Myco-heterotrophy (from Greek μύκης mykes, "fungus", ἕτερος heteros, "another", "different" and τροφή trophe, "nutrition") is a symbiotic relationship between certain kinds of plants and fungi, in which the plant gets all or part of its food from parasitism upon fungi rather than from photosynthesis. A myco-heterotroph is the parasitic plant partner in this relationship. Myco-heterotrophy is considered a kind of cheating relationship and myco-heterotrophs are sometimes informally referred to as "mycorrhizal cheaters". This relationship is sometimes referred to as mycotrophy, though this term is also used for plants that engage in mutualisticmycorrhizal relationships.
Full (or obligate) myco-heterotrophy exists when a non-photosynthetic plant (a plant largely lacking in chlorophyll or otherwise lacking a functional photosystem) gets all of its food from the fungi that it parasitizes. Partial (or facultative) myco-heterotrophy exists when a plant is capable of photosynthesis, but parasitizes fungi as a supplementary food supply. There are also plants, such as some orchid species, that are non-photosynthetic and obligately myco-heterotrophic for part of their life cycle, and photosynthetic and facultatively myco-heterotrophic or non-myco-heterotrophic for the rest of their life cycle.[2] Not all non-photosynthetic or "achlorophyllous" plants are myco-heterotrophic – some non-photosynthetic plants like dodder directly parasitize the vascular tissue of other plants.[3] The partial or full loss of photosynthesis is reflected by extreme physical and functional reductions of plastid genomes in mycoheterophic plants,[4] an ongoing evolutionary process.[5]
In the past, non-photosynthetic plants were mistakenly thought to get food by breaking down organic matter in a manner similar to saprotrophic fungi. Such plants were therefore called "saprophytes". It is now known that these plants are not physiologically capable of directly breaking down organic matter and that in order to get food, non-photosynthetic plants must engage in parasitism, either through myco-heterotrophy or direct parasitism of other plants.[6][7]
The interface between the plant and fungal partners in this association is between the roots of the plant and the mycelium of the fungus. Myco-heterotrophy therefore closely resembles mycorrhiza (and indeed is thought to have evolved from mycorrhiza),[6] except that in myco-heterotrophy, the flow of carbon is from the fungus to the plant, rather than vice versa.[8][9]
Most myco-heterotrophs can therefore be seen as ultimately being epiparasites, since they take energy from fungi that in turn get their energy from vascular plants.[6][7][10] Indeed, much myco-heterotrophy takes place in the context of common mycorrhizal networks,[11] in which plants use mycorrhizal fungi to exchange carbon and nutrients with other plants.[7] In these systems, myco-heterotrophs play the role of "mycorrhizal cheaters", taking carbon from the common network, with no known reward.[6] A special form of mycoheterotrophic association, which appears to be a chimera between the haustorial parasitism of a parasitic plant and mycoheterotrophy, is observed in Parasitaxus usta, the only mycoheterotrophic gymnosperm.[12]
In congruence with older reports, it has been recently shown that some myco-heterotrophic orchids can be supported by saprotrophic fungi, exploiting litter- or wood-decaying fungi.[13] In addition, several green plants (evolutionarily close to myco-heterotrophic species) have been shown to engage in partial myco-heterotrophy, that is, they are able to take carbon from mycorrhizal fungi, in addition to their photosynthetic intake.[14][15]
Species diversity of myco-heterotrophs and host fungiedit
Myco-heterotrophs are found among several plant groups, mainly flowering plants. All monotropes and non-photosynthetic orchids are full myco-heterotrophs, as is the non-photosynthetic liverwortAneura mirabilis (previously considered a species of Cryptothallus).[16] Partial myco-heterotrophy is common in the Gentian family, with a few genera such as Voyria being fully myco-heterotrophic; in photosynthetic orchids; and in a number of other plant groups. Some ferns and clubmosses have myco-heterotrophic gametophyte stages.[2][7][17] The fungi that are parasitized by myco-heterotrophs are typically fungi with large energy reserves to draw on, usually mycorrhizal fungi, though there is some evidence that they may also parasitize parasitic fungi that form extensive mycelial networks, such as Armillaria.[7] Examples of fungi parasitized by myco-heterotrophic plants can be found among the ectomycorrhizal, arbuscular mycorrhizal, and orchid mycorrhizal fungi.[18] The great diversity in unrelated plant families with myco-heterotrophic members, as well as the diversity of fungi targeted by myco-heterotrophs, suggests multiple parallel evolutions of myco-heterotrophs from mycorrhizal ancestors.[18]
Referencesedit
^Yang, S; DH Pfister. (2006). "Monotropa uniflora plants of eastern Massachusetts form mycorrhizae with a diversity of russulacean fungi". Mycologia. 98 (4): 535–540. doi:10.3852/mycologia.98.4.535. PMID 17139846.
^ abLeake, JR (1994). "The biology of myco-heterotrophic ('saprophytic') plants". New Phytologist. 127 (2): 171–216. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8137.1994.tb04272.x. PMID 33874520. S2CID 85142620.
^Dawson, JH; Musselman, LJ; Wolswinkel, P; Dörr, I (1994). "Biology and control of Cuscuta". Reviews of Weed Science. 6: 265–317.
^Wicke, S.; Naumann, J. (2018). "Molecular evolution of plastid genomes in parasitic flowering plants". Advances in Botanical Research. 85 (1): 315–347. doi:10.1016/bs.abr.2017.11.014.
^Barrett, C.; Wicke, S.; Sass, C. (2018). "Dense infraspecific sampling reveals rapid and independent trajectories of plastome degradation in a heterotrophic orchid complex". New Phytologist. 218 (3): 1192–1204. doi:10.1111/nph.15072. PMC5902423. PMID 29502351.
^ abcdBidartondo, MI (2005). "The evolutionary ecology of myco-heterotrophy" (PDF). New Phytologist. 167 (2): 335–352. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2005.01429.x. PMID 15998389.
^ abcdeLeake, JR (2005). "Plants parasitic on fungi: unearthing the fungi in myco-heterotrophs and debunking the 'saprophytic' plant myth" (PDF). Mycologist. 19: 113–122. doi:10.1017/S0269915X05003046.
^Trudell, SA; Rygiewicz, PT; Edmonds, RL (2003). "Nitrogen and carbon stable isotope abundances support the myco-heterotrophic nature and host-specificity of certain achlorophyllous plants" (PDF). New Phytologist. 160 (2): 391–401. doi:10.1046/j.1469-8137.2003.00876.x. PMID 33832180.
^Bidartondo, MI; Burghardt, B; Gebauer, G; Bruns, TD; Read, DJ (2004). (PDF). Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B. 271 (1550): 1799–1806. doi:10.1098/rspb.2004.2807. PMC1691795. PMID 15315895. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-03-31. Retrieved 2020-08-19.
^Selosse, M-A; Weiss, M; Jany, J; Tilier, A (2002). "Communities and populations of sebacinoid basidiomycetes associated with the achlorophyllous orchid Neottia nidus-avis (L.) L.C.M. Rich. and neighbouring tree ectomycorrhizae" (PDF). Molecular Ecology. 11 (9): 1831–1844. doi:10.1046/j.1365-294X.2002.01553.x. PMID 12207732. S2CID 17479936.
^Peter Kennedy (November 2005). "Common Mycorrhizal Networks: An Important Ecological Phenomenon". MykoWeb (originally published on Mycena News). Retrieved January 19, 2012.
^Field, T.S.; Brodripp, T.J. (2005). "A unique mode of parasitism in the conifer coral tree Parasitaxus ustus (Podocarpaceae)". Plant Cell Environ. 28 (10): 1316–1325. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3040.2005.01378.x.
^Martos, F; Dulormne, M; Pailler, T; Bonfante, P; Faccio, A; Fournel, J; Dubois, M-P; Selosse, M-A (2009). "Independent recruitment of saprotrophic fungi as mycorrhizal partners by tropical achlorophyllous orchids" (PDF). New Phytologist. 184 (3): 668–681. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2009.02987.x. PMID 19694964.
^Gebauer, G; Meyer, M (2003). "15N and 13C natural abundance of autotrophic and myco-heterotrophic orchids provides insights into nitrogen and carbon gain from fungal association". New Phytologist. 160 (1): 209–223. doi:10.1046/j.1469-8137.2003.00872.x. PMID 33873535.
^Selosse, M-A; Roy, M (2009). "Green plants eating fungi: facts and questions about mixotrophy". Trends in Plant Science. 14 (2): 64–70. doi:10.1016/j.tplants.2008.11.004. PMID 19162524.
^Wickett, Norman; Goffinet, Bernard (2008). "Origin and relationships of the myco-heterotrophic liverwort Cryptothallus mirabilis Malmb. (Metzgeriales, Marchantiophyta)". Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society. 156 (1): 1–12. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8339.2007.00743.x. Retrieved 23 October 2023.
^Taylor DL, Bruns TD, Leake JR, Read DJ. 2002. In: Mycorrhizal Ecology (Sanders IR, van der Heijden M, eds.), Ecological Studies vol. 157, pp 375–414. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. ISBN3-540-00204-9. (NOTE: this PDF is from the page proofs, and is not identical to the published version)
^ abImhof, S (2009). "Arbuscular, ecto-related, orchid mycorrhizas—three independent structural lineages towards mycoheterotrophy: implications for classification?" (PDF). Mycorrhiza. 19 (6): 357–363. doi:10.1007/s00572-009-0240-7. PMID 19326151. S2CID 85629763.
Further readingedit
Hershey, DR (1999). "Myco-heterophytes and parasitic plants in food chains". American Biology Teacher. 61 (8): 575–578. doi:10.2307/4450771. JSTOR 4450771.
Hibbett, DS (2002). (PDF). Nature. 419 (6905): 345–346. doi:10.1038/419345a. PMID 12353014. S2CID 17311635. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-12-16.
The Strange and Wonderful Myco-heterotrophs The Parasitic Plant Connection, SIU Carbondale, College of Science.
Wayne's Word Noteworthy Plant For June 1997: Fungus Flowers – Flowering Plants that Resemble Fungi by WP Armstrong.
Fungus of the Month for October 2002: Monotropa uniflora by Tom Volk, TomVolkFungi.net
– images of myco-heterotrophs by mycologist Martín Bidartondo.
February 15, 2024
myco, heterotrophy, from, greek, μύκης, mykes, fungus, ἕτερος, heteros, another, different, τροφή, trophe, nutrition, symbiotic, relationship, between, certain, kinds, plants, fungi, which, plant, gets, part, food, from, parasitism, upon, fungi, rather, than, . Myco heterotrophy from Greek mykhs mykes fungus ἕteros heteros another different and trofh trophe nutrition is a symbiotic relationship between certain kinds of plants and fungi in which the plant gets all or part of its food from parasitism upon fungi rather than from photosynthesis A myco heterotroph is the parasitic plant partner in this relationship Myco heterotrophy is considered a kind of cheating relationship and myco heterotrophs are sometimes informally referred to as mycorrhizal cheaters This relationship is sometimes referred to as mycotrophy though this term is also used for plants that engage in mutualistic mycorrhizal relationships Monotropa uniflora an obligate myco heterotroph known to parasitize fungi belonging to the Russulaceae 1 Contents 1 Relationship between myco heterotrophs and host fungi 2 Species diversity of myco heterotrophs and host fungi 3 References 4 Further reading 5 External linksRelationship between myco heterotrophs and host fungi edit nbsp Myco heterotrophic roots of Monotropa uniflora with Russula brevipes myceliumFull or obligate myco heterotrophy exists when a non photosynthetic plant a plant largely lacking in chlorophyll or otherwise lacking a functional photosystem gets all of its food from the fungi that it parasitizes Partial or facultative myco heterotrophy exists when a plant is capable of photosynthesis but parasitizes fungi as a supplementary food supply There are also plants such as some orchid species that are non photosynthetic and obligately myco heterotrophic for part of their life cycle and photosynthetic and facultatively myco heterotrophic or non myco heterotrophic for the rest of their life cycle 2 Not all non photosynthetic or achlorophyllous plants are myco heterotrophic some non photosynthetic plants like dodder directly parasitize the vascular tissue of other plants 3 The partial or full loss of photosynthesis is reflected by extreme physical and functional reductions of plastid genomes in mycoheterophic plants 4 an ongoing evolutionary process 5 In the past non photosynthetic plants were mistakenly thought to get food by breaking down organic matter in a manner similar to saprotrophic fungi Such plants were therefore called saprophytes It is now known that these plants are not physiologically capable of directly breaking down organic matter and that in order to get food non photosynthetic plants must engage in parasitism either through myco heterotrophy or direct parasitism of other plants 6 7 The interface between the plant and fungal partners in this association is between the roots of the plant and the mycelium of the fungus Myco heterotrophy therefore closely resembles mycorrhiza and indeed is thought to have evolved from mycorrhiza 6 except that in myco heterotrophy the flow of carbon is from the fungus to the plant rather than vice versa 8 9 Most myco heterotrophs can therefore be seen as ultimately being epiparasites since they take energy from fungi that in turn get their energy from vascular plants 6 7 10 Indeed much myco heterotrophy takes place in the context of common mycorrhizal networks 11 in which plants use mycorrhizal fungi to exchange carbon and nutrients with other plants 7 In these systems myco heterotrophs play the role of mycorrhizal cheaters taking carbon from the common network with no known reward 6 A special form of mycoheterotrophic association which appears to be a chimera between the haustorial parasitism of a parasitic plant and mycoheterotrophy is observed in Parasitaxus usta the only mycoheterotrophic gymnosperm 12 In congruence with older reports it has been recently shown that some myco heterotrophic orchids can be supported by saprotrophic fungi exploiting litter or wood decaying fungi 13 In addition several green plants evolutionarily close to myco heterotrophic species have been shown to engage in partial myco heterotrophy that is they are able to take carbon from mycorrhizal fungi in addition to their photosynthetic intake 14 15 Species diversity of myco heterotrophs and host fungi editSee also List of myco heterotrophic genera Myco heterotrophs are found among several plant groups mainly flowering plants All monotropes and non photosynthetic orchids are full myco heterotrophs as is the non photosynthetic liverwort Aneura mirabilis previously considered a species of Cryptothallus 16 Partial myco heterotrophy is common in the Gentian family with a few genera such as Voyria being fully myco heterotrophic in photosynthetic orchids and in a number of other plant groups Some ferns and clubmosses have myco heterotrophic gametophyte stages 2 7 17 The fungi that are parasitized by myco heterotrophs are typically fungi with large energy reserves to draw on usually mycorrhizal fungi though there is some evidence that they may also parasitize parasitic fungi that form extensive mycelial networks such as Armillaria 7 Examples of fungi parasitized by myco heterotrophic plants can be found among the ectomycorrhizal arbuscular mycorrhizal and orchid mycorrhizal fungi 18 The great diversity in unrelated plant families with myco heterotrophic members as well as the diversity of fungi targeted by myco heterotrophs suggests multiple parallel evolutions of myco heterotrophs from mycorrhizal ancestors 18 References edit Yang S DH Pfister 2006 Monotropa uniflora plants of eastern Massachusetts form mycorrhizae with a diversity of russulacean fungi Mycologia 98 4 535 540 doi 10 3852 mycologia 98 4 535 PMID 17139846 a b Leake JR 1994 The biology of myco heterotrophic saprophytic plants New Phytologist 127 2 171 216 doi 10 1111 j 1469 8137 1994 tb04272 x PMID 33874520 S2CID 85142620 Dawson JH Musselman LJ Wolswinkel P Dorr I 1994 Biology and control of Cuscuta Reviews of Weed Science 6 265 317 Wicke S Naumann J 2018 Molecular evolution of plastid genomes in parasitic flowering plants Advances in Botanical Research 85 1 315 347 doi 10 1016 bs abr 2017 11 014 Barrett C Wicke S Sass C 2018 Dense infraspecific sampling reveals rapid and independent trajectories of plastome degradation in a heterotrophic orchid complex New Phytologist 218 3 1192 1204 doi 10 1111 nph 15072 PMC 5902423 PMID 29502351 a b c d Bidartondo MI 2005 The evolutionary ecology of myco heterotrophy PDF New Phytologist 167 2 335 352 doi 10 1111 j 1469 8137 2005 01429 x PMID 15998389 a b c d e Leake JR 2005 Plants parasitic on fungi unearthing the fungi in myco heterotrophs and debunking the saprophytic plant myth PDF Mycologist 19 113 122 doi 10 1017 S0269915X05003046 Trudell SA Rygiewicz PT Edmonds RL 2003 Nitrogen and carbon stable isotope abundances support the myco heterotrophic nature and host specificity of certain achlorophyllous plants PDF New Phytologist 160 2 391 401 doi 10 1046 j 1469 8137 2003 00876 x PMID 33832180 Bidartondo MI Burghardt B Gebauer G Bruns TD Read DJ 2004 Changing partners in the dark isotopic and molecular evidence of ectomycorrhizal liaisons between forest orchids and trees PDF Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 271 1550 1799 1806 doi 10 1098 rspb 2004 2807 PMC 1691795 PMID 15315895 Archived from the original PDF on 2011 03 31 Retrieved 2020 08 19 Selosse M A Weiss M Jany J Tilier A 2002 Communities and populations of sebacinoid basidiomycetes associated with the achlorophyllous orchid Neottia nidus avis L L C M Rich and neighbouring tree ectomycorrhizae PDF Molecular Ecology 11 9 1831 1844 doi 10 1046 j 1365 294X 2002 01553 x PMID 12207732 S2CID 17479936 Peter Kennedy November 2005 Common Mycorrhizal Networks An Important Ecological Phenomenon MykoWeb originally published on Mycena News Retrieved January 19 2012 Field T S Brodripp T J 2005 A unique mode of parasitism in the conifer coral tree Parasitaxus ustus Podocarpaceae Plant Cell Environ 28 10 1316 1325 doi 10 1111 j 1365 3040 2005 01378 x Martos F Dulormne M Pailler T Bonfante P Faccio A Fournel J Dubois M P Selosse M A 2009 Independent recruitment of saprotrophic fungi as mycorrhizal partners by tropical achlorophyllous orchids PDF New Phytologist 184 3 668 681 doi 10 1111 j 1469 8137 2009 02987 x PMID 19694964 Gebauer G Meyer M 2003 15N and 13C natural abundance of autotrophic and myco heterotrophic orchids provides insights into nitrogen and carbon gain from fungal association New Phytologist 160 1 209 223 doi 10 1046 j 1469 8137 2003 00872 x PMID 33873535 Selosse M A Roy M 2009 Green plants eating fungi facts and questions about mixotrophy Trends in Plant Science 14 2 64 70 doi 10 1016 j tplants 2008 11 004 PMID 19162524 Wickett Norman Goffinet Bernard 2008 Origin and relationships of the myco heterotrophic liverwort Cryptothallus mirabilis Malmb Metzgeriales Marchantiophyta Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 156 1 1 12 doi 10 1111 j 1095 8339 2007 00743 x Retrieved 23 October 2023 Taylor DL Bruns TD Leake JR Read DJ 2002 Mycorrhizal specificity and function in myco heterotrophic plants In Mycorrhizal Ecology Sanders IR van der Heijden M eds Ecological Studies vol 157 pp 375 414 Berlin Springer Verlag ISBN 3 540 00204 9 NOTE this PDF is from the page proofs and is not identical to the published version a b Imhof S 2009 Arbuscular ecto related orchid mycorrhizas three independent structural lineages towards mycoheterotrophy implications for classification PDF Mycorrhiza 19 6 357 363 doi 10 1007 s00572 009 0240 7 PMID 19326151 S2CID 85629763 Further reading editHershey DR 1999 Myco heterophytes and parasitic plants in food chains American Biology Teacher 61 8 575 578 doi 10 2307 4450771 JSTOR 4450771 Hibbett DS 2002 When good relationships go bad PDF Nature 419 6905 345 346 doi 10 1038 419345a PMID 12353014 S2CID 17311635 Archived from the original PDF on 2008 12 16 Werner PG 2006 Myco heterotrophs hacking the mycorrhizal network Mycena News 57 3 1 8 Dr Martin Bidartondo Selected publications D Lee Taylor Lab Recent Publications M A Selosse s publicationsExternal links editThe Strange and Wonderful Myco heterotrophs The Parasitic Plant Connection SIU Carbondale College of Science Wayne s Word Noteworthy Plant For June 1997 Fungus Flowers Flowering Plants that Resemble Fungi by WP Armstrong Fungus of the Month for October 2002 Monotropa uniflora by Tom Volk TomVolkFungi net Martin s Treasure Chest images of myco heterotrophs by mycologist Martin Bidartondo Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Myco heterotrophy amp oldid 1184166917, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,
