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Philip the Arab

Philip the Arab (Latin: Marcus Julius Philippus "Arabs"; c. 204 – September 249) was Roman emperor from 244 to 249. He was born in Aurantis, Arabia, in a city situated in modern-day Syria. After the death of Gordian III in February 244, Philip, who had been Praetorian prefect, achieved power. He quickly negotiated peace with the Persian Sassanid Empire and returned to Rome to be confirmed by the Senate. During his reign, the city of Rome celebrated its millennium.

Philip I
Roman emperor
ReignFebruary 244 – September 249
PredecessorGordian III
SuccessorDecius
Co-emperorPhilip II (248–249)
Bornc. 204
Philippopolis, Arabia Petraea
DiedSeptember 249 (aged 45)
Verona, Italia
SpouseMarcia Otacilia Severa
IssuePhilip II
Names
Marcus Julius Philippus
Regnal name
Imperator Caesar Marcus Julius Philippus Augustus[1]
FatherJulius Marinus
ReligionAncient Roman religion (publicly)
Christianity (speculated)[2]

Philip was betrayed and killed at the Battle of Verona in September 249 following a rebellion led by his successor, Gaius Messius Quintus Decius. Philip's reign of five years was uncommonly stable in a turbulent third century.[a][b]

During the late 3rd century and into the 4th, it was held by some churchmen that Philip had been the first Christian emperor; he was described as such in Jerome's Chronicon (Chronicle), which was well known during the Middle Ages, in Orosius' highly popular Historia Adversus Paganos (History Against the Pagans), and was presented as a Christian in Eusebius of Caesarea's Historia Ecclesiastica (Ecclesiastical History).[5] Modern scholars are divided on the issue.

Early life edit

 
Possible bust of Otacilia Severa, wife of Philip.

Little is known about Philip's early life and political career. He was born in what is today Shahba, Syria, about 90 kilometres (56 mi) southeast of Damascus, in Trachonitis.[6] His birth city, later renamed Philippopolis, lay within Aurantis, an Arab district which at the time was part of the Roman province of Arabia.[7] Most historians accept that Philip was, indeed, an Arab,[7][8][9][10][11] but this ethnic identification remains uncertain.[12] He was the son of a local citizen, Julius Marinus, possibly of some importance.[13] Allegations from later Roman sources (Historia Augusta and Epitome de Caesaribus) that Philip had a very humble origin or even that his father was a leader of brigands are not accepted by modern historians.[14] His birth date is not recorded by contemporary sources, but the 7th-century Chronicon Paschale records that he died at the age of 45.[15]

While the name of Philip's mother is unknown, he did have a brother, Gaius Julius Priscus, an equestrian and a member of the Praetorian Guard under Gordian III (238–244).[16] Philip was married to Marcia Otacilia Severa, daughter of a Roman governor. They had a son, Philip II, born in 237 or 238.[13]

The rise to the purple of the Severans from nearby Emesa is noted as a motivational factor in Philip's own ascent, due to geographic and ethnic similarity between himself and the Emesan emperors.[c][d]

Accession to the throne edit

 
Rock-face relief at Naqsh-e Rostam of Shapur I (on horseback) with Philip and Valerian kneeling in surrender to the Persian king.[e][f][g]

Philip's rise to prominence began through the intervention of his brother Priscus, who was an important official under the emperor Gordian III.[13] His big break came in 243, during Gordian III's campaign against Shapur I of Persia, when the Praetorian prefect Timesitheus died under unclear circumstances.[21] At the suggestion of his brother Priscus, Philip became the new Praetorian prefect, with the intention that the two brothers would control the young Emperor and rule the Roman world as unofficial regents.[13] Following a military defeat, Gordian III died in February 244 under circumstances that are still debated. While some claim that Philip conspired in his murder, other accounts (including one coming from the Persian point of view) state that Gordian died in battle.[21][6][22] Whatever the case, Philip assumed the purple robe following Gordian's death.

Philip was not willing to repeat the mistakes of previous claimants, and was aware that he had to return to Rome in order to secure his position with the Senate.[6] However, his first priority was to conclude a peace treaty with Shapur, and withdraw the army from a potentially disastrous situation.[6][23] Although Philip was accused of abandoning territory, the actual terms of the peace were not as humiliating as they could have been.[23] Philip apparently retained Timesitheus’ reconquest of Osroene and Mesopotamia, but he had to agree that Armenia lay within Persia's sphere of influence.[24] He also had to pay an enormous indemnity to the Persians of 500,000 denarii.[24][23] Philip immediately issued coins proclaiming that he had made peace with the Persians (pax fundata cum Persis).[23]

 
Coin of Severa. Legend: ΜΑΡ. ΩΤΑΚΙΛ. CEOΥHPAN CEB. / ZEYΓMATEΩN. Greek inscription in ACC for MAR. OTACIL. SEVERAM AVG. / (of) citizens of ZEVGMA.

Leading his army back up the Euphrates, south of Circesium Philip erected a cenotaph in honor of Gordian III, but his ashes were sent ahead to Rome, where he arranged for Gordian III's deification.[6][25] Whilst in Antioch, he left his brother Priscus as extraordinary ruler of the Eastern provinces, with the title of rector Orientis.[6][23][13] Moving westward, he gave his brother-in-law Severianus control of the provinces of Moesia and Macedonia.[26] He arrived in Rome in the late summer of 244, where he was confirmed augustus.[6] Before the end of the year, he nominated his young son caesar (heir), his wife, Marcia Otacilia Severa, was named augusta, and he also deified his father Marinus, even though the latter had never been emperor.[23] While in Rome, Philip also claimed a victory over the Persians with the titles of Persicus Maximus, Parthicus Maximus and Parthicus Adiabenicus (the latter probably unofficially).[27]

Reign edit

In an attempt to shore up his regime, Philip put a great deal of effort in maintaining good relations with the Senate, and from the beginning of his reign, he reaffirmed the old Roman virtues and traditions.[23] He quickly ordered an enormous building program in his home town, renaming it Philippopolis, and raising it to civic status, while he populated it with statues of himself and his family.[25] He also introduced the Actia-Dusaria Games in Bostra, capital of Arabia. This festival combined the worship of Dushara, the main Nabataean deity, with commemoration of the Battle of Actium, as part of the Roman Imperial cult.[28]

The creation of the new city of Philippopolis, piled on top of the massive tribute owed to the Persians, as well as the necessary donativum to the army to secure its acceptance of his accession, made Philip desperately short of money.[25] To pay for it, he ruthlessly increased levels of taxation, while at the same time he ceased paying subsidies to the tribes north of the Danube that were vital for keeping the peace on the frontiers.[29] Both decisions would have significant impacts upon the empire and his reign.[30]

At the frontiers of the empire edit

In 245, Philip was forced to leave Rome as the stability established by Timesitheus was undone by a combination of his death, Gordian's defeat in the east and Philip's decision to cease paying the subsidies.[6][30] The Carpi moved through Dacia, crossed the Danube and emerged in Moesia where they threatened the Balkans.[31] Establishing his headquarters in Philippopolis in Thrace, he pushed the Carpi across the Danube and chased them back into Dacia, so that by the summer of 246, he claimed victory against them, along with the title "Carpicus Maximus".[32][33] In the meantime, the Arsacids of Armenia refused to acknowledge the authority of the Persian king Shapur I, and war with Persia flared up again by 245.[30]

Ludi Saeculares edit

 
Medallion commemorating Rome's millennium. Legend: concordia augustorum / saeculum novvum ("harmony of the emperors, new era").

Nevertheless, Philip was back in Rome by August 247, where he poured more money into the most momentous event of his reign – the Ludi Saeculares, which coincided with the one thousandth anniversary of the foundation of Rome.[32] So in April 248 AD (April 1001 A.U.C.), Philip had the honor of leading the celebrations of the one thousandth birthday of Rome, which according to the empire's official Varronian chronology was founded on 21 April 753 BC by Romulus.

Commemorative coins, such as the one illustrated at left, were issued in large numbers and, according to contemporary accounts, the festivities were magnificent and included spectacular games, ludi saeculares, and theatrical presentations throughout the city.[34] In the Colosseum, in what had been originally prepared for Gordian III's planned Roman triumph over the Persians,[35] more than 1,000 gladiators were killed along with hundreds of exotic animals including hippos, leopards, lions, giraffes, and one rhinoceros.[36] The events were also celebrated in literature, with several publications, including Asinius Quadratus' History of a Thousand Years, specially prepared for the anniversary.[13] At the same time, Philip elevated his son to the rank of co-augustus.[13]

Downfall edit

Despite the festive atmosphere, there were continued problems in the provinces. In late 248, the legions of Pannonia and Moesia, dissatisfied with the result of the war against the Carpi, rebelled and proclaimed Tiberius Claudius Pacatianus emperor.[13] The resulting confusion tempted the Quadi and other Germanic tribes to cross the frontier and raid Pannonia.[32] At the same time, the Goths invaded Moesia and Thrace across the Danube frontier, and laid siege to Marcianopolis,[37] as the Carpi, encouraged by the Gothic incursions, renewed their assaults in Dacia and Moesia.[32] Meanwhile, in the East, Marcus Jotapianus led another uprising in response to the oppressive rule of Priscus and the excessive taxation of the Eastern provinces.[13][26] Two other usurpers, Marcus Silbannacus and Sponsianus, are reported to have started rebellions without much success.[13]

 
Aureus of Philip.

Overwhelmed by the number of invasions and usurpers, Philip offered to resign, but the Senate decided to throw its support behind the emperor, with a certain Gaius Messius Quintus Decius most vocal of all the senators.[38] Philip was so impressed by his support that he dispatched Decius to the region with a special command encompassing all of the Pannonian and Moesian provinces. This had a dual purpose of both quelling the rebellion of Pacatianus as well as dealing with the barbarian incursions.[38][32]

Although Decius managed to quell the revolt, discontent in the legions was growing.[30] Decius was proclaimed emperor by the Danubian armies in the spring of 249 and immediately marched on Rome.[38][13] Yet even before he had left the region, the situation for Philip had turned even more sour. Financial difficulties had forced him to debase the antoninianus, as rioting began to occur in Egypt, causing disruptions to Rome's wheat supply and further eroding Philip's support in the capital.[39]

Although Decius tried to come to terms with Philip,[38] Philip's army met the usurper near modern Verona that summer. Decius easily won the battle and Philip was killed sometime in September 249,[40][39] either in the fighting or assassinated by his own soldiers who were eager to please the new ruler.[13] Philip's eleven-year-old son and heir may have been killed with his father and Priscus disappeared without a trace.[40]

Religious beliefs edit

Some later traditions, first mentioned by the historian Eusebius in his Ecclesiastical History, held that Philip was the first Christian Roman Emperor. According to Eusebius (Ecc. Hist. VI.34), Philip was a Christian, but was not allowed to enter Easter vigil services until he confessed his sins and was ordered to sit among the penitents, which he did willingly. Later versions located this event in Antioch.[13]

However, historians generally identify the later Emperor Constantine, baptized on his deathbed, as the first Christian emperor, and generally describe Philip's adherence to Christianity as dubious, because non-Christian writers do not mention the fact, and because throughout his reign, Philip to all appearances (coinage, etc.) continued to follow the state religion.[41] Critics ascribe Eusebius' claim as probably due to the tolerance Philip showed towards Christians.

See also edit

Explanatory notes edit

  1. ^ "The five years of Philip's reign were a time of uncommon stability and repose in a century notorious for turbulence."[3]
  2. ^ "Philip's reign was brief – just five years – but it was a stable one in the unstable third century."[4]
  3. ^ "Severus deserves the ultimate credit for making possible the emergence of a figure such as Philip."[7]
  4. ^ "The spectacle of Arab and half-Arab emperors from neighboring Emesa must have left a deep impression on Marcus Julius Philippus."[17]
  5. ^ The two emperors who are named are shown in the way they are described: Philip the Arab is kneeling, asking for peace, and Valerian is physically taken prisoner by Šāpur. Consequently, the relief must be made after 260 AD. "[18]
  6. ^ "(...) while another figure, probably Philip the Arab, kneels, and the Sasanian king holds the ill-fated Emperor Valerian by his wrist."[19]
  7. ^ "He recorded these deeds for posterity in both words and images at Naqsh-i Rustam and on the Ka'aba-i Zardušt near the ancient Achaemenid capital of Persepolis, preserving for us a vivid image of two Roman emperors, one kneeling (probably Philip the Arab, also defeated by Shapur) and the second (Valerian), uncrowned and held captive at the wrist by a gloriously mounted Persian king."[20]

Citations edit

  1. ^ Cooley, Alison E. (2012). The Cambridge Manual of Latin Epigraphy. Cambridge University Press. p. 498. ISBN 978-0-521-84026-2.
  2. ^ McGuckin, John Anthony (15 December 2010). The Encyclopedia of Eastern Orthodox Christianity. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-4443-9254-8.
  3. ^ Bowersock 1983, p. 124.
  4. ^ Ball 2000, p. 468.
  5. ^ Shahîd 1984, pp. 65–93.
  6. ^ a b c d e f g h Bowman, Cameron & Garnsey 2005, p. 36.
  7. ^ a b c Bowersock 1983, p. 122.
  8. ^ Ball 2000, p. 418.
  9. ^ Shahîd 1984, p. 36.
  10. ^ "Philip | Roman emperor". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 15 July 2020.
  11. ^ Perry Anderson, Passages from Antiquity to Feudalism (London: NLB, 1974), 87–88.
  12. ^ Fratantuono, Lee (2020). Roman Conquests: Mesopotamia and Arabia. Pen & Sword Military. ISBN 978-1-4738-8326-0. We cannot be certain that Philip was of Arab origin...
  13. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Meckler 1999.
  14. ^ Bowersock 1983, pp. 123–124.
  15. ^ Chronicon Paschale, Olympiad 257.
  16. ^ Potter 2004, p. 232.
  17. ^ Shahîd 1984, p. 37.
  18. ^ Overlaet, Bruno (2017). "Šāpur I: Rovk Reliefs". Encyclopaedia Iranica.
  19. ^ Kia, Mehrdad (2016). The Persian Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia [2 volumes]: A Historical Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 274. ISBN 978-1610693912.
  20. ^ Corcoran, Simon (2006). "Before Constantine". In Lenski, Noel (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Constantine. Cambridge University Press. p. 35. ISBN 978-0521521574.
  21. ^ a b Southern 2001, p. 70.
  22. ^ Potter 2004, p. 234.
  23. ^ a b c d e f g Southern 2001, p. 71.
  24. ^ a b Potter 2004, p. 237.
  25. ^ a b c Potter 2004, p. 238.
  26. ^ a b Potter 2004, p. 239.
  27. ^ Kienast, Dietmar; Werner Eck & Matthäus Heil (2017) [1990]. Römische Kaisertabelle. WBG. pp. 190–194. ISBN 978-3-534-26724-8.
  28. ^ Bowersock 1983, pp. 121–122.
  29. ^ Potter 2004, pp. 238–239.
  30. ^ a b c d Potter 2004, p. 240.
  31. ^ Bowman, Cameron & Garnsey 2005, pp. 36–37.
  32. ^ a b c d e Bowman, Cameron & Garnsey 2005, p. 37.
  33. ^ Southern 2001, pp. 71–72.
  34. ^ Southern 2001, p. 72.
  35. ^ Martial; Coleman, Kathleen M., M. Valerii Martialis Liber Spectaculorum (2006), pg. lvi
  36. ^ Graham, T. (Writer and Director). (2000). The Fall [Television series episode]. In T. Graham (Producer), Rome: Power and Glory. Military Channel.
  37. ^ Southern 2001, p. 73.
  38. ^ a b c d Southern 2001, p. 74.
  39. ^ a b Bowman, Cameron & Garnsey 2005, p. 38.
  40. ^ a b Potter 2004, p. 241.
  41. ^ Cruse, C.F., translator. Eusebius' Ecclesiastical History, Hendrickson Publishers, 1998 (fourth printing, 2004), pp. 220–221.

General and cited sources edit

Primary sources edit

Secondary sources edit

  • Ball, Warwick (2000). Rome in the East : the Transformation of an Empire. London New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0203023228. OCLC 49414893.
  • Bowman, Alan; Cameron, Averil; Garnsey, Peter, eds. (8 September 2005). The Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. 12, The crisis of Empire, AD 193–337. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/chol9780521301992. ISBN 978-1139053921. OCLC 828737952.
  • Bowersock, Glenn Warren (1983). Roman Arabia. Cambridge, MA, US: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0674777552. OCLC 1245763862 – via Internet Archive.
  • Meckler, Michael L. (7 June 1999). "Philip the Arab (244–249 A.D.)". De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors.
  • Potter, David Stone (2004). The Roman Empire at Bay : AD 180–395. London; New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0203401170. OCLC 52430927.
  • Shahîd, Irfan (1984). Rome and the Arabs : a prolegomenon to the study of Byzantium and the Arabs. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection. ISBN 978-0884021155. OCLC 1245769052 – via Internet Archive.
  • Southern, Pat (2001). The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine. London New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0415239431. OCLC 46421874.

External links edit

Regnal titles
Preceded by Roman emperor
244–249
Succeeded by
Political offices
Preceded by Roman consul
245
with C. Maesius Titianus
Succeeded by
Gaius Bruttius Praesens,
C. Allius Albinus
Preceded by
Gaius Bruttius Praesens,
C. Allius Albinus
Roman consuls
247–248
with Philippus II
Succeeded by
L. Fulvius Gavius Numisius Aemilianus,
L. Naevius Aquilinus

philip, arab, emperor, philip, roman, emperor, philip, redirect, here, other, people, emperor, philip, disambiguation, latin, marcus, julius, philippus, arabs, september, roman, emperor, from, born, aurantis, arabia, city, situated, modern, syria, after, death. Emperor Philip and Roman emperor Philip redirect here For other people see Emperor Philip disambiguation Philip the Arab Latin Marcus Julius Philippus Arabs c 204 September 249 was Roman emperor from 244 to 249 He was born in Aurantis Arabia in a city situated in modern day Syria After the death of Gordian III in February 244 Philip who had been Praetorian prefect achieved power He quickly negotiated peace with the Persian Sassanid Empire and returned to Rome to be confirmed by the Senate During his reign the city of Rome celebrated its millennium Philip IBust Hermitage MuseumRoman emperorReignFebruary 244 September 249PredecessorGordian IIISuccessorDeciusCo emperorPhilip II 248 249 Bornc 204Philippopolis Arabia PetraeaDiedSeptember 249 aged 45 Verona ItaliaSpouseMarcia Otacilia SeveraIssuePhilip IINamesMarcus Julius PhilippusRegnal nameImperator Caesar Marcus Julius Philippus Augustus 1 FatherJulius MarinusReligionAncient Roman religion publicly Christianity speculated 2 Philip was betrayed and killed at the Battle of Verona in September 249 following a rebellion led by his successor Gaius Messius Quintus Decius Philip s reign of five years was uncommonly stable in a turbulent third century a b During the late 3rd century and into the 4th it was held by some churchmen that Philip had been the first Christian emperor he was described as such in Jerome s Chronicon Chronicle which was well known during the Middle Ages in Orosius highly popular Historia Adversus Paganos History Against the Pagans and was presented as a Christian in Eusebius of Caesarea s Historia Ecclesiastica Ecclesiastical History 5 Modern scholars are divided on the issue Contents 1 Early life 2 Accession to the throne 3 Reign 3 1 At the frontiers of the empire 3 2 Ludi Saeculares 4 Downfall 5 Religious beliefs 6 See also 7 Explanatory notes 8 Citations 9 General and cited sources 9 1 Primary sources 9 2 Secondary sources 10 External linksEarly life edit nbsp Possible bust of Otacilia Severa wife of Philip Little is known about Philip s early life and political career He was born in what is today Shahba Syria about 90 kilometres 56 mi southeast of Damascus in Trachonitis 6 His birth city later renamed Philippopolis lay within Aurantis an Arab district which at the time was part of the Roman province of Arabia 7 Most historians accept that Philip was indeed an Arab 7 8 9 10 11 but this ethnic identification remains uncertain 12 He was the son of a local citizen Julius Marinus possibly of some importance 13 Allegations from later Roman sources Historia Augusta and Epitome de Caesaribus that Philip had a very humble origin or even that his father was a leader of brigands are not accepted by modern historians 14 His birth date is not recorded by contemporary sources but the 7th century Chronicon Paschale records that he died at the age of 45 15 While the name of Philip s mother is unknown he did have a brother Gaius Julius Priscus an equestrian and a member of the Praetorian Guard under Gordian III 238 244 16 Philip was married to Marcia Otacilia Severa daughter of a Roman governor They had a son Philip II born in 237 or 238 13 The rise to the purple of the Severans from nearby Emesa is noted as a motivational factor in Philip s own ascent due to geographic and ethnic similarity between himself and the Emesan emperors c d Accession to the throne edit nbsp Rock face relief at Naqsh e Rostam of Shapur I on horseback with Philip and Valerian kneeling in surrender to the Persian king e f g Philip s rise to prominence began through the intervention of his brother Priscus who was an important official under the emperor Gordian III 13 His big break came in 243 during Gordian III s campaign against Shapur I of Persia when the Praetorian prefect Timesitheus died under unclear circumstances 21 At the suggestion of his brother Priscus Philip became the new Praetorian prefect with the intention that the two brothers would control the young Emperor and rule the Roman world as unofficial regents 13 Following a military defeat Gordian III died in February 244 under circumstances that are still debated While some claim that Philip conspired in his murder other accounts including one coming from the Persian point of view state that Gordian died in battle 21 6 22 Whatever the case Philip assumed the purple robe following Gordian s death Philip was not willing to repeat the mistakes of previous claimants and was aware that he had to return to Rome in order to secure his position with the Senate 6 However his first priority was to conclude a peace treaty with Shapur and withdraw the army from a potentially disastrous situation 6 23 Although Philip was accused of abandoning territory the actual terms of the peace were not as humiliating as they could have been 23 Philip apparently retained Timesitheus reconquest of Osroene and Mesopotamia but he had to agree that Armenia lay within Persia s sphere of influence 24 He also had to pay an enormous indemnity to the Persians of 500 000 denarii 24 23 Philip immediately issued coins proclaiming that he had made peace with the Persians pax fundata cum Persis 23 nbsp Coin of Severa Legend MAR WTAKIL CEOYHPAN CEB ZEYGMATEWN Greek inscription in ACC for MAR OTACIL SEVERAM AVG of citizens of ZEVGMA Leading his army back up the Euphrates south of Circesium Philip erected a cenotaph in honor of Gordian III but his ashes were sent ahead to Rome where he arranged for Gordian III s deification 6 25 Whilst in Antioch he left his brother Priscus as extraordinary ruler of the Eastern provinces with the title of rector Orientis 6 23 13 Moving westward he gave his brother in law Severianus control of the provinces of Moesia and Macedonia 26 He arrived in Rome in the late summer of 244 where he was confirmed augustus 6 Before the end of the year he nominated his young son caesar heir his wife Marcia Otacilia Severa was named augusta and he also deified his father Marinus even though the latter had never been emperor 23 While in Rome Philip also claimed a victory over the Persians with the titles of Persicus Maximus Parthicus Maximus and Parthicus Adiabenicus the latter probably unofficially 27 Reign editIn an attempt to shore up his regime Philip put a great deal of effort in maintaining good relations with the Senate and from the beginning of his reign he reaffirmed the old Roman virtues and traditions 23 He quickly ordered an enormous building program in his home town renaming it Philippopolis and raising it to civic status while he populated it with statues of himself and his family 25 He also introduced the Actia Dusaria Games in Bostra capital of Arabia This festival combined the worship of Dushara the main Nabataean deity with commemoration of the Battle of Actium as part of the Roman Imperial cult 28 The creation of the new city of Philippopolis piled on top of the massive tribute owed to the Persians as well as the necessary donativum to the army to secure its acceptance of his accession made Philip desperately short of money 25 To pay for it he ruthlessly increased levels of taxation while at the same time he ceased paying subsidies to the tribes north of the Danube that were vital for keeping the peace on the frontiers 29 Both decisions would have significant impacts upon the empire and his reign 30 At the frontiers of the empire edit In 245 Philip was forced to leave Rome as the stability established by Timesitheus was undone by a combination of his death Gordian s defeat in the east and Philip s decision to cease paying the subsidies 6 30 The Carpi moved through Dacia crossed the Danube and emerged in Moesia where they threatened the Balkans 31 Establishing his headquarters in Philippopolis in Thrace he pushed the Carpi across the Danube and chased them back into Dacia so that by the summer of 246 he claimed victory against them along with the title Carpicus Maximus 32 33 In the meantime the Arsacids of Armenia refused to acknowledge the authority of the Persian king Shapur I and war with Persia flared up again by 245 30 Ludi Saeculares edit nbsp Medallion commemorating Rome s millennium Legend concordia augustorum saeculum novvum harmony of the emperors new era Nevertheless Philip was back in Rome by August 247 where he poured more money into the most momentous event of his reign the Ludi Saeculares which coincided with the one thousandth anniversary of the foundation of Rome 32 So in April 248 AD April 1001 A U C Philip had the honor of leading the celebrations of the one thousandth birthday of Rome which according to the empire s official Varronian chronology was founded on 21 April 753 BC by Romulus Commemorative coins such as the one illustrated at left were issued in large numbers and according to contemporary accounts the festivities were magnificent and included spectacular games ludi saeculares and theatrical presentations throughout the city 34 In the Colosseum in what had been originally prepared for Gordian III s planned Roman triumph over the Persians 35 more than 1 000 gladiators were killed along with hundreds of exotic animals including hippos leopards lions giraffes and one rhinoceros 36 The events were also celebrated in literature with several publications including Asinius Quadratus History of a Thousand Years specially prepared for the anniversary 13 At the same time Philip elevated his son to the rank of co augustus 13 Downfall editDespite the festive atmosphere there were continued problems in the provinces In late 248 the legions of Pannonia and Moesia dissatisfied with the result of the war against the Carpi rebelled and proclaimed Tiberius Claudius Pacatianus emperor 13 The resulting confusion tempted the Quadi and other Germanic tribes to cross the frontier and raid Pannonia 32 At the same time the Goths invaded Moesia and Thrace across the Danube frontier and laid siege to Marcianopolis 37 as the Carpi encouraged by the Gothic incursions renewed their assaults in Dacia and Moesia 32 Meanwhile in the East Marcus Jotapianus led another uprising in response to the oppressive rule of Priscus and the excessive taxation of the Eastern provinces 13 26 Two other usurpers Marcus Silbannacus and Sponsianus are reported to have started rebellions without much success 13 nbsp Aureus of Philip Overwhelmed by the number of invasions and usurpers Philip offered to resign but the Senate decided to throw its support behind the emperor with a certain Gaius Messius Quintus Decius most vocal of all the senators 38 Philip was so impressed by his support that he dispatched Decius to the region with a special command encompassing all of the Pannonian and Moesian provinces This had a dual purpose of both quelling the rebellion of Pacatianus as well as dealing with the barbarian incursions 38 32 Although Decius managed to quell the revolt discontent in the legions was growing 30 Decius was proclaimed emperor by the Danubian armies in the spring of 249 and immediately marched on Rome 38 13 Yet even before he had left the region the situation for Philip had turned even more sour Financial difficulties had forced him to debase the antoninianus as rioting began to occur in Egypt causing disruptions to Rome s wheat supply and further eroding Philip s support in the capital 39 Although Decius tried to come to terms with Philip 38 Philip s army met the usurper near modern Verona that summer Decius easily won the battle and Philip was killed sometime in September 249 40 39 either in the fighting or assassinated by his own soldiers who were eager to please the new ruler 13 Philip s eleven year old son and heir may have been killed with his father and Priscus disappeared without a trace 40 Religious beliefs editFurther information Philip the Arab and Christianity Some later traditions first mentioned by the historian Eusebius in his Ecclesiastical History held that Philip was the first Christian Roman Emperor According to Eusebius Ecc Hist VI 34 Philip was a Christian but was not allowed to enter Easter vigil services until he confessed his sins and was ordered to sit among the penitents which he did willingly Later versions located this event in Antioch 13 However historians generally identify the later Emperor Constantine baptized on his deathbed as the first Christian emperor and generally describe Philip s adherence to Christianity as dubious because non Christian writers do not mention the fact and because throughout his reign Philip to all appearances coinage etc continued to follow the state religion 41 Critics ascribe Eusebius claim as probably due to the tolerance Philip showed towards Christians See also editGothic War 248 253 Explanatory notes edit The five years of Philip s reign were a time of uncommon stability and repose in a century notorious for turbulence 3 Philip s reign was brief just five years but it was a stable one in the unstable third century 4 Severus deserves the ultimate credit for making possible the emergence of a figure such as Philip 7 The spectacle of Arab and half Arab emperors from neighboring Emesa must have left a deep impression on Marcus Julius Philippus 17 The two emperors who are named are shown in the way they are described Philip the Arab is kneeling asking for peace and Valerian is physically taken prisoner by Sapur Consequently the relief must be made after 260 AD 18 while another figure probably Philip the Arab kneels and the Sasanian king holds the ill fated Emperor Valerian by his wrist 19 He recorded these deeds for posterity in both words and images at Naqsh i Rustam and on the Ka aba i Zardust near the ancient Achaemenid capital of Persepolis preserving for us a vivid image of two Roman emperors one kneeling probably Philip the Arab also defeated by Shapur and the second Valerian uncrowned and held captive at the wrist by a gloriously mounted Persian king 20 Citations edit Cooley Alison E 2012 The Cambridge Manual of Latin Epigraphy Cambridge University Press p 498 ISBN 978 0 521 84026 2 McGuckin John Anthony 15 December 2010 The Encyclopedia of Eastern Orthodox Christianity John Wiley amp Sons ISBN 978 1 4443 9254 8 Bowersock 1983 p 124 Ball 2000 p 468 Shahid 1984 pp 65 93 a b c d e f g h Bowman Cameron amp Garnsey 2005 p 36 a b c Bowersock 1983 p 122 Ball 2000 p 418 Shahid 1984 p 36 Philip Roman emperor Encyclopedia Britannica Retrieved 15 July 2020 Perry Anderson Passages from Antiquity to Feudalism London NLB 1974 87 88 Fratantuono Lee 2020 Roman Conquests Mesopotamia and Arabia Pen amp Sword Military ISBN 978 1 4738 8326 0 We cannot be certain that Philip was of Arab origin a b c d e f g h i j k l m Meckler 1999 Bowersock 1983 pp 123 124 Chronicon Paschale Olympiad 257 Potter 2004 p 232 Shahid 1984 p 37 Overlaet Bruno 2017 Sapur I Rovk Reliefs Encyclopaedia Iranica Kia Mehrdad 2016 The Persian Empire A Historical Encyclopedia 2 volumes A Historical Encyclopedia ABC CLIO p 274 ISBN 978 1610693912 Corcoran Simon 2006 Before Constantine In Lenski Noel ed The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Constantine Cambridge University Press p 35 ISBN 978 0521521574 a b Southern 2001 p 70 Potter 2004 p 234 a b c d e f g Southern 2001 p 71 a b Potter 2004 p 237 a b c Potter 2004 p 238 a b Potter 2004 p 239 Kienast Dietmar Werner Eck amp Matthaus Heil 2017 1990 Romische Kaisertabelle WBG pp 190 194 ISBN 978 3 534 26724 8 Bowersock 1983 pp 121 122 Potter 2004 pp 238 239 a b c d Potter 2004 p 240 Bowman Cameron amp Garnsey 2005 pp 36 37 a b c d e Bowman Cameron amp Garnsey 2005 p 37 Southern 2001 pp 71 72 Southern 2001 p 72 Martial Coleman Kathleen M M Valerii Martialis Liber Spectaculorum 2006 pg lvi Graham T Writer and Director 2000 The Fall Television series episode In T Graham Producer Rome Power and Glory Military Channel Southern 2001 p 73 a b c d Southern 2001 p 74 a b Bowman Cameron amp Garnsey 2005 p 38 a b Potter 2004 p 241 Cruse C F translator Eusebius Ecclesiastical History Hendrickson Publishers 1998 fourth printing 2004 pp 220 221 General and cited sources editPrimary sources edit Aurelius Victor Epitome de Caesaribus Orosius Histories against the Pagans vii 20 Joannes Zonaras Compendium of History extract Zonaras Alexander Severus to Diocletian 222 284 Zosimus Historia Nova Secondary sources edit Ball Warwick 2000 Rome in the East the Transformation of an Empire London New York Routledge ISBN 978 0203023228 OCLC 49414893 Bowman Alan Cameron Averil Garnsey Peter eds 8 September 2005 The Cambridge Ancient History Vol 12 The crisis of Empire AD 193 337 Cambridge University Press doi 10 1017 chol9780521301992 ISBN 978 1139053921 OCLC 828737952 Bowersock Glenn Warren 1983 Roman Arabia Cambridge MA US Harvard University Press ISBN 978 0674777552 OCLC 1245763862 via Internet Archive Meckler Michael L 7 June 1999 Philip the Arab 244 249 A D De Imperatoribus Romanis An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors Potter David Stone 2004 The Roman Empire at Bay AD 180 395 London New York Routledge ISBN 978 0203401170 OCLC 52430927 Shahid Irfan 1984 Rome and the Arabs a prolegomenon to the study of Byzantium and the Arabs Washington DC Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection ISBN 978 0884021155 OCLC 1245769052 via Internet Archive Southern Pat 2001 The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine London New York Routledge ISBN 978 0415239431 OCLC 46421874 External links edit nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to Philip the Arab A brief bio from an educational Site on Roman Coins Philip the Arabian Catholic Encyclopedia 1913 Philippus Marcus Julius Encyclopaedia Britannica 11th ed 1911 Regnal titles Preceded byGordian III Roman emperor244 249 Succeeded byDecius Political offices Preceded byTi Pollienus Armenius Peregrinus Fulvius Aemilianus Roman consul245with C Maesius Titianus Succeeded byGaius Bruttius Praesens C Allius Albinus Preceded byGaius Bruttius Praesens C Allius Albinus Roman consuls247 248with Philippus II Succeeded byL Fulvius Gavius Numisius Aemilianus L Naevius Aquilinus Retrieved from 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