Nat Turner's slave rebellion

This article is about the historical event. For the American funk/soul band, see Nat Turner Rebellion (band).

Nat Turner's Rebellion, historically known as the Southampton Insurrection, was a rebellion of enslaved Virginians that took place in Southampton County, Virginia, in August 1831.^[1] Led by Nat Turner, the rebels killed between 55 and 65 White people, making it the deadliest slave revolt for white people in U.S. history.^[2][3] The rebellion was effectively suppressed within a few days, at Belmont Plantation on the morning of August 23, but Turner survived in hiding for more than 30 days afterward.^[4]

Nat Turner's slave rebellion

Part of the origins of the American Civil War and North American slave revolts
Location of the rebellion in Southampton County, Virginia
Date	August 21–23, 1831 (1831-08-21 – 1831-08-23)
Duration	4 days
Location	Southampton County, Virginia, United States
Coordinates	36°46′12″N 77°09′40″W / 36.770°N 77.161°W / 36.770; -77.161
Also known as	Nat Turner's Rebellion Southampton Insurrection Nat Turner's Insurrection Nat Turner's Revolt
Type	Slave rebellion
Organized by	Nat Turner
Outcome	Rebellion suppressed Participants tried and executed or sold
Casualties
56 to 65 White men, women, and children
36 to 120 Black rebels and non-rebels

There was widespread fear amongst the White population in the aftermath of the rebellion. Militia and mobs killed as many as 120 enslaved people and free African Americans in retaliation.^[5][6] After trials, the Commonwealth of Virginia executed 56 enslaved people accused of participating in the rebellion, including Turner himself; many Black people who had not participated were also persecuted in the frenzy. Because Turner was educated and was a preacher, Southern state legislatures subsequently passed new laws prohibiting the education of enslaved people and free Black people, restricting rights of assembly and other civil liberties for free Black people, and requiring White ministers to be present at all worship services.^[7]

Lonnie Bunch, director of the National Museum of African American History and Culture, said, "The Nat Turner rebellion is probably the most significant uprising in American history."^[8]

Preparations

Turner began communicating his plans to a small circle of trusted fellow slaves. "All his initial recruits were other slaves from his neighborhood".^[9] These scattered men had to find ways to communicate their intentions without revealing the plot. Songs may have tipped the neighborhood members to movements: "It is believed that one of the ways Turner summoned fellow conspirators to the woods was through the use of particular songs."^[10] According to author Terry Bisson, Turner entrusted his wife with "his most secret plans and papers".^[11] In a report by James Trezvant immediately following the uprising, Cherry was mentioned as having said that Nat was "digesting" a plan for the revolt "for years".^[12]

Turner eagerly anticipated God's signal to "slay my enemies with their own weapons".^[13] He began preparations for an uprising against the slaveholders in Southampton County. Turner said, "I communicated the great work laid out to do, to four in whom I had the greatest confidence," fellow slaves Henry, Hark, Nelson, and Sam.^[13]

Rebellion

Beginning in February 1831, Turner saw certain atmospheric conditions as a sign to begin preparations for a rebellion of slaves against their enslavers. On February 12, 1831, an annular solar eclipse was visible in Virginia and much of the southeastern United States. He believed the eclipse to be a sign that it was time to revolt. Turner envisioned this as a Black man's hand reaching over the sun.^[14]

Turner originally planned to begin the rebellion on Independence Day, July 4, 1831, but he had fallen ill and used the delay for additional planning with his co-conspirators.^[15] On August 13, an atmospheric disturbance made the Virginia sun appear bluish-green, possibly the result of a volcanic plume produced by the eruption of Ferdinandea Island off the coast of Sicily.^[16] Turner took this, like the eclipse months earlier, as a divine signal, and he began his rebellion a week later, on August 21.

Starting with several trusted fellow slaves, he ultimately enlisted more than seventy enslaved and free Black people, some of whom were on horseback.^[17][18] The rebels first killed Turner's slaveowner and his family, then traveled from house to house, freeing enslaved people and killing many of the White people whom they encountered.^[19]

Muskets and other firearms were too difficult to collect and would gather unwanted attention, so the rebels used knives, hatchets, and blunt instruments.^[19] The rebellion did not discriminate by age or sex and the rebels killed White men, women, and children.^[20][21] Nat Turner confessed to killing only one person, Margaret Whitehead, whom he killed with a blow from a fence post.^[19]

Historian Stephen B. Oates states that Turner called on his group to "kill all the white people".^[22] A newspaper noted, "Turner declared that 'indiscriminate slaughter was not their intention after they attained a foothold, and was resorted to in the first instance to strike terror and alarm.'"^[23] The group spared a few homes "because Turner believed the poor White inhabitants 'thought no better of themselves than they did of negroes.'"^[22] The rebels also avoided the Giles Reese plantation, even though it was in route, likely because Turner wanted to keep his wife and children safe.^[24] The Black rebels killed approximately sixty people before they were defeated by the state militia.^[22] The infantry defeated the insurrection with twice the manpower of the rebels, reinforced by three companies of artillery.^[25]

Turner thought that revolutionary violence would awaken the attitudes of Whites to the reality of the inherent brutality in slave-holding. Turner said he wanted to spread "terror and alarm" among Whites.^[26]

Retaliation

 

Belmont, where the rebellion was quashed

Within a day of the suppression of the rebellion, the local militia and three companies of artillery were joined by detachments of men from the USS Natchez and USS Warren in Norfolk and militias from other counties in Virginia and North Carolina that bordered Southampton County.^[25]

In Southampton County, Black people suspected of participating in the rebellion were beheaded by the militia, and "their severed heads were mounted on poles at crossroads as a grisly form of intimidation".^[27] A local road (now Virginia State Route 658) was called as "Blackhead Signpost Road" about these events.^[28][29]

Rumors quickly spread that the slave revolt was not limited to Southampton County and had spread as far south as Alabama. Fears led to reports in North Carolina that "armies" of enslaved people were seen on highways, and that they had burned and massacred the White inhabitants of Wilmington, North Carolina, and were marching on the state capital.^[22]

Such fear and alarm led to Whites attacking Black people throughout the South with flimsy cause. The editor of the Richmond Whig described the scene as "the slaughter of many blacks without trial and under circumstances of great barbarity".^[30] White violence against Black people continued for two weeks after the rebellion had been suppressed. General Eppes ordered troops and White citizens to stop the killing:

He will not specify all the instances that he is bound to believe have occurred but pass in silence what has happened, with the expression of his deepest sorrow, that any necessity should be supposed to have existed, to justify a single act of atrocity. But he feels himself bound to declare, and hereby announces to the troops and citizens, that no excuse will be allowed for any similar acts of violence, after the promulgation of this order.^[31]

Reverend G. W. Powell wrote a letter to the New York Evening Post stating that "many negroes are killed every day. The exact number will never be known."^[32] A company of militia from Hertford County, North Carolina, reportedly killed forty Black people in one day and took $23 and a gold watch from the dead.^[27] Captain Solon Borland led a contingent from Murfreesboro, North Carolina, and he condemned the acts "because it was tantamount to theft from the White owners of the slaves".^[27]

Modern historians concur that the militias and mobs killed as many as 120 Black people, most of whom were not involved with the rebellion.^{[33][34][5][6]}

Capture

Turner eluded capture for six weeks but remained in Southampton County. In their search for Turner, the authorities turned to his wife, Cherry. Author Terry Bisson writes, "After his slave rebellion, she was beaten and tortured in an attempt to get her to reveal his plans and whereabouts."^[11] On September 26, 1831, the Richmond Constitutional Whig published a story after the raiding of Reese plantation stating that, "some papers [were] given up by his wife, under the lash."^[35] The Authentic and Impartial Narrative, also published in 1831, noted that journal entries belonging to Turner were "in her possession after Nat's escape."^[36]

On October 30, 1831, a farmer named Benjamin Phipps discovered Turner hiding in Southampton County in a depression in the earth, created by a large, fallen tree covered with fence rails.^[37] Around 1 p.m. on October 31, Turner arrived at the prison in Jerusalem.^[35] While awaiting trial, Turner confessed his knowledge of the rebellion to an attorney Thomas R. Gray, who was a slavery apologist.^[38]

Trials and executions

In the aftermath of the rebellion, dozens of suspected rebels were tried in courts called specifically to hear the cases against the enslaved people. Turner was tried on November 5, 1831, for "conspiring to rebel and making insurrection", and was convicted and sentenced to death.^[39][40] Turner was hanged on November 11, 1831, in the county seat of Jerusalem, Virginia (now Courtland). ^[41] According to some sources, he was beheaded as an example to frighten other would-be rebels.^[42][43]

Most of the trials of Turner's alleged conspirators took place in Southampton County, but some were held in neighboring Sussex County or other nearby counties. During their trial, most enslaved people were found guilty; only fifteen were acquitted.^[37] Of the thirty convicted, eighteen were hanged, while twelve were sold out of state.^[37] Of the five free Black people tried for participation in the insurrection, one was hanged while the others were acquitted.^[44][45]

After his execution, Turner's body was dissected and flayed, with his skin being used to make souvenir purses.^{[46][47]: 218} In October 1897, Virginia newspapers ran a story about Nat Turner's skeleton being used as a medical specimen by Dr. H. U. Stephenson of Toana, Virginia.^[48]

Legislative response

See also: Anti-literacy laws in the United States

During the rebellion, Virginia legislators targeted free Black people with a colonization bill, which allocated new funding to remove them to Africa, and a police bill that denied free Black people trials by jury and made any free Black people convicted of a crime subject to sale into slavery and relocation.^[49]

At least seven enslavers sent legislative petitions to Virginia's General Assembly for compensation for the loss of their enslaved people without trials during or immediately after the insurrection. They were all rejected.^[50]

The Virginia General Assembly debated the future of slavery the following spring. Some urged gradual emancipation, but the pro-slavery side prevailed after Virginia's leading intellectual, Thomas R. Dew, president of the College of William and Mary, published "a pamphlet defending the wisdom and benevolence of slavery, and the folly of its abolition".^[51] The General Assembly passed legislation making it unlawful to teach reading and writing to either enslaved or free Black people and restricting all Black people from holding religious meetings without the presence of a licensed White minister.^[52]

Other slave-holding states in the South enacted similar laws restricting activities of both enslaved and free Black people.^[53] Across Virginia and other Southern states, legislators made it against the law for either Whites or Black people to possess abolitionist publications.^[54] South Carolina built a series of arsenals to ensure weapons would be available in the event of another slave rebellion.^{[citation needed]}

Aftermath

On September 3, 1831, William Lloyd Garrison published an article called "The Insurrection" in the abolitionist newspaper The Liberator.^[55] On September 10, 1831, The Liberator published excerpts from a letter to the editor saying that many people in the South believed the newspaper had a link to the revolt and that if Garrison were to go to the South, he "would not be permitted to live long...he would be taken away, and no one is the wiser for it...if Mr. Garrison were to go to the South, he would be dispatched immediately...[an] opinion expressed by persons at the South, repeatedly."^[56]

In November 1831, Thomas R. Gray published The Confessions of Nat Turner. His work was derived partly from research Gray did while Turner was in hiding and partly from jailhouse conversations with Turner before trial. Gray's pamphlet sold 40,000 to 50,000 copies, making it a noted source about the rebellion at the time.^[57] However, a November 25, 1831, review of the publication by The Richmond Enquirer says:

The pamphlet has one defect – we mean its style.  The confession of the culprit is given, as it were, from his lips – (and when read to him, he admitted its statements to be correct) – but the language is far superior to what Nat Turner could have employed – Portions of it are even eloquently and classically expressed. – This is calculated to cast some shade of doubt over the authenticity of the narrative, and to give the Bandit a character for intelligence which he does not deserve, and ought not to have received. – In all other respects, the confession appears to be faithful and true.^[58]

Gray's work is the primary historical document regarding Nat Turner but some modern historians, specifically David F. Allmendinger Jr., have also questioned the validity of his portrayal of Turner.^[59][60]

In the aftermath of the revolt, whites did not try to interpret Turner's motives and ideas.^[26] Antebellum enslavers were shocked by the murders and had their fears of rebellions heightened; among them, Turner's name became "a symbol of terrorism and violent retribution."^[22] Northern states shared many of the fears shown by Southerners; a proposal to create a college for African Americans in New Haven, Connecticut was overwhelmingly rejected in what is now referred to as the New Haven Excitement.

The fear caused by Nat Turner's rebellion and the concerns raised in the emancipation debates that followed resulted in politicians and writers responding by defining slavery as a "positive good".^[61] Such authors included Thomas Roderick Dew, mentioned above.^[62] Other Southern writers began to promote a paternalistic ideal of improved Christian treatment of slaves, in part to avoid such rebellions. Dew and others believed that they were civilizing Black people (who by this stage were mostly American-born) through slavery. The writings were collected in The pro-slavery argument, as maintained by the most distinguished writers of the southern states (1853).

Other perspectives

African Americans have generally regarded Turner as a hero of the resistance, who made enslavers pay for the hardships they had caused so many Africans and African Americans.^[22]

James H. Harris, who has written extensively about the history of the Black church, says that the revolt "marked the turning point in the black struggle for liberation." According to Harris, Turner believed that "only a cataclysmic act could convince the architects of a violent social order that violence begets violence."^[63]

In an 1843 speech at the National Negro Convention, Henry Highland Garnet, a formerly enslaved man and active abolitionist, described Nat Turner as "patriotic", saying that "future generations will remember him among the noble and brave."^[64]

In 1861, Thomas Wentworth Higginson, a white Northern writer, praised Turner in a seminal article published in the Atlantic Monthly. He described Turner as a man "who knew no book but the Bible, and that by heart who devoted himself soul and body to the cause of his race."^[65]

In 1988, Turner was selected for inclusion in the Black Americans of Achievement biography series for children, with the book Nat Turner: Slave Revolt Leader by Terry Bisson.^[66] The book's introduction was written by Coretta Scott King.^[66]

Legacy

The sword believed to have been used by Turner in the rebellion is kept in the Southampton County Courthouse, where there is a small display.^[67] In 1991, the Virginia Department of Historic Resources dedicated the "Nat Turner Insurrection" historic marker on Virginia Route 30, near Courtland, Virginia.^[68] In December 2021, the Virginia Department of Cultural Resources dedicated the "Blackhead Signpost Road" historic marker.^[28]

In popular culture

Film

• The Birth of a Nation, the 2016 film starring, produced, and directed by Nate Parker, co-written with Jean McGianni Celestin, is about Turner's 1831 rebellion.^[69]

Literature

• The Confessions of Nat Turner (1967), a novel by William Styron, won the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction in 1968.^[29] It prompted much controversy, with some criticizing a white author writing about such an important black figure and calling him racist for portraying Turner as lusting for a white woman.^[29]
• In response to Styron's novel, ten African-American writers published a collection of essays, William Styron's The Confessions of Nat Turner: Ten Black Writers Respond (1968).^[29]

Music

• The 1960s funk-soul band Nat Turner Rebellion was named after the slave revolt.^[70]
• Chance The Rapper's song "How Great" refers to Turner's rebellion in the line, "Hosanna Santa invoked and woke up enslaved people from Southampton to Chatham Manor."^[71]
• In the early 1990s, hip hop artist Tupac Shakur spoke in interviews about Nat Turner and his admiration for his spirit against oppression. Shakur also honored Turner with a cross tattoo on his back "EXODUS 1831", referring to the year Turner led the rebellion.^[72]

See also

•  United States portal
•  Virginia portal

• Denmark Vesey
• History of slavery in the United States
• John Brown (abolitionist)
• List of incidents of civil unrest in the United States

References

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2. "Nat Turner – Black History". History.com. Retrieved February 26, 2018.
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4. Virginia Historic Landmarks Commission Staff (July 1973). (PDF). Virginia Department of Historic Resources. Archived from the original (PDF) on December 27, 2016. Retrieved October 8, 2013.
5. Breen, Patrick H. (2015). The land shall be deluged in blood: a new history of the Nat Turner Revolt. New York, NY. ISBN 978-0-19-982800-5. OCLC 892895344.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) "high estimates have been widely accepted in both academic and popular sources".
6. Allmendinger, David F. (2014). Nat Turner and the rising in Southampton County. Baltimore. ISBN 978-1-4214-1480-5. OCLC 889812744.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) Recent studies which review various estimates for the number of enslaved and free Black people killed without trial, giving a range of from 23 killed to over 200 killed.
7. Gray-White, Deborah; Bay, Mia; Martin, Waldo E. Jr. (2013). Freedom on my mind: A History of African Americans. New York: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2013. p. 225.
8. Trescott, Jacqueline (February 16, 2012). "Descendants of Va. family donate Nat Turner's Bible to museum". The Washington Post. from the original on April 22, 2017. Retrieved March 28, 2017.
9. Kaye, Anthony (2007). "Neighborhoods and Nat Turner". Journal of the Early Republic. 27 (Winter 2007): 705–20. doi:10.1353/jer.2007.0076. ISSN 1553-0620. S2CID 201794786.
10. Nielson, Erik (2011). "'Go in de wilderness': Evading the 'Eyes of Others' in the Slave Songs". The Western Journal of Black Studies. 35 (2): 106–17.
11. Bisson, Terry; Davenport, John (2005). Nat Turner: Slave Revolt Leader. Chelsea House Publications. p. 22. ISBN 0791083411.
12. Allmendinger, David (2014). Nat Turner and the Rising in Southampton County. Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 64. ISBN 978-1421422558
13. Gray, Thomas Ruffin (1831). The Confessions of Nat Turner, the Leader of the Late Insurrections in Southampton, Va. Baltimore, Maryland: Lucas & Deaver, p. 11.
14. Allmendinger Jr., David F. Nat Turner and the Rising in Southampton County. Baltimore, MD, Johns Hopkins University Press, 2014. pp. 21–22.
15. Foner, Eric (2014). An American History: Give Me Liberty. New York: W.W. Norton & Co. p. 336. ISBN 978-0393920338.
16. Garrison, Christopher; Kilburn, Christopher; Smart, David; Edwards, Stephen (August 5, 2021). "The blue suns of 1831: was the eruption of Ferdinandea, near Sicily, one of the largest volcanic climate forcing events of the nineteenth century?". Climate of the Past Discussions: 1–56. doi:10.5194/cp-2021-78. ISSN 1814-9324. S2CID 237525956. Retrieved November 1, 2021.
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20. Simkins, Francis and Roland, Charles. A History of the South (New York: Alfred Knopf, 1971), 126.
21. Leigh, Philip. The Confederacy at Flood Tide (Yardley: Westholme Publishing, 2016), 193
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23. Richmond Enquirer (November 8, 1831), quoted in Aptheker, Herbert. American Negro Slave Revolts. 5th edition. New York: International Publishers, 1983. ISBN 978-0717806058 pp. 298–299. Aptheker notes that the Enquirer was "hostile to the cause Turner espoused."
24. Greenberg, Kenneth S. (2004). Nat Turner: A Slave Rebellion in History and Memory. OUP USA. p. 146. ISBN 978-0195177565.
25. Aptheker, Herbert. American Negro Slave Revolts. 5th edition. New York: International Publishers, 1983, p. 300. ISBN 978-0717806058
26. Andrews, William L. (2008). "7". In Wimbush, Vincent L. (ed.). Theorizing Scriptures: New Critical Orientations to a Cultural Phenomenon. Rutgers University Press. pp. 83–85. ISBN 978-0813542041.
27. Parramore, Thomas C. (1998). Trial Separation: Murfreesboro, North Carolina, and the Civil War. Murfreesboro, North Carolina: Murfreesboro Historical Association, Inc. p. 10. LCCN 00503566.
28. "State Historical Marker 'Blackhead Signpost Road' To Be Dedicated in Southampton County". Virginia Department of Historic Resources. December 8, 2021. Retrieved December 9, 2022.
29. Tanenhaus, Sam (August 3, 2016). "The Literary Battle for Nat Turner's Legacy". Vanity Fair. Retrieved December 10, 2022.
30. Richmond Whig (September 3, 1831) in Aptheker, Herbert. American Negro Slave Revolts. 5th edition. New York: International Publishers, 1983, p. 301. ISBN 978-0717806058
31. Richmond Enquirer (September 6, 1831) in Aptheker, Herbert. American Negro Slave Revolts. 5th edition. New York: International Publishers, 1983, p. 301. ISBN 978-0717806058
32. New York Evening Post (September 5, 1831), Aptheker, Herbert. American Negro Slave Revolts. 5th edition. New York: International Publishers, 1983, p. 301. ISBN 978-0717806058
33. Southern Advocate (October 15, 1831) in Aptheker, Herbert. American Negro Slave Revolts. 5th edition. New York: International Publishers, 1983., p. 201 ISBN 978-0717806058.
34. Breen, Patrick H. (2015). The Land Shall Be Deluged in Blood: A New History of the Nat Turner Revolt. Oxford University Press. pp. 98, 231. ISBN 978-0199828005.
35. Kossuth, Lajos (1852). Letter to Louis Kossuth: Concerning Freedom and Slavery in the United States. R.F. Walcutt. p. 76. via Hathi Trust.
36. Rushdy, Ashraf (1999). Neo-slave Narratives: Studies in the Social Logic of a Literary Form. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 60. ISBN 978-0-19-512533-7
37. Drewry, William Sydney (1900). The Southampton Insurrection. Washington, D.C.: The Neale Company. p. 13, 151-153. via Internet Archive
38. Fabricant, Daniel S. “Thomas R. Gray and William Styron: Finally, A Critical Look at the 1831 Confessions of Nat Turner.” The American Journal of Legal History, vol. 37, no. 3, 1993, pp. 332–61. JSTOR website Retrieved 23 Sept. 2023.
39. Southampton Co., VA, Court Minute Book 1830–1835, pp. 121–23. November 11, 2017, at the Wayback Machine
40. "Proceedings on the Southampton Insurrection, Aug–Nov 1831" August 25, 2016, at the Wayback Machine
41. "Nat Turner executed in Virginia | November 11, 1831". HISTORY. Retrieved November 13, 2023.
42. Fornal, Justin (October 7, 2016). . National Geographic. paragraph 7. Archived from the original on July 10, 2018. Retrieved July 14, 2018.
43. French, Scot. The Rebellious Slave: Nat Turner in American Memory. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. 2004, p. 278-279. ISBN 978-0618104482
44. Walter L. Gordon, III, The Nat Turner Insurrection Trials: A Mystic Chord Resonates Today (Booksurge, 2009) pp. 75, 92.
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48. "Nat Turner's Skeleton". The Norfolk Virginian. October 21, 1897. p. 6. Retrieved December 10, 2022 – via Newspapers.com.
49. Gray White, Deborah (2013). Freedom on My Mind: A History of African Americans. New York Bedford/St. Martin's. p. 225.
50. Brophy, Alfred L. "The Nat Turner Trials", North Carolina Law Review (June 2013), volume 91: 1831–1835.
51. Dew, Thomas R. (1832). Review of the debate [on the abolition of slavery] in the Virginia legislature of 1831 and 1832. Richmond: Richmond, Printed by T. W. White.
52. Virginia: A Guide to the Old Dominion (1992), p. 78
53. Lewis, Rudolph. . ChickenBones: A Journal for Literary & Artistic African-American Themes. Archived from the original on August 1, 2017. Retrieved September 5, 2007.
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60. Greenberg, Kenneth S. (2004). Nat Turner: a slave rebellion in history and memory. Oxford University Press. pp. 24–42. ISBN 0-19-517756-8. OCLC 1064448757.
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62. Brophy, Alfred L. (2008). "Considering William and Mary's History with Slavery: The Case of President Thomas R. Dew" (PDF). William & Mary Bill of Rights (Journal 16): 1091. (PDF) from the original on February 9, 2014. Retrieved July 1, 2012.
63. Harris, James H. (1995). Preaching Liberation. Fortress Press. p. 46.
64. Garnet, Henry Highland. A Memorial Discourse (Philadelphia: J. M. Wilson, 1865), pp. 44–51.
65. Higginson, Thomas Wentworth (1861). "Nat Turner's Insurrection: An Account of America's Bloodiest Slave Revolt, and its Repercussions". The Atlantic. Retrieved December 9, 2022.
66. "Nat Turner: Slave Revolt Leader (Reading Level Y)". readu.io. Retrieved December 18, 2022.
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69. Pedersen, Erik (April 10, 2015). "'The Birth Of A Nation' Adds To Cast; Ryan Gosling In Talks For 'The Haunted Mansion'". from the original on April 12, 2015. Retrieved April 10, 2015.
70. Kreps, Daniel (March 26, 2019). "How a College Music Department Helped Unearth a Long-Lost Philly Funk-Soul Classic". Rolling Stone. Retrieved December 10, 2022.
71. "Hosanna Santa invoked and woke up enslaved individuals from Southampton to Chatham Manor". Genius.
72. Kitchens, Travis (November 29, 2016). "Unfortunate Son: The roots of Tupac Shakur's rebellion". The Baltimore Sun. Retrieved February 10, 2021.

Further reading

• Aptheker, Herbert. Nat Turner's Slave Rebellion. New York: Humanities Press, 1966.
• Brodhead, Richard H. "Millennium, Prophecy and the Energies of Social Transformation: The Case of Nat Turner." in Imagining the End: Visions of Apocalypse from the Ancient Middle East to Modern America. A. Amanat and M. Bernhardsson, editors. London: I. B. Tauris, 2002. pp. 212–233. ISBN 978-1860647246
• Nishikawa, Kinohi. "The Confessions of Nat Turner." The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Multiethnic American Literature, 5 volumes. Emmanuel S. Nelson, ed. Westport: Greenwood Press, 2005. pp. 497–98. ISBN 978-0313330599
• Oates, Stephen B. The Fires of Jubilee: Nat Turner's Fierce Rebellion. New York: HarperPerennial, 1975. ISBN 9780060916701.

External links

 

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Nat Turner.

 

Wikisource has original works by or about:
Nat Turner

 

Wikiquote has quotations related to Nat Turner.

• Works by Nat Turner at Project Gutenberg
• Works by or about Nat Turner's slave rebellion at Internet Archive
• Nat Turner's Slave Revolt: Map of Turner's Path
• Breen, Patrick H. "Nat Turner's Revolt: Rebellion and Response in Southampton County, Virginia Ph.D. dissertation, University of Georgia, 2005.
• The Confessions of Nat Turner and Related Documents. Kenneth S. Greenberg, ed. Bedford Books, 1996
• Harraway, Josh. Nat Turner Podcast March 1, 2018. (audiodrama)
• The Nat Turner Project.
• "Nat Turner's Rebellion". Africans in America, PBS.org
• McElrath, Jessica. . About.com
• "A Rebellion to Remember: Nat Turner". Documenting the American South, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.