the Soviet invasion of Poland the Soviet Union occupied vast areas of eastern Poland (referred to in Poland as Kresy wschodnie or "eastern Borderlands"), and another 5.2–6.5 million ethnic Poles (from the total population of about 13.5 million residents of these territories) were added, followed by further large-scale forcible deportations to Siberia, Kazakhstan and other remote areas of the Soviet Union.

The number of Poland's citizens held captive in the Soviet Union is a matter of dispute, and ranges from over 300,000 up to nearly 2 million, according to various sources. On March 30, 2004, the head of the Archival Service of Russian Foreign Intelligence Service, General Vasili Khristoforov gave alleged exact numbers of deported Poles. According to him, in 1940 exactly 297,280 Poles were deported, in June 1941 another 40,000. These numbers do not include P.O.W.s, prisoners, small groups, people arrested trying to cross the new borders, people who voluntarily moved into the USSR, and men drafted into the Red Army and into construction battalions or stroybats.[citation needed]

In August 1941, following the German attack on the USSR and the dramatic change in Soviet/Polish relations, according to a January 15, 1943, note from Beria to Stalin, 389,041 Polish citizens (including 200,828 ethnic Poles, 90,662 Jews, 31,392 Ukrainians, 27,418 Belorussians, 3,421 Russians, and 2,291 persons of other nationalities) held in special settlements and prisoner of war camps were granted 'amnesty' and allowed to enroll in Polish army units. The location of reception centres was kept secret and no travel facilities provided.[4] Nevertheless, 119,855 Poles were evacuated to Persia (Iran) with General Anders' army, which subsequently fought alongside the Allies in Iran and Italy; 36,150 were transferred to the Polish Army which fought with the Red Army on the Eastern Front and 11,516 are reported to have died in 1941–1943.[5]

The following are cases of direct executions of Poles during the 1939–1941 occupation:

After World War II most Poles from Kresy were expelled into Poland, but officially 1.3 million stayed in the USSR. Some of them were motivated by the traditional Polish belief that one day they would become again lawful owners of the land they lived on. Some of them were kept forcefully in. Some simply stayed, without force or ideological reasons.

Wanda Wasilewska was an exceptional case – she became a Soviet citizen and did not return after the war.

1947–1991

The Polish minority was one of the few whose numbers decreased over time, according to official statistics. There was also the repatriation of Poles (1955–1959).

After 1989, Poles who survived in Kazakhstan started to emigrate due to national tensions, mainly to Russia and, supported by an immigration society, to Poland. The number remaining is between 50,000 and 100,000.

After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, the following post-Soviet countries have significant Polish minorities:

Demographics

The Polish population in the Soviet Union peaked in 1959, decreased by about 20% by 1970, and then decreased extremely slowly between 1970 and 1989.

Historical Soviet Polish population
YearPop.±%
1926782,334—    
1939630,097−19.5%
19591,380,282+119.1%
19701,167,523−15.4%
19791,150,991−1.4%
19891,126,334−2.1%
Source:

List of prominent Soviets of Polish descent

See also

References

  1. ^ a b Andrzej Turowski, Malewicz W Warszawie: Rekonstrukcje i Symulacje Universitas 2002, ISBN 8370524869.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g J. M. Kupczak "Stosunek władz bolszewickich do polskiej ludności na Ukrainie (1921–1939), Wrocławskie Studia Wschodnie 1 (1997) Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Wrocławskiego, 1997 page 47–62" IPN Bulletin 11(34) 2003.
  3. ^ Mirosław R. Derewońko (February 9, 2009), Witold Lutosławski bał się wspomnień... (Witold Lutosławski was afraid of memories...) Regionalny Portal Łomża. (in Polish)
  4. ^ Michael Hope, Polish Deportees in the Soviet Union, Veritas Foundation, London, 2000, ISBN 0-948202-76-9
  5. ^ Stephen Wheatcroft, "The Scale and Nature of German and Soviet Repression and Mass Killings, 1930–1945", Europe-Asia Studies, Vol.48, No.8, 1996, p. 1345
  6. ^ "Приложение Демоскопа Weekly". Demoscope.ru. Retrieved 2016-04-27.

External links

  • (in Russian) Soviet repressions against Poles and citizens of Poland

January 29, 2023
poles, soviet, union, polish, minority, soviet, union, polish, diaspora, used, reside, near, within, borders, soviet, union, before, dissolution, some, them, continued, live, post, soviet, states, most, notably, lithuania, belarus, ukraine, areas, historically. The Polish minority in the Soviet Union are Polish diaspora who used to reside near or within the borders of the Soviet Union before its dissolution Some of them continued to live in the post Soviet states most notably in Lithuania Belarus and Ukraine the areas historically associated with the Polish Lithuanian Commonwealth as well as in Kazakhstan and Azerbaijan among others Contents 1 History of Poles in the Soviet Union 1 1 1917 1920 1 2 1921 1938 1 3 1939 1947 1 4 1947 1991 2 Demographics 3 List of prominent Soviets of Polish descent 4 See also 5 References 6 External linksHistory of Poles in the Soviet Union Edit1917 1920 Edit Painter Kazimir Malevich Kazimierz Malewicz 1 was a prominent artist of Polish descent active in the Soviet Union His attempt at settling in Warsaw in 1927 failed 1 Millions of Poles lived within the Russian Empire along with Austria Hungary and the Prussian Kingdom following the military Partitions of Poland throughout the 19th century which resulted in the extinction of the Polish state After the Russian Revolution of 1917 followed by the Russian Civil War the majority of the Polish population saw cooperation with the Bolshevik forces as betrayal and treachery to Polish national interests 2 Polish writer and philosopher Stanislaw Ignacy Witkiewicz lived through the Russian Revolution while in St Petersburg What he saw had a profound effect on his works many of which display themes of the horrors of the Civil War he witnessed citation needed Among the many Polish victims of the revolution was the father of Polish eminent composer Witold Lutoslawski Marian Lutoslawski and his brother Jozef murdered in Moscow in 1918 as alleged counter revolutionaries 3 There were also some Poles or those of partial Polish descent associated with the communist movement Famous revolutionaries include Konstantin Rokossovsky Vyacheslav Menzhinsky Julian Marchlewski Stanislaw Kosior Karol Swierczewski and Felix Dzerzhinsky founder of the Cheka secret police which would later turn into the NKVD The Soviet Union also organized Polish units in the Red Army citation needed and a Polish Communist government in exile however the former were persecuted and subject to mock trials following the end of the Second World War and the latter being appointed and installed by the Soviet regime as opposed to the legitimate government in exile based in London citation needed Provisional Polish Revolutionary Committee was created in 1920 but failed to control Poland 1921 1938 Edit Polish communities were inherited from Imperial Russia after the creation of the Soviet Union After World War I Poland reestablished itself as an independent country and its borders with the USSR were finalized by the Peace of Riga in 1921 at the end of the Polish Soviet War which left significant territories populated by Poles near or within the confines of the Soviet Union According to the 1926 Soviet census there were a total of 782 334 Poles in the USSR The largest concentration of Poles was in what is now modern day West Ukraine where according to the Soviet census in 1926 476 435 Poles lived Those estimates are considered to have been lowered by Soviet officials Church and independent estimates show estimates of 650 000 to 700 000 Poles living in that area 2 This suggests that the total Polish population of the USSR was in excess of 1 000 000 Initially the Soviets pursued a policy where the local national language was used as a tool for eradication of national identity in favour of communist education of masses In the case of the Poles this meant a goal of Sovietisation of the Polish population However this proved extremely difficult as the Soviet communists themselves realised that the Poles were en masse opposed to communist ideology seeing it as hostile to Polish identity and their predominant Roman Catholic religion The policy of religious discrimination plunder clarification needed and terror clarification needed further strengthened Polish resistance to Soviet rule As a result the Soviet authorities started to imprison and forcefully remove all those seen as an obstacle to their policies 2 Two Polish Autonomous Districts were created with one in Belarus and one in Ukraine The first one was named Dzierzynszczyzna after Felix Dzierzynski the second was named Marchlewszczyzna after Julian Marchlewski Following the failure of the Sovietisation of the USSR s Polish minority the Soviet rulers decided to portray Poles as enemies of the state and use them to fuel Ukrainian nationalism in order to direct Ukrainian anger away from the Soviet government 2 After 1928 Soviet policies turned to outright eradication of Polish national identity Special centers were established where the youth was indoctrinated towards hatred against the Polish state all contacts with relatives within Poland were dangerous and could result in imprisonment Newspapers printed out in the Polish language were de facto used to print anti Polish propaganda 2 Following attacks on the Polish minority from 18 February 1930 till 19 March 1930 over 100 000 people from Polish areas were expelled by the Soviet authorities 2 Following the collectivization of agriculture under Joseph Stalin both autonomies were abolished and their populations were subsequently deported to Kazakhstan in 1934 1938 2 Many people starved during the deportation and after since the deported were moved to sparsely populated areas unprepared for migration lacking basic facilities and infrastructure The survivors were under the supervision of the OGPU NKVD cruelly punished for any sign of discontent 21 000 Poles died during the Holodomor In 1936 the Poles were deported from the territories of Belarus and Ukraine adjacent to the state border the first recorded deportation of a whole ethnic group in the USSR Tens of thousands of ethnic Poles became victims of the Great Purge in 1937 1938 see Polish operation of the NKVD The Communist Party of Poland was also decimated in the Great Purge and was disbanded in 1938 Another decimated group of Poles was the Roman Catholic clergy who opposed the forced atheization A number of Poles fled to Poland during this time among them Igor Newerly and Tadeusz Borowski 1939 1947 Edit See also Poles in Kazakhstan Polish refugees evacuated from the Soviet Union to Persia 1942 During World War II after the Soviet invasion of Poland the Soviet Union occupied vast areas of eastern Poland referred to in Poland as Kresy wschodnie or eastern Borderlands and another 5 2 6 5 million ethnic Poles from the total population of about 13 5 million residents of these territories were added followed by further large scale forcible deportations to Siberia Kazakhstan and other remote areas of the Soviet Union The number of Poland s citizens held captive in the Soviet Union is a matter of dispute and ranges from over 300 000 up to nearly 2 million according to various sources On March 30 2004 the head of the Archival Service of Russian Foreign Intelligence Service General Vasili Khristoforov gave alleged exact numbers of deported Poles According to him in 1940 exactly 297 280 Poles were deported in June 1941 another 40 000 These numbers do not include P O W s prisoners small groups people arrested trying to cross the new borders people who voluntarily moved into the USSR and men drafted into the Red Army and into construction battalions or stroybats citation needed In August 1941 following the German attack on the USSR and the dramatic change in Soviet Polish relations according to a January 15 1943 note from Beria to Stalin 389 041 Polish citizens including 200 828 ethnic Poles 90 662 Jews 31 392 Ukrainians 27 418 Belorussians 3 421 Russians and 2 291 persons of other nationalities held in special settlements and prisoner of war camps were granted amnesty and allowed to enroll in Polish army units The location of reception centres was kept secret and no travel facilities provided 4 Nevertheless 119 855 Poles were evacuated to Persia Iran with General Anders army which subsequently fought alongside the Allies in Iran and Italy 36 150 were transferred to the Polish Army which fought with the Red Army on the Eastern Front and 11 516 are reported to have died in 1941 1943 5 The following are cases of direct executions of Poles during the 1939 1941 occupation Katyn massacre about 22 000 executions of prisoners after the German invasion 1941 After World War II most Poles from Kresy were expelled into Poland but officially 1 3 million stayed in the USSR Some of them were motivated by the traditional Polish belief that one day they would become again lawful owners of the land they lived on Some of them were kept forcefully in Some simply stayed without force or ideological reasons Wanda Wasilewska was an exceptional case she became a Soviet citizen and did not return after the war 1947 1991 Edit The Polish minority was one of the few whose numbers decreased over time according to official statistics There was also the repatriation of Poles 1955 1959 After 1989 Poles who survived in Kazakhstan started to emigrate due to national tensions mainly to Russia and supported by an immigration society to Poland The number remaining is between 50 000 and 100 000 After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 the following post Soviet countries have significant Polish minorities Lithuania around 250 000 7 of population see also Polish minority in Lithuania Belarus at least 420 000 almost 4 5 of population see also Polish minority in Belarus Ukraine at least 150 000 see also Polish minority in Ukraine Russia more than 100 000 see also Polish minority in Russia Kazakhstan between 60 000 and 100 000 see also Poles in Kazakhstan Latvia around 50 000 see also Poles in Latvia Azerbaijan between 1 000 and 2 000 see also Poles in Azerbaijan Polish minorities are also found in Georgia Moldova and Uzbekistan Demographics EditThe Polish population in the Soviet Union peaked in 1959 decreased by about 20 by 1970 and then decreased extremely slowly between 1970 and 1989 Historical Soviet Polish populationYearPop 1926782 334 1939630 097 19 5 19591 380 282 119 1 19701 167 523 15 4 19791 150 991 1 4 19891 126 334 2 1 Source 6 List of prominent Soviets of Polish descent EditVikenty Veresaev birth name Smidovich writer Vatsalv Vorovsky Waclaw Worowski revolutionary one of the first Soviet diplomats and head of the state publishing house Gleb Krzhizhanovsky Chief of the Russian Electrification Commission responsible for fulfillment of the GOELRO program Felix Dzerzhinsky Feliks Dzierzynski creator and the first chairman of the Soviet security service Cheka later GPU OGPU 1917 1926 Vyacheslav Menzhinsky Wiaczeslaw Mienzynski or Mezynski chairman of the OGPU 1926 1934 Mechislav Kozlovsky communist diplomat and lawyer Andrey Vyshinsky Andrzej Wyszynski Soviet jurist and Prosecutor General of the Soviet Union Kazimir Malevich Kazimierz Malewicz painter pioneer of geometric abstract art and the originator of the avant garde Suprematist movement Yury Olesha writer Tomasz Dabal communist politician Konstantin Rokossovsky Konstanty Rokossowski Marshal of the Soviet Union planner and director of Operation Bagration liberation of Belarus Ukraine and the eastern Poland Konstantin Tsiolkovsky Ciolkowski rocket scientist with a father of Polish descent Stanislav Kosior Stanislaw Kosior General Secretary of the Ukrainian Communist Party deputy prime minister of the USSR and a member of the Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union CPSU one of the principal so called architects of the Ukrainian famine of 1932 to 1933 Karol Swierczewski general commander of the Polish Second Army during the fighting for western Poland and the Battle of Berlin Stanislav Poplavsky Stanislaw Poplawski general commander of the Polish First Army during the breakthrough of the Pommernstellung Pomerania Wall fortification line securing the Baltic Sea coast crossing the Odra and Elbe rivers and the battle of Berlin Sigizmund Levanevsky Zygmunt Lewoniewski aircraft pilot explorer of the Arctic Andrey Vyshinsky Andriej or Andrzej Wyszynski Prosecutor General of the USSR 1934 1939 the legal mastermind of Joseph Stalin s Great Purge Arseny Tarkovsky Tarkowski poet and translator with a father of Polish descent Andrei Tarkovsky Tarkowski film maker writer film editor film theorist theatre and opera director with a paternal grandfather of Polish descent Dmitri Shostakovich Szostakowicz composer with a paternal grandfather of Polish descent Rostislav Plyatt actor of mixed Polish Ukrainian descent Mstislav Rostropovich citation needed cellist and conductor ethnic Russian with some Polish descent Rolan Bykov actor Polish Jewish descent Edvard Radzinsky playwright TV personality Edita Piekha Edyta Piecha singer born in France moved to USSR Anatoly Sobchak mayor of Saint Petersburg mixed Russian Ukrainian Polish Czech descent Sergey Yastrzhembsky Jastrzebski Russian politician President Vladimir Putin s chief spokesperson on the Second Chechen War head of the Kremlin s Information Policy Department co ordinating Putin administration s external communications Konstantin Petrzhak physicistSee also EditCurzon line Dzierzynszczyzna Marchlewszczyzna Osadnik Polonia Marian KropyvnytskyiReferences Edit a b Andrzej Turowski Malewicz W Warszawie Rekonstrukcje i Symulacje Universitas 2002 ISBN 8370524869 a b c d e f g J M Kupczak Stosunek wladz bolszewickich do polskiej ludnosci na Ukrainie 1921 1939 Wroclawskie Studia Wschodnie 1 1997 Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Wroclawskiego 1997 page 47 62 IPN Bulletin 11 34 2003 Miroslaw R Derewonko February 9 2009 Witold Lutoslawski bal sie wspomnien Witold Lutoslawski was afraid of memories Regionalny Portal Lomza in Polish Michael Hope Polish Deportees in the Soviet Union Veritas Foundation London 2000 ISBN 0 948202 76 9 Stephen Wheatcroft The Scale and Nature of German and Soviet Repression and Mass Killings 1930 1945 Europe Asia Studies Vol 48 No 8 1996 p 1345 Prilozhenie Demoskopa Weekly Demoscope ru Retrieved 2016 04 27 External links EditHistory of Poles in Kazakhstan in Russian Soviet repressions against Poles and citizens of Poland Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Poles in the Soviet Union amp oldid 1096131540, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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