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Wikipedia

mHealth

April 16, 2024

mHealth (also written as m-health or mhealth) is an abbreviation for mobile health, a term used for the practice of medicine and public health supported by mobile devices.[1] The term is most commonly used in reference to using mobile communication devices, such as mobile phones, tablet computers and personal digital assistants (PDAs), and wearable devices such as smart watches, for health services, information, and data collection.[2] The mHealth field has emerged as a sub-segment of eHealth, the use of information and communication technology (ICT), such as computers, mobile phones, communications satellite, patient monitors, etc., for health services and information.[3] mHealth applications include the use of mobile devices in collecting community and clinical health data, delivery/sharing of healthcare information for practitioners, researchers and patients, real-time monitoring of patient vital signs, the direct provision of care (via mobile telemedicine) as well as training and collaboration of health workers.[4][5]

Nurse using a mobile phone in Accra, Ghana

In 2019, the global market for mHealth apps was estimated at US$17.92 billion, with a compound annual growth rate of 45% predicted from 2020 to 2027.[6] While mHealth has application for industrialized nations, the field has emerged in recent years as largely an application for developing countries, stemming from the rapid rise of mobile phone penetration in low-income nations. The field, then, largely emerges as a means of providing greater access to larger segments of a population in developing countries, as well as improving the capacity of health systems in such countries to provide quality healthcare.[7] Within the mHealth space, projects operate with a variety of objectives, including increased access to healthcare and health-related information (particularly for hard-to-reach populations); improved ability to diagnose and track diseases; timelier, more actionable public health information; and expanded access to ongoing medical education and training for health workers.[3][8]

Definitions edit

 
Malaria Clinic in Tanzania helped by SMS for Life program that uses cell phones to efficiently deliver malaria vaccine

mHealth broadly encompasses the use of mobile telecommunication and multimedia technologies as they are integrated within increasingly mobile and wireless health care delivery systems. The field broadly encompasses the use of mobile telecommunication and multimedia technologies in health care delivery. The term mHealth was coined by Robert Istepanian as use of "emerging mobile communications and network technologies for healthcare".[9][page needed] A definition used at the 2010 mHealth Summit of the Foundation for the National Institutes of Health (FNIH) was "the delivery of healthcare services via mobile communication devices".[10] The GSM Association representing the worldwide mobile communications industry published a report on mHealth in 2010 describing a new vision for healthcare and identified ways in which mobile technology might play a role in innovating healthcare delivery systems and healthcare system cost management.[11]

While there are some projects that are considered solely within the field of mHealth, the linkage between mHealth and eHealth is unquestionable. For example, an mHealth project that uses mobile phones to access data on HIV/AIDS rates would require an eHealth system in order to manage, store, and assess the data. Thus, eHealth projects many times operate as the backbone of mHealth projects.[3]

In a similar vein, while not clearly bifurcated by such a definition, eHealth can largely be viewed as technology that supports the functions and delivery of healthcare, while mHealth rests largely on providing healthcare access.[10] Because mHealth is by definition based on mobile technology such as smartphones, healthcare, through information and delivery, can better reach areas, people, and/or healthcare practitioners with previously limited exposure to certain aspects of healthcare. The National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR) has published a review of research on how mHealth and digital health technologies can help manage health conditions.[12]

Medical uses edit

mHealth apps are designed to support diagnostic procedures, to aid physician decision-making for treatments, and to advance disease-related education for physicians and people under treatment.[13] Mobile health has much potential in medicine and, if used in conjunction with human factors may improve access to care, the scope, and quality of health care services that can be provided. Some applications of mobile health may also improve the ability to improve accountability in healthcare and improve continuum of care by connecting interdisciplinary team members.[14] A dissemination strategy is required to drive potential users discover, download and use mHealth apps. mHealth apps can be disseminated via paid and unpaid marketing strategies using various communication channels. These channels include among others social media, e-mail, posters/flyers, radio and TV broacasting.[15]

mHealth is one aspect of eHealth that is pushing the limits of how to acquire, transport, store, process, and secure the raw and processed data to deliver meaningful results. mHealth offers the ability of remote individuals to participate in the health care value matrix, which may not have been possible in the past. Participation does not imply just consumption of health care services. In many cases remote users are valuable contributors to gather data regarding disease and public health concerns such as outdoor pollution, drugs and violence.

While others exist, the 2009 UN Foundation and Vodafone Foundation[3] report presents seven application categories within the mHealth field:[7]

  • Education and awareness
  • Helpline
  • Diagnostic and treatment support
  • Communication and training for healthcare workers
  • Disease and epidemic outbreak tracking
  • Remote monitoring
  • Remote data collection

Education and awareness edit

Education and awareness programs within the mHealth field are largely about the spreading of mass information from source to recipient through short message services (SMS). In education and awareness applications, SMS messages are sent directly to users' phones to offer information about various subjects, including testing and treatment methods, availability of health services, and disease management. SMSs provide an advantage of being relatively unobtrusive, offering patients confidentiality in environments where disease (especially HIV/AIDS) is often taboo. Additionally, SMSs provide an avenue to reach far-reaching areas—such as rural areas—which may have limited access to public health information and education, health clinics, and a deficit of healthcare workers.[3][8]

Helpline edit

Helpline typically consists of a specific phone number that any individual is able to call to gain access to a range of medical services. These include phone consultations, counseling, service complaints, and information on facilities, drugs, equipment, and/or available mobile health clinics.[3]

Diagnostic support, treatment support, communication and training for healthcare workers edit

Diagnostic and treatment support systems are typically designed to provide healthcare workers in remote areas advice about diagnosis and treatment of patients. While some projects may provide mobile phone applications—such as a step-by-step medical decision tree systems—to help healthcare workers diagnose, other projects provide direct diagnosis to patients themselves. In such cases, known as telemedicine, patients might take a photograph of a wound or illness and allow a remote physician to diagnose to help treat the medical problem. Both diagnosis and treatment support projects attempt to mitigate the cost and time of travel for patients located in remote areas.[3]

mHealth projects within the communication and training for healthcare workers subset involve connecting healthcare workers to sources of information through their mobile phone. This involves connecting healthcare workers to other healthcare workers, medical institutions, ministries of health, or other houses of medical information. Such projects additionally involve using mobile phones to better organize and target in-person training. Improved communication projects attempt to increase knowledge transfer amongst healthcare workers and improve patient outcomes through such programs as patient referral processes.[3] For example, the systematic use of mobile instant messaging for the training and empowerment of health professionals has resulted in higher levels of clinical knowledge and fewer feelings of professional isolation.[16]

Disease surveillance, remote data collection, and epidemic outbreak tracking edit

Projects within this area operate to utilize mobile phones' ability to collect and transmit data quickly, cheaply, and relatively efficiently. Data concerning the location and levels of specific diseases (such as malaria, HIV/AIDS, TB, Avian Flu) can help medical systems or ministries of health or other organizations identify outbreaks and better target medical resources to areas of greatest need. Such projects can be particularly useful during emergencies, in order to identify where the greatest medical needs are within a country[3]

Policymakers and health providers at the national, district, and community level need accurate data in order to gauge the effectiveness of existing policies and programs and shape new ones. In the developing world, collecting field information is particularly difficult since many segments of the population are rarely able to visit a hospital, even in the case of severe illness. A lack of patient data creates an arduous environment in which policy makers can decide where and how to spend their (sometimes limited) resources. While some software within this area is specific to a particular content or area, other software can be adapted to any data collection purpose.

Treatment support and medication compliance for patients edit

Remote monitoring and treatment support allows for greater involvement in the continued care of patients. Recent studies seem to show also the efficacy of inducing positive and negative affective states, using smart phones.[2] Within environments of limited resources and beds—and subsequently a 'outpatient' culture—remote monitoring allows healthcare workers to better track patient conditions, medication regimen adherence, and follow-up scheduling. Such projects can operate through either one- or two-way communications systems. Remote monitoring has been used particularly in the area of medication adherence for AIDS,[17][18] cardiovascular disease,[19][20] chronic lung disease,[20]diabetes,[21][3][22] antenatal mental health,[23] mild anxiety,[24] and tuberculosis.[17] Technical process evaluations have confirmed the feasibility of deploying dynamically tailored, SMS-based interventions designed to provide ongoing behavioral reinforcement for persons living with HIV.[25] among others. Specific mobile applications might also support adherence to taking medications.[26][27]

In conclusion, the use of mobile phone technology (in combination with a web-based interface) in health care results in an increase in convenience and efficiency of data collection, transfer, storage and analysis management of data as compared with paper-based systems. Formal studies and preliminary project assessments demonstrate this improvement of efficiency of healthcare delivery by mobile technology.[28] Nevertheless, mHealth should not be considered as a panacea for healthcare.[29] Possible organizational issues include the ensuring of appropriate use and proper care of the handset, lost or stolen phones, and the important consideration of costs related to the purchase of equipment. There is therefore a difficulty in comparison in weighing up mHealth interventions against other priority and evidence-based interventions.[30]

Criticism and concerns edit

The extensive practice of mhealth research has sparked criticism, for example on the proliferation of fragmented pilot studies in low- and middle-income countries, which is also referred to as "pilotitis."[31] The extent of un-coordinated pilot studies prompted for instance the Ugandan Director General Health Services Dr Jane Ruth Aceng in 2012 to issue a notice that, "in order to jointly ensure that all eHealth efforts are harmonized and coordinated, I am directing that ALL eHealth projects/Initiatives be put to halt."[32] The assumptions that justify mhealth initiatives have also been challenged in recent sociological research. For example, mobile phones have been argued to be less widely accessible and usable than is often portrayed in mhealth-related publications;[33] people integrate mobile phones into their health behavior without external intervention;[34] and the spread of mobile phones in low- and middle-income countries itself can create new forms of digital and healthcare exclusion, which mhealth interventions (using mobile phones as a platform) cannot overcome and potentially accentuate.[35] Mhealth has also been argued to alter the practice of healthcare and patient-physician relationships as well as how bodies and health are being represented.[36][37] Another widespread concern relates to privacy and data protection, for example in the context of electronic health records.[37][38]

Studies looking into the perceptions and experiences of primary healthcare professionals using mheath have found that most health care professionals appreciated being connected to their colleagues, however some prefer face to face communication.[14] Some healthcare workers also felt that while reporting was improved and team members who require help or training could be more easily identified, some healthcare professionals did not feel comfortable being monitored continuously.[14] A proportion of healthcare professionals prefer paper reporting.[14] The use of mobile apps may sometimes lead to healthcare professionals spending more time performing additional tasks such as filling out electronic forms and may generate more workload in some cases.[14] Some healthcare professionals also do not feel comfortable with work-related contact from patients/clients outside of business hours (however some professionals did find this useful for emergencies).[14]

Communicating with clients/patients while using a mobile device may need to be considered.[14] A decrease in eye contact and the potential to miss non-verbal cues due to concentrating on a screen while speaking with patients is a potential consideration.[14]

Society and culture edit

Healthcare in low- and middle-income countries edit

 
Disability-adjusted life year for all causes per 100,000 inhabitants in 2004.[39]
  no data
  less than 9,250
  9,250–16,000
  16,000–22,750
  22,750–29,500
  29,500–36,250
  36,250–43,000
  43,000–49,750
  49,750–56,500
  56,500–63,250
  63,250–70,000
  70,000–80,000
  more than 80,000

Middle income and especially low-income countries face a plethora of constraints in their healthcare systems.[40] These countries face a severe lack of human and physical resources, as well as some of the largest burdens of disease, extreme poverty, and large population growth rates. Additionally, healthcare access to all reaches of society is generally low in these countries.[41]

According to a World Health Organization (WHO) report from June 2011, higher-income countries show more mHealth activity than do lower-income countries (as consistent with eHealth trends in general). Countries in the European Region are currently the most active and those in the African Region the least active. The WHO report findings also included that mHealth is most easily incorporated into processes and services that historically use voice communication through conventional telephone networks. The report[42] was the result of a mHealth survey module designed by researchers at the Earth Institute's Center for Global Health and Economic Development,[43] Columbia University.

The WHO notes an extreme deficit within the global healthcare workforce. The WHO notes critical healthcare workforce shortages in 57 countries—most of which are characterized as developing countries—and a global deficit of 2.4 million doctors, nurses, and midwives.[44] The WHO, in a study of the healthcare workforce in 12 countries of Africa, finds an average density of physicians, nurses and midwives per 1000 population of 0.64.[45] The density of the same metric is four times as high in the United States, at 2.6.[46]

The burden of disease is additionally much higher in low- and middle-income countries than high-income countries. The burden of disease, measured in disability-adjusted life year (DALY), which can be thought of as a measurement of the gap between current health status and an ideal situation where everyone lives into old age, free of disease and disability, is about five times higher in Africa than in high-income countries.[47][page needed] In addition, low- and middle-income countries are forced to face the burdens of both extreme poverty and the growing incidence of chronic diseases, such as diabetes and heart disease, an effect of new-found (relative) affluence.[3]

Considering poor infrastructure and low human resources, the WHO notes that the healthcare workforce in sub-Saharan Africa would need to be scaled up by as much as 140% to attain international health development targets such as those in the Millennium Declaration.[48]

The WHO, in reference to the healthcare condition in sub-Saharan Africa, states:

The problem is so serious that in many instances there is simply not enough human capacity even to absorb, deploy and efficiently use the substantial additional funds that are considered necessary to improve health in these countries.[48]

Mobile technology has made a recent and rapid appearance into low- and middle-income nations.[49] While, in the mHealth field, mobile technology usually refers to mobile phone technology, the entrance of other technologies into these nations to facilitate healthcare are also discussed here.

Health and development edit

The link between health and development can be found in three of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), as set forth by the United Nations Millennium Declaration in 2000. The MDGs that specifically address health include reducing child mortality; improving maternal health; combating HIV and AIDS, malaria, and other diseases; and increasing access to safe drinking water.[50] A progress report published in 2006 indicates that childhood immunization and deliveries by skilled birth attendants are on the rise, while many regions continue to struggle to achieve reductions in the prevalence of the diseases of poverty including malaria, HIV and AIDS and tuberculosis.[51]

Healthcare in developed countries edit

In developed countries, healthcare systems have different policies and goals in relation to the personal and population health care goals.

In the US and EU many patients and consumers use their cell phones and tablets to access health information and look for healthcare services. In parallel the number of mHealth applications grew significantly in the last years.

Doctors, nurses and clinicians use mobile devices to access patient information and other databases and resources.

Technology and market edit

Basic SMS functions and real-time voice communication serve as the backbone and the current most common use of mobile phone technology. The broad range of potential benefits to the health sector that the simple functions of mobile phones can provide should not be understated.[52]

The appeal of mobile communication technologies is that they enable communication in motion, allowing individuals to contact each other irrespective of time and place.[53][54] This is particularly beneficial for work in remote areas where the mobile phone, and now increasingly wireless infrastructure, is able to reach more people, faster. As a result of such technological advances, the capacity for improved access to information and two-way communication becomes more available at the point of need.

Mobile phones edit

 
Mobile phone subscribers per 100 inhabitants 1997–2007

With the global mobile phone penetration rate drastically increasing over the last decade, mobile phones have made a recent and rapid entrance into many parts of the low- and middle-income world. Improvements in telecommunications technology infrastructure, reduced costs of mobile handsets, and a general increase in non-food expenditure have influenced this trend. Low- and middle-income countries are utilizing mobile phones as "leapfrog technology" (see leapfrogging). That is, mobile phones have allowed many developing countries, even those with relatively poor infrastructure, to bypass 20th century fixed-line technology and jump to modern mobile technology.[55]

The number of global mobile phone subscribers in 2007 was estimated at 3.1 billion of an estimated global population of 6.6 billion (47%).[56] These figures are expected to grow to 4.5 billion by 2012, or a 64.7% mobile penetration rate. The greatest growth is expected in Asia, the Middle East, and Africa. In many countries, the number of mobile phone subscribers has bypassed the number of fixed-line telephones; this is particularly true in developing countries.[57] Globally, there were 4.1 billion mobile phones in use in December 2008. See List of countries by number of mobile phones in use.

While mobile phone penetration rates are on the rise, globally, the growth within countries is not generally evenly distributed. In India, for example, while mobile penetration rates have increased markedly, by far the greatest growth rates are found in urban areas. Mobile penetration, in September 2008, was 66% in urban areas, while only 9.4% in rural areas. The all India average was 28.2% at the same time.[58] So, while mobile phones may have the potential to provide greater healthcare access to a larger portion of a population, there are certainly within-country equity issues to consider.

Mobile phones are spreading because the cost of mobile technology deployment is dropping and people are, on average, getting wealthier in low- and middle-income nations.[59] Vendors, such as Nokia, are developing cheaper infrastructure technologies (CDMA) and cheaper phones (sub $50–100, such as Sun's Java phone). Non-food consumption expenditure is increasing in many parts of the developing world, as disposable income rises, causing a rapid increase in spending on new technology, such as mobile phones. In India, for example, consumers have become and continue to become wealthier. Consumers are shifting their expenditure from necessity to discretionary. For example, on average, 56% of Indian consumers' consumption went towards food in 1995, compared to 42% in 2005. The number is expected to drop to 34% by 2015. That being said, although total share of consumption has declined, total consumption of food and beverages increased 82% from 1985 to 2005, while per-capita consumption of food and beverages increased 24%. Indian consumers are getting wealthier and they are spending more and more, with a greater ability to spend on new technologies.[60]

Smartphones edit

From the first quarter of 2015 through the first quarter of 2021, 107,033 mHealth apps in the health and fitness category were available via the Apple Store and Google Play, an increase of 11.37% from the previous quarter.[6] More advanced mobile phone technologies are enabling the potential for further healthcare delivery. Smartphone technologies are now in the hands of a large number of physicians and other healthcare workers in low- and middle-income countries. Although far from ubiquitous, the spread of smartphone technologies opens up doors for mHealth projects such as technology-based diagnosis support, remote diagnostics and telemedicine, preprogrammed daily self-assessment prompts, video or audio clips,[61] web browsing, GPS navigation, access to web-based patient information, post-visit patient surveillance, and decentralized health management information systems (HMIS).

While uptake of smartphone technology by the medical field has grown in low- and middle-income countries, it is worth noting that the capabilities of mobile phones in low- and middle-income countries has not reached the sophistication of those in high-income countries. The infrastructure that enables web browsing, GPS navigation, and email through smartphones is not as well developed in much of the low- and middle-income countries.[52] Increased availability and efficiency in both voice and data-transfer systems in addition to rapid deployment of wireless infrastructure will likely accelerate the deployment of mobile-enabled health systems and services throughout the world.[62]

Other technologies edit

Beyond mobile phones, wireless-enabled laptops and specialized health-related software applications are currently being developed, tested, and marketed for use in the mHealth field. Many of these technologies, while having some application to low- and middle-income nations, are developing primarily in high-income countries. However, with broad advocacy campaigns for free and open source software (FOSS), applications are beginning to be tailored for and make inroads in low- and middle-income countries.[7]

Some other mHealth technologies include:[1]

  • Patient monitoring devices
  • Mobile telemedicine/telecare devices
  • Microcomputers
  • Data collection software
  • Mobile Operating System Technology
  • Mobile applications (e.g., gamified/social wellness solutions)
  • Chatterbots

Mobile device operating system technology edit

Technologies relate to the operating systems that orchestrate mobile device hardware while maintaining confidentiality, integrity and availability are required to build trust. This may foster greater adoption of mHealth technologies and services, by exploiting lower cost multi purpose mobile devices such as tablets, PCs, and smartphones. Operating systems that control these emerging classes of devices include Google's Android, Apple's iPhone OS, Microsoft's Windows Mobile, and RIM's BlackBerry OS.

Operating systems must be agile and evolve to effectively balance and deliver the desired level of service to an application and end user, while managing display real estate, power consumption and security posture. With advances in capabilities such as integrating voice, video and Web 2.0 collaboration tools into mobile devices, significant benefits can be achieved in the delivery of health care services. New sensor technologies[63] such as HD video and audio capabilities, accelerometers, GPS, ambient light detectors, barometers and gyroscopes[64] can enhance the methods of describing and studying cases, close to the patient or consumer of the health care service. This could include diagnosis, education, treatment and monitoring.

Air quality sensing technologies edit

Environmental conditions have a significant impact on public health. Per the World Health Organization, outdoor air pollution accounts for about 1.4% of total mortality.[65] Utilizing Participatory sensing technologies in mobile telephone, public health research can exploit the wide penetration of mobile devices to collect air measurements,[64] which can be utilized to assess the impact of pollution. Projects such as the Urban Atmospheres are utilizing embedded technologies in mobile phones to acquire real time conditions from millions of users mobile phones. By aggregating this data, public health policy shall be able to craft initiatives to mitigate the risk associated with outdoor air pollution.

Data edit

Data has become an especially important aspect of mHealth. Data collection requires both the collection device (mobile phones, computer, or portable device) and the software that houses the information. Data is primarily focused on visualizing static text but can also extend to interactive decision support algorithms, other visual image information, and also communication capabilities through the integration of e-mail and SMS features. Integrating use of GIS and GPS with mobile technologies adds a geographical mapping component that is able to "tag" voice and data communication to a particular location or series of locations.[66] These combined capabilities have been used for emergency health services as well as for disease surveillance, health facilities and services mapping, and other health-related data collection.[67][68][69][70]

History edit

The motivation behind the development of the mHealth field arises from two factors. The first factor concerns the myriad constraints felt by healthcare systems of developing nations. These constraints include high population growth, a high burden of disease prevalence,[47] low health care workforce, large numbers of rural inhabitants, and limited financial resources to support healthcare infrastructure and health information systems. The second factor is the recent rapid rise in mobile phone penetration in developing countries to large segments of the healthcare workforce, as well as the population of a country as a whole.[56] With greater access to mobile phones to all segments of a country, including rural areas, the potential of lowering information and transaction costs in order to deliver healthcare improves.

The combination of these two factors has motivated much discussion of how greater access to mobile phone technology can be leveraged to mitigate the numerous pressures faced by developing countries' healthcare systems.

mHealth has a rich research history starting in the early 2000s and has since transformed healthcare delivery and patient engagement. The evolution of mHealth can be traced through significant milestones and initiatives:

Timeline of key events edit

Early 2000s – Emergence of mHealth research edit

  • Research initiatives exploring the potential of mobile devices in healthcare settings began to surface. Academic institutions and technology companies started investigating the feasibility of using mobile phones for health-related purposes.[71]

2006 – The Genes, Environment, and Health Initiative (GEI)

  • The GEI program was launched, emphasizing prospective cohort studies. This program laid the groundwork for understanding the interplay between genetics, the environment, and health outcomes.[72][73][74]

2007 – Technological advancements

  • A critical year with the introduction of the first iPhone, marking the beginning of the smartphone era that would significantly impact mHealth.[75]

2008 – WHO mHealth Summit

  • The World Health Organization (WHO) organized a summit that recognized the potential of mobile technology in improving global healthcare access, marking a significant milestone in mHealth advocacy.[76]

2009 – Launch of mHealth Alliance

  • The United Nations Foundation established the mHealth Alliance, focusing on leveraging mobile technology to improve health outcomes, especially in developing countries.[77]

2010 – Pioneering mHealth projects

  • Several groundbreaking mHealth projects were initiated worldwide, including programs for remote patient monitoring, disease management, health education via SMS, and mobile apps for healthcare professionals.[78]

mHealth Training Institute (mHTI)

  • The first NIH mHealth Training Institute was held at UCLA to serve as an incubator for developing transdisciplinary scientists capable of co-creating mHealth solutions for complex healthcare problems. The week-long workshop is grounded in a team science model that emphasizes both information transaction and relationship development in the advancement of transdisciplinary mHealth teams capable of impactful healthcare solutions.[79]

2011 – The mHealth Evidence Workshop

  • A collaborative effort involving NSF, NIH, RWJF, and McKesson Foundation, explored mobile health technology evaluation to outline an approach to evidence generation in the field of mHealth that would ensure research is conducted on a rigorous empirical and theoretic foundation.[80]

Open mHealth edit

  • Open mHealth architecture was introduced, fostering innovation in healthcare through facilitating access and harmonization of digital health data from disparate sources using a global community of developers and health tech decision-makers to make sense of that digital health data through an open interoperability standard.[81][82]

2012 – mHealth app revolution

  • The proliferation of smartphone apps dedicated to health and fitness catalyzed the mHealth revolution, allowing users to track fitness, monitor vitals, access medical information, and engage in telemedicine.[83]

Smart Health and Wellbeing (SHB)

  • As a follow-up to the mHealth Evidence Workshop, NSF launched the Smart Health and Wellbeing program to address fundamental technical and scientific issues that would support the much-needed transformation of healthcare from reactive and hospital-centered to preventive, proactive, evidence-based, person-centered, and focused on wellbeing rather than disease.[84]

ASSIST Engineering Research Center (ERC)

  • NSF and NIH initiated a joint research program specifically focusing on mHealth, following up on the insights gained from the mHealth Evidence Workshop. The Engineering Research Center ASSIST ERC at NC State University was established to further mHealth research by developing leading-edge systems for high-value applications such as healthcare and IoT by integrating fundamental advances in energy harvesting, low-power electronics, and sensors with a focus on usability and actionable data.[85]

2013 – Wearable technology

  • Around this time, Fitbit (originally Healthy Metrics Research, Inc.) also emerged, pioneering wearable health technology.[86]

2014 – The Big Data To Knowledge (BD2K) Initiative

  • The NIH BD2K Centers of Excellence program provided a significant boost to mHealth research, leading to 12 research centers, like the Mobile Data To Knowledge (MD2K)[87] headquartered at the University of Memphis and Stanford's Center for Mobility Data Integration to Insight (Mobilize),[88] to facilitate studies and innovation in the field.[89]

2015 – Advancements in wearable technology

  • Wearable devices, such as smartwatches and fitness trackers, have become more sophisticated, enabling continuous health monitoring, activity tracking, and integration with mobile health apps.[90][91]

All of Us

  • mHealth gained prominence in the All of Us program, a precision medicine initiative aiming to collect health data from diverse populations.[92] The launch of smartwatches, particularly the Apple Watch,[93] further emphasized the integration of wearables and health tracking.

'mHealthHUB

  • The mHealthHUB is launched as a virtual forum where technologists, researchers, and clinicians connect, learn, share, and innovate on mHealth tools to transform healthcare. Focused on creating an innovation ecosystem that fosters the collaborative team science essential for mHealth and data science innovations, the site becomes a collaboratory "watering hole" for the mHealth research community.[94]

2017 – NSF Center for Underserved Populations

  • The NSF established the Engineering Research Center for Precise Advanced Technologies and Health Systems for Underserved Populations, emphasizing the integration of engineering research and education with technological innovation to transform national prosperity, health, and security.[95]

Research and development expansion edit

  • Pharmaceutical companies, tech giants, and healthcare institutions increased their investment in mHealth R&D, exploring AI-driven health apps, remote diagnostics, and personalized medicine.[96][97]

2020 – Biomedical Technology Resource Centers (BTRCs)

  • Novel mHealth research centers funded by NIH spring from the remnants of the BD2K initiative. mHealth-focused P41 awards for new centers, like the mHealth Center for Discovery, Optimization, and Translation of Temporally-Precise Interventions (mDOT Center)[98] headquartered at the University of Memphis and Stanford's Mobilize Center,[99] were established to focus on innovative biomedical technologies for healthcare.[100]

During the COVID-19 pandemic edit

  • The COVID-19 pandemic accelerated the adoption of mHealth solutions for remote consultations, contact tracing apps, telehealth services, and remote patient monitoring to maintain healthcare access during lockdowns.[101][102][103]

Present – Ongoing research and integration

  • Current research focuses on AI-driven diagnostics, blockchain for secure health data management, machine learning for predictive analytics, and the integration of mHealth into mainstream healthcare systems.[104][105]

Research edit

Emerging trends and areas of interest:

  • Emergency response systems (e.g., road traffic accidents, emergency obstetric care).
  • Human resources coordination, management, and supervision.
  • Mobile synchronous (voice) and asynchronous (SMS) telemedicine diagnostic and decision support to remote clinicians.[106]
  • Clinician-focused, evidence-based formulary, database and decision support information available at the point of care.[106]
  • Pharmaceutical supply chain integrity and patient safety systems (e.g. Sproxil and mPedigree).[107]
  • Clinical care and remote patient monitoring[citation needed]
  • Health extension services.
  • Inpatient monitoring.[108]
  • Health services monitoring and reporting.
  • Health-related mLearning for the general public.
  • Public health services, for example, tobacco cessation[109]
  • Mental health promotion[110][24] and illness prevention[111]
  • Training and continuing professional development for health care workers.[112]
  • Health promotion and community mobilization.
  • Support of long-term conditions, for example medication reminders and diabetes self-management.[113][114]
  • Peer-to-peer personal health management for telemedicine.[115]
  • Social mobilization for infectious disease prevention.[116]
  • Surgical follow-up, such as for major joint arthroplasty patients.[117]
  • Mobile social media for global health personnel;[4] for example, the capacity to facilitate professional connectedness, and to empower health workforce.[118]

According to the Vodafone Group Foundation on February 13, 2008,[full citation needed] a partnership for emergency communications was created between the group and United Nations Foundation. Such partnership will increase the effectiveness of the information and communications technology response to major emergencies and disasters around the world.

See also edit

References edit

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  2. ^ a b Cipresso, P.; Serino S.; Villani D.; Repetto C.; Selitti L.; Albani G.; Mauro A.; Gaggioli A.; Riva G. (2012). "Is your phone so smart to affect your states? An exploratory study based on psychophysiological measures". Neurocomputing. 84: 23–30. doi:10.1016/j.neucom.2011.12.027.
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  4. ^ a b Pimmer, Christoph; Tulenko, Kate (2016). "The convergence of mobile and social media: Affordances and constraints of mobile networked communication for health workers in low- and middle-income countries". Mobile Media & Communication. 4 (2): 252–269. doi:10.1177/2050157915622657. S2CID 167748382.
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  115. ^ Bailey, Eric (August 15, 2013). . mHealthNews. HIMSS Media. Archived from the original on 2013-08-25.
  116. ^ Abbott, Patricia; Barbosa, Sayonara (2015). "Using Information Technology and Social Mobilization to Combat Disease" (PDF). Acta Paulista de Enfermagem. 28 (1). ISSN 0103-2100. Retrieved 5 April 2015.
  117. ^ Koutras C, Bitsaki M, Koutras G, Nikolaou C, Heep H (17 August 2015). "Socioeconomic impact of e-Health services in major joint replacement: A scoping review". Technol Health Care. 23 (6): 809–17. doi:10.3233/THC-151036. PMID 26409523.
  118. ^ Abdul SS, Lin CW, Scholl J, Fernandez-Luque L, Jian WS, Hsu MH, Li YC (2011). "Facebook use leads to health-care reform in Taiwan". The Lancet. 377 (9783): 2083–2084. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(11)60919-7. PMID 21684378. S2CID 32789692.

Further reading edit

  • Asangansi, Ime; Braa, Kristin (2010). Safran, C.; Reti, S.; Marin, H.F. (eds.). The emergence of mobile-supported national health information systems in developing countries. MEDINFO 2010. Studies in health technology and informatics. Vol. 160. IOS Press. pp. 540–544. doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-588-4-540. ISBN 978-1-60750-588-4. PMID 20841745.  
  • Brown, David (30 November 2007). "Globally, Deaths From Measles Drop Sharply". World. The Washington Post. Retrieved 2010-08-14. Describes role of EpiSurveyor mobile data collection software in contributing to the highly successful fight against measles mortality.
  • "The doctor in your pocket". The Economist. 15 September 2005.
  • Giuffrida, Antonio; El-Wahab, Shireen; Anta, Rafael (February 2009). Mobile Health: The potential of mobile telephony to bring health care to the majority (Report). Inter-American Development Bank.
  • Huang, Anpeng; Chen, Chao; Bian, Kaigui; et al. (March 2014). "WE-CARE: An Intelligent Mobile Telecardiology System to Enable mHealth Applications". IEEE Journal of Biomedical and Health Informatics. 18 (2): 693–702. doi:10.1109/jbhi.2013.2279136. PMID 24608067. S2CID 14856105.
  • Huang, Anpeng. . Archived from the original on 2014-10-20.
  • "JMIR mHealth and uHealth". JMIR mHealth and uHealth. JMIR Publications. ISSN 2291-5222.   Peer-reviewed journal on mHealth and uHealth (ubiquitous health)
  • Kaplan, Warren A. (23 May 2006). "Can the ubiquitous power of mobile phones be used to improve health outcomes in developing countries?". Globalization and Health. 2: 9. doi:10.1186/1744-8603-2-9. PMC 1524730. PMID 16719925.  
  • Mechael, Patricia N. (Winter 2009). "The Case for mHealth in Developing Countries". Innovations: Technology, Governance, Globalization. 4 (1): 103–118. doi:10.1162/itgg.2009.4.1.103.
  • Mechael, Patricia N.; Sloninsky, Daniela (August 2008). Towards the Development of an mHealth Strategy: A Literature Review (PDF) (Working Document). New York: Earth Institute at Columbia University.
  • . U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Archived from the original on 2 May 2013.
  • Olmeda, Christopher J. (2000). Information Technology in Systems of Care. Delfin Press. ISBN 978-0-9821442-0-6.
  • Saran, Cliff (3 April 2008). "Technology plays crucial role in vaccination distribution". Computer Weekly. TechTarget. Retrieved 2010-08-14. Discusses use of handheld electronic data collection in managing public health data and activities.
  • Shackleton, Sally-Jean (May 2007). Rapid Assessment of Cell Phones for Development (Report). Implemented by Women'sNet. UNICEF South Africa.
  • Tal, Amir; Torous, John, eds. (September 2017). "Special Issue: Digital and Mobile Mental Health". Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal. 40 (3). ISBN 978-1-4338-9119-9.
  • United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Division for Public Administration and Development Management (2007). Mobile Applications on Health and Learning (PDF) (Report). Compendium of ICT Applications on Electronic Government. Vol. 1. United Nations. ST/ESA/PAD/SER.E/113.
  • Reitebuch, Lukas (2022). Mobile Health Applications. Springer. ISBN 978-3-662-66253-3.
  • "A world of witnesses". The Economist. 10 April 2008. Retrieved 2017-10-26. Discusses use of EpiSurveyor software in public health monitoring in Africa.

April 16, 2024
mhealth, also, written, health, mhealth, abbreviation, mobile, health, term, used, practice, medicine, public, health, supported, mobile, devices, term, most, commonly, used, reference, using, mobile, communication, devices, such, mobile, phones, tablet, compu. mHealth also written as m health or mhealth is an abbreviation for mobile health a term used for the practice of medicine and public health supported by mobile devices 1 The term is most commonly used in reference to using mobile communication devices such as mobile phones tablet computers and personal digital assistants PDAs and wearable devices such as smart watches for health services information and data collection 2 The mHealth field has emerged as a sub segment of eHealth the use of information and communication technology ICT such as computers mobile phones communications satellite patient monitors etc for health services and information 3 mHealth applications include the use of mobile devices in collecting community and clinical health data delivery sharing of healthcare information for practitioners researchers and patients real time monitoring of patient vital signs the direct provision of care via mobile telemedicine as well as training and collaboration of health workers 4 5 Nurse using a mobile phone in Accra GhanaIn 2019 the global market for mHealth apps was estimated at US 17 92 billion with a compound annual growth rate of 45 predicted from 2020 to 2027 6 While mHealth has application for industrialized nations the field has emerged in recent years as largely an application for developing countries stemming from the rapid rise of mobile phone penetration in low income nations The field then largely emerges as a means of providing greater access to larger segments of a population in developing countries as well as improving the capacity of health systems in such countries to provide quality healthcare 7 Within the mHealth space projects operate with a variety of objectives including increased access to healthcare and health related information particularly for hard to reach populations improved ability to diagnose and track diseases timelier more actionable public health information and expanded access to ongoing medical education and training for health workers 3 8 Contents 1 Definitions 2 Medical uses 2 1 Education and awareness 2 2 Helpline 2 3 Diagnostic support treatment support communication and training for healthcare workers 2 4 Disease surveillance remote data collection and epidemic outbreak tracking 2 5 Treatment support and medication compliance for patients 3 Criticism and concerns 4 Society and culture 4 1 Healthcare in low and middle income countries 4 1 1 Health and development 4 2 Healthcare in developed countries 5 Technology and market 5 1 Mobile phones 5 2 Smartphones 5 3 Other technologies 5 3 1 Mobile device operating system technology 5 3 2 Air quality sensing technologies 5 4 Data 6 History 6 1 Timeline of key events 6 1 1 Early 2000s Emergence of mHealth research 6 1 2 Open mHealth 6 1 3 Research and development expansion 6 1 4 During the COVID 19 pandemic 7 Research 8 See also 9 References 10 Further readingDefinitions edit nbsp Malaria Clinic in Tanzania helped by SMS for Life program that uses cell phones to efficiently deliver malaria vaccinemHealth broadly encompasses the use of mobile telecommunication and multimedia technologies as they are integrated within increasingly mobile and wireless health care delivery systems The field broadly encompasses the use of mobile telecommunication and multimedia technologies in health care delivery The term mHealth was coined by Robert Istepanian as use of emerging mobile communications and network technologies for healthcare 9 page needed A definition used at the 2010 mHealth Summit of the Foundation for the National Institutes of Health FNIH was the delivery of healthcare services via mobile communication devices 10 The GSM Association representing the worldwide mobile communications industry published a report on mHealth in 2010 describing a new vision for healthcare and identified ways in which mobile technology might play a role in innovating healthcare delivery systems and healthcare system cost management 11 While there are some projects that are considered solely within the field of mHealth the linkage between mHealth and eHealth is unquestionable For example an mHealth project that uses mobile phones to access data on HIV AIDS rates would require an eHealth system in order to manage store and assess the data Thus eHealth projects many times operate as the backbone of mHealth projects 3 In a similar vein while not clearly bifurcated by such a definition eHealth can largely be viewed as technology that supports the functions and delivery of healthcare while mHealth rests largely on providing healthcare access 10 Because mHealth is by definition based on mobile technology such as smartphones healthcare through information and delivery can better reach areas people and or healthcare practitioners with previously limited exposure to certain aspects of healthcare The National Institute for Health and Care Research NIHR has published a review of research on how mHealth and digital health technologies can help manage health conditions 12 Medical uses editmHealth apps are designed to support diagnostic procedures to aid physician decision making for treatments and to advance disease related education for physicians and people under treatment 13 Mobile health has much potential in medicine and if used in conjunction with human factors may improve access to care the scope and quality of health care services that can be provided Some applications of mobile health may also improve the ability to improve accountability in healthcare and improve continuum of care by connecting interdisciplinary team members 14 A dissemination strategy is required to drive potential users discover download and use mHealth apps mHealth apps can be disseminated via paid and unpaid marketing strategies using various communication channels These channels include among others social media e mail posters flyers radio and TV broacasting 15 mHealth is one aspect of eHealth that is pushing the limits of how to acquire transport store process and secure the raw and processed data to deliver meaningful results mHealth offers the ability of remote individuals to participate in the health care value matrix which may not have been possible in the past Participation does not imply just consumption of health care services In many cases remote users are valuable contributors to gather data regarding disease and public health concerns such as outdoor pollution drugs and violence While others exist the 2009 UN Foundation and Vodafone Foundation 3 report presents seven application categories within the mHealth field 7 Education and awareness Helpline Diagnostic and treatment support Communication and training for healthcare workers Disease and epidemic outbreak tracking Remote monitoring Remote data collectionEducation and awareness edit Education and awareness programs within the mHealth field are largely about the spreading of mass information from source to recipient through short message services SMS In education and awareness applications SMS messages are sent directly to users phones to offer information about various subjects including testing and treatment methods availability of health services and disease management SMSs provide an advantage of being relatively unobtrusive offering patients confidentiality in environments where disease especially HIV AIDS is often taboo Additionally SMSs provide an avenue to reach far reaching areas such as rural areas which may have limited access to public health information and education health clinics and a deficit of healthcare workers 3 8 Helpline edit Helpline typically consists of a specific phone number that any individual is able to call to gain access to a range of medical services These include phone consultations counseling service complaints and information on facilities drugs equipment and or available mobile health clinics 3 Diagnostic support treatment support communication and training for healthcare workers edit Diagnostic and treatment support systems are typically designed to provide healthcare workers in remote areas advice about diagnosis and treatment of patients While some projects may provide mobile phone applications such as a step by step medical decision tree systems to help healthcare workers diagnose other projects provide direct diagnosis to patients themselves In such cases known as telemedicine patients might take a photograph of a wound or illness and allow a remote physician to diagnose to help treat the medical problem Both diagnosis and treatment support projects attempt to mitigate the cost and time of travel for patients located in remote areas 3 mHealth projects within the communication and training for healthcare workers subset involve connecting healthcare workers to sources of information through their mobile phone This involves connecting healthcare workers to other healthcare workers medical institutions ministries of health or other houses of medical information Such projects additionally involve using mobile phones to better organize and target in person training Improved communication projects attempt to increase knowledge transfer amongst healthcare workers and improve patient outcomes through such programs as patient referral processes 3 For example the systematic use of mobile instant messaging for the training and empowerment of health professionals has resulted in higher levels of clinical knowledge and fewer feelings of professional isolation 16 Disease surveillance remote data collection and epidemic outbreak tracking edit Projects within this area operate to utilize mobile phones ability to collect and transmit data quickly cheaply and relatively efficiently Data concerning the location and levels of specific diseases such as malaria HIV AIDS TB Avian Flu can help medical systems or ministries of health or other organizations identify outbreaks and better target medical resources to areas of greatest need Such projects can be particularly useful during emergencies in order to identify where the greatest medical needs are within a country 3 Policymakers and health providers at the national district and community level need accurate data in order to gauge the effectiveness of existing policies and programs and shape new ones In the developing world collecting field information is particularly difficult since many segments of the population are rarely able to visit a hospital even in the case of severe illness A lack of patient data creates an arduous environment in which policy makers can decide where and how to spend their sometimes limited resources While some software within this area is specific to a particular content or area other software can be adapted to any data collection purpose Treatment support and medication compliance for patients edit Remote monitoring and treatment support allows for greater involvement in the continued care of patients Recent studies seem to show also the efficacy of inducing positive and negative affective states using smart phones 2 Within environments of limited resources and beds and subsequently a outpatient culture remote monitoring allows healthcare workers to better track patient conditions medication regimen adherence and follow up scheduling Such projects can operate through either one or two way communications systems Remote monitoring has been used particularly in the area of medication adherence for AIDS 17 18 cardiovascular disease 19 20 chronic lung disease 20 diabetes 21 3 22 antenatal mental health 23 mild anxiety 24 and tuberculosis 17 Technical process evaluations have confirmed the feasibility of deploying dynamically tailored SMS based interventions designed to provide ongoing behavioral reinforcement for persons living with HIV 25 among others Specific mobile applications might also support adherence to taking medications 26 27 In conclusion the use of mobile phone technology in combination with a web based interface in health care results in an increase in convenience and efficiency of data collection transfer storage and analysis management of data as compared with paper based systems Formal studies and preliminary project assessments demonstrate this improvement of efficiency of healthcare delivery by mobile technology 28 Nevertheless mHealth should not be considered as a panacea for healthcare 29 Possible organizational issues include the ensuring of appropriate use and proper care of the handset lost or stolen phones and the important consideration of costs related to the purchase of equipment There is therefore a difficulty in comparison in weighing up mHealth interventions against other priority and evidence based interventions 30 Criticism and concerns editThe extensive practice of mhealth research has sparked criticism for example on the proliferation of fragmented pilot studies in low and middle income countries which is also referred to as pilotitis 31 The extent of un coordinated pilot studies prompted for instance the Ugandan Director General Health Services Dr Jane Ruth Aceng in 2012 to issue a notice that in order to jointly ensure that all eHealth efforts are harmonized and coordinated I am directing that ALL eHealth projects Initiatives be put to halt 32 The assumptions that justify mhealth initiatives have also been challenged in recent sociological research For example mobile phones have been argued to be less widely accessible and usable than is often portrayed in mhealth related publications 33 people integrate mobile phones into their health behavior without external intervention 34 and the spread of mobile phones in low and middle income countries itself can create new forms of digital and healthcare exclusion which mhealth interventions using mobile phones as a platform cannot overcome and potentially accentuate 35 Mhealth has also been argued to alter the practice of healthcare and patient physician relationships as well as how bodies and health are being represented 36 37 Another widespread concern relates to privacy and data protection for example in the context of electronic health records 37 38 Studies looking into the perceptions and experiences of primary healthcare professionals using mheath have found that most health care professionals appreciated being connected to their colleagues however some prefer face to face communication 14 Some healthcare workers also felt that while reporting was improved and team members who require help or training could be more easily identified some healthcare professionals did not feel comfortable being monitored continuously 14 A proportion of healthcare professionals prefer paper reporting 14 The use of mobile apps may sometimes lead to healthcare professionals spending more time performing additional tasks such as filling out electronic forms and may generate more workload in some cases 14 Some healthcare professionals also do not feel comfortable with work related contact from patients clients outside of business hours however some professionals did find this useful for emergencies 14 Communicating with clients patients while using a mobile device may need to be considered 14 A decrease in eye contact and the potential to miss non verbal cues due to concentrating on a screen while speaking with patients is a potential consideration 14 Society and culture editHealthcare in low and middle income countries edit nbsp Disability adjusted life year for all causes per 100 000 inhabitants in 2004 39 no data less than 9 250 9 250 16 000 16 000 22 750 22 750 29 500 29 500 36 250 36 250 43 000 43 000 49 750 49 750 56 500 56 500 63 250 63 250 70 000 70 000 80 000 more than 80 000Middle income and especially low income countries face a plethora of constraints in their healthcare systems 40 These countries face a severe lack of human and physical resources as well as some of the largest burdens of disease extreme poverty and large population growth rates Additionally healthcare access to all reaches of society is generally low in these countries 41 According to a World Health Organization WHO report from June 2011 higher income countries show more mHealth activity than do lower income countries as consistent with eHealth trends in general Countries in the European Region are currently the most active and those in the African Region the least active The WHO report findings also included that mHealth is most easily incorporated into processes and services that historically use voice communication through conventional telephone networks The report 42 was the result of a mHealth survey module designed by researchers at the Earth Institute s Center for Global Health and Economic Development 43 Columbia University The WHO notes an extreme deficit within the global healthcare workforce The WHO notes critical healthcare workforce shortages in 57 countries most of which are characterized as developing countries and a global deficit of 2 4 million doctors nurses and midwives 44 The WHO in a study of the healthcare workforce in 12 countries of Africa finds an average density of physicians nurses and midwives per 1000 population of 0 64 45 The density of the same metric is four times as high in the United States at 2 6 46 The burden of disease is additionally much higher in low and middle income countries than high income countries The burden of disease measured in disability adjusted life year DALY which can be thought of as a measurement of the gap between current health status and an ideal situation where everyone lives into old age free of disease and disability is about five times higher in Africa than in high income countries 47 page needed In addition low and middle income countries are forced to face the burdens of both extreme poverty and the growing incidence of chronic diseases such as diabetes and heart disease an effect of new found relative affluence 3 Considering poor infrastructure and low human resources the WHO notes that the healthcare workforce in sub Saharan Africa would need to be scaled up by as much as 140 to attain international health development targets such as those in the Millennium Declaration 48 The WHO in reference to the healthcare condition in sub Saharan Africa states The problem is so serious that in many instances there is simply not enough human capacity even to absorb deploy and efficiently use the substantial additional funds that are considered necessary to improve health in these countries 48 Mobile technology has made a recent and rapid appearance into low and middle income nations 49 While in the mHealth field mobile technology usually refers to mobile phone technology the entrance of other technologies into these nations to facilitate healthcare are also discussed here Health and development edit The link between health and development can be found in three of the Millennium Development Goals MDGs as set forth by the United Nations Millennium Declaration in 2000 The MDGs that specifically address health include reducing child mortality improving maternal health combating HIV and AIDS malaria and other diseases and increasing access to safe drinking water 50 A progress report published in 2006 indicates that childhood immunization and deliveries by skilled birth attendants are on the rise while many regions continue to struggle to achieve reductions in the prevalence of the diseases of poverty including malaria HIV and AIDS and tuberculosis 51 Healthcare in developed countries edit In developed countries healthcare systems have different policies and goals in relation to the personal and population health care goals In the US and EU many patients and consumers use their cell phones and tablets to access health information and look for healthcare services In parallel the number of mHealth applications grew significantly in the last years Doctors nurses and clinicians use mobile devices to access patient information and other databases and resources Technology and market editBasic SMS functions and real time voice communication serve as the backbone and the current most common use of mobile phone technology The broad range of potential benefits to the health sector that the simple functions of mobile phones can provide should not be understated 52 The appeal of mobile communication technologies is that they enable communication in motion allowing individuals to contact each other irrespective of time and place 53 54 This is particularly beneficial for work in remote areas where the mobile phone and now increasingly wireless infrastructure is able to reach more people faster As a result of such technological advances the capacity for improved access to information and two way communication becomes more available at the point of need Mobile phones edit nbsp Mobile phone subscribers per 100 inhabitants 1997 2007With the global mobile phone penetration rate drastically increasing over the last decade mobile phones have made a recent and rapid entrance into many parts of the low and middle income world Improvements in telecommunications technology infrastructure reduced costs of mobile handsets and a general increase in non food expenditure have influenced this trend Low and middle income countries are utilizing mobile phones as leapfrog technology see leapfrogging That is mobile phones have allowed many developing countries even those with relatively poor infrastructure to bypass 20th century fixed line technology and jump to modern mobile technology 55 The number of global mobile phone subscribers in 2007 was estimated at 3 1 billion of an estimated global population of 6 6 billion 47 56 These figures are expected to grow to 4 5 billion by 2012 or a 64 7 mobile penetration rate The greatest growth is expected in Asia the Middle East and Africa In many countries the number of mobile phone subscribers has bypassed the number of fixed line telephones this is particularly true in developing countries 57 Globally there were 4 1 billion mobile phones in use in December 2008 See List of countries by number of mobile phones in use While mobile phone penetration rates are on the rise globally the growth within countries is not generally evenly distributed In India for example while mobile penetration rates have increased markedly by far the greatest growth rates are found in urban areas Mobile penetration in September 2008 was 66 in urban areas while only 9 4 in rural areas The all India average was 28 2 at the same time 58 So while mobile phones may have the potential to provide greater healthcare access to a larger portion of a population there are certainly within country equity issues to consider Mobile phones are spreading because the cost of mobile technology deployment is dropping and people are on average getting wealthier in low and middle income nations 59 Vendors such as Nokia are developing cheaper infrastructure technologies CDMA and cheaper phones sub 50 100 such as Sun s Java phone Non food consumption expenditure is increasing in many parts of the developing world as disposable income rises causing a rapid increase in spending on new technology such as mobile phones In India for example consumers have become and continue to become wealthier Consumers are shifting their expenditure from necessity to discretionary For example on average 56 of Indian consumers consumption went towards food in 1995 compared to 42 in 2005 The number is expected to drop to 34 by 2015 That being said although total share of consumption has declined total consumption of food and beverages increased 82 from 1985 to 2005 while per capita consumption of food and beverages increased 24 Indian consumers are getting wealthier and they are spending more and more with a greater ability to spend on new technologies 60 Smartphones edit From the first quarter of 2015 through the first quarter of 2021 107 033 mHealth apps in the health and fitness category were available via the Apple Store and Google Play an increase of 11 37 from the previous quarter 6 More advanced mobile phone technologies are enabling the potential for further healthcare delivery Smartphone technologies are now in the hands of a large number of physicians and other healthcare workers in low and middle income countries Although far from ubiquitous the spread of smartphone technologies opens up doors for mHealth projects such as technology based diagnosis support remote diagnostics and telemedicine preprogrammed daily self assessment prompts video or audio clips 61 web browsing GPS navigation access to web based patient information post visit patient surveillance and decentralized health management information systems HMIS While uptake of smartphone technology by the medical field has grown in low and middle income countries it is worth noting that the capabilities of mobile phones in low and middle income countries has not reached the sophistication of those in high income countries The infrastructure that enables web browsing GPS navigation and email through smartphones is not as well developed in much of the low and middle income countries 52 Increased availability and efficiency in both voice and data transfer systems in addition to rapid deployment of wireless infrastructure will likely accelerate the deployment of mobile enabled health systems and services throughout the world 62 Other technologies edit Beyond mobile phones wireless enabled laptops and specialized health related software applications are currently being developed tested and marketed for use in the mHealth field Many of these technologies while having some application to low and middle income nations are developing primarily in high income countries However with broad advocacy campaigns for free and open source software FOSS applications are beginning to be tailored for and make inroads in low and middle income countries 7 Some other mHealth technologies include 1 Patient monitoring devices Mobile telemedicine telecare devices Microcomputers Data collection software Mobile Operating System Technology Mobile applications e g gamified social wellness solutions ChatterbotsMobile device operating system technology edit Technologies relate to the operating systems that orchestrate mobile device hardware while maintaining confidentiality integrity and availability are required to build trust This may foster greater adoption of mHealth technologies and services by exploiting lower cost multi purpose mobile devices such as tablets PCs and smartphones Operating systems that control these emerging classes of devices include Google s Android Apple s iPhone OS Microsoft s Windows Mobile and RIM s BlackBerry OS Operating systems must be agile and evolve to effectively balance and deliver the desired level of service to an application and end user while managing display real estate power consumption and security posture With advances in capabilities such as integrating voice video and Web 2 0 collaboration tools into mobile devices significant benefits can be achieved in the delivery of health care services New sensor technologies 63 such as HD video and audio capabilities accelerometers GPS ambient light detectors barometers and gyroscopes 64 can enhance the methods of describing and studying cases close to the patient or consumer of the health care service This could include diagnosis education treatment and monitoring Air quality sensing technologies edit Environmental conditions have a significant impact on public health Per the World Health Organization outdoor air pollution accounts for about 1 4 of total mortality 65 Utilizing Participatory sensing technologies in mobile telephone public health research can exploit the wide penetration of mobile devices to collect air measurements 64 which can be utilized to assess the impact of pollution Projects such as the Urban Atmospheres are utilizing embedded technologies in mobile phones to acquire real time conditions from millions of users mobile phones By aggregating this data public health policy shall be able to craft initiatives to mitigate the risk associated with outdoor air pollution Data edit Data has become an especially important aspect of mHealth Data collection requires both the collection device mobile phones computer or portable device and the software that houses the information Data is primarily focused on visualizing static text but can also extend to interactive decision support algorithms other visual image information and also communication capabilities through the integration of e mail and SMS features Integrating use of GIS and GPS with mobile technologies adds a geographical mapping component that is able to tag voice and data communication to a particular location or series of locations 66 These combined capabilities have been used for emergency health services as well as for disease surveillance health facilities and services mapping and other health related data collection 67 68 69 70 History editThe motivation behind the development of the mHealth field arises from two factors The first factor concerns the myriad constraints felt by healthcare systems of developing nations These constraints include high population growth a high burden of disease prevalence 47 low health care workforce large numbers of rural inhabitants and limited financial resources to support healthcare infrastructure and health information systems The second factor is the recent rapid rise in mobile phone penetration in developing countries to large segments of the healthcare workforce as well as the population of a country as a whole 56 With greater access to mobile phones to all segments of a country including rural areas the potential of lowering information and transaction costs in order to deliver healthcare improves The combination of these two factors has motivated much discussion of how greater access to mobile phone technology can be leveraged to mitigate the numerous pressures faced by developing countries healthcare systems mHealth has a rich research history starting in the early 2000s and has since transformed healthcare delivery and patient engagement The evolution of mHealth can be traced through significant milestones and initiatives Timeline of key events edit This section contains content that is written like an advertisement Please help improve it by removing promotional content and inappropriate external links and by adding encyclopedic content written from a neutral point of view December 2023 Learn how and when to remove this template message Early 2000s Emergence of mHealth research edit Research initiatives exploring the potential of mobile devices in healthcare settings began to surface Academic institutions and technology companies started investigating the feasibility of using mobile phones for health related purposes 71 2006 The Genes Environment and Health Initiative GEI The GEI program was launched emphasizing prospective cohort studies This program laid the groundwork for understanding the interplay between genetics the environment and health outcomes 72 73 74 2007 Technological advancementsA critical year with the introduction of the first iPhone marking the beginning of the smartphone era that would significantly impact mHealth 75 2008 WHO mHealth SummitThe World Health Organization WHO organized a summit that recognized the potential of mobile technology in improving global healthcare access marking a significant milestone in mHealth advocacy 76 2009 Launch of mHealth AllianceThe United Nations Foundation established the mHealth Alliance focusing on leveraging mobile technology to improve health outcomes especially in developing countries 77 2010 Pioneering mHealth projectsSeveral groundbreaking mHealth projects were initiated worldwide including programs for remote patient monitoring disease management health education via SMS and mobile apps for healthcare professionals 78 mHealth Training Institute mHTI The first NIH mHealth Training Institute was held at UCLA to serve as an incubator for developing transdisciplinary scientists capable of co creating mHealth solutions for complex healthcare problems The week long workshop is grounded in a team science model that emphasizes both information transaction and relationship development in the advancement of transdisciplinary mHealth teams capable of impactful healthcare solutions 79 2011 The mHealth Evidence WorkshopA collaborative effort involving NSF NIH RWJF and McKesson Foundation explored mobile health technology evaluation to outline an approach to evidence generation in the field of mHealth that would ensure research is conducted on a rigorous empirical and theoretic foundation 80 Open mHealth edit Open mHealth architecture was introduced fostering innovation in healthcare through facilitating access and harmonization of digital health data from disparate sources using a global community of developers and health tech decision makers to make sense of that digital health data through an open interoperability standard 81 82 2012 mHealth app revolutionThe proliferation of smartphone apps dedicated to health and fitness catalyzed the mHealth revolution allowing users to track fitness monitor vitals access medical information and engage in telemedicine 83 Smart Health and Wellbeing SHB As a follow up to the mHealth Evidence Workshop NSF launched the Smart Health and Wellbeing program to address fundamental technical and scientific issues that would support the much needed transformation of healthcare from reactive and hospital centered to preventive proactive evidence based person centered and focused on wellbeing rather than disease 84 ASSIST Engineering Research Center ERC NSF and NIH initiated a joint research program specifically focusing on mHealth following up on the insights gained from the mHealth Evidence Workshop The Engineering Research Center ASSIST ERC at NC State University was established to further mHealth research by developing leading edge systems for high value applications such as healthcare and IoT by integrating fundamental advances in energy harvesting low power electronics and sensors with a focus on usability and actionable data 85 2013 Wearable technologyAround this time Fitbit originally Healthy Metrics Research Inc also emerged pioneering wearable health technology 86 2014 The Big Data To Knowledge BD2K InitiativeThe NIH BD2K Centers of Excellence program provided a significant boost to mHealth research leading to 12 research centers like the Mobile Data To Knowledge MD2K 87 headquartered at the University of Memphis and Stanford s Center for Mobility Data Integration to Insight Mobilize 88 to facilitate studies and innovation in the field 89 2015 Advancements in wearable technologyWearable devices such as smartwatches and fitness trackers have become more sophisticated enabling continuous health monitoring activity tracking and integration with mobile health apps 90 91 All of Us mHealth gained prominence in the All of Us program a precision medicine initiative aiming to collect health data from diverse populations 92 The launch of smartwatches particularly the Apple Watch 93 further emphasized the integration of wearables and health tracking mHealthHUB The mHealthHUB is launched as a virtual forum where technologists researchers and clinicians connect learn share and innovate on mHealth tools to transform healthcare Focused on creating an innovation ecosystem that fosters the collaborative team science essential for mHealth and data science innovations the site becomes a collaboratory watering hole for the mHealth research community 94 2017 NSF Center for Underserved PopulationsThe NSF established the Engineering Research Center for Precise Advanced Technologies and Health Systems for Underserved Populations emphasizing the integration of engineering research and education with technological innovation to transform national prosperity health and security 95 Research and development expansion edit Pharmaceutical companies tech giants and healthcare institutions increased their investment in mHealth R amp D exploring AI driven health apps remote diagnostics and personalized medicine 96 97 2020 Biomedical Technology Resource Centers BTRCs Novel mHealth research centers funded by NIH spring from the remnants of the BD2K initiative mHealth focused P41 awards for new centers like the mHealth Center for Discovery Optimization and Translation of Temporally Precise Interventions mDOT Center 98 headquartered at the University of Memphis and Stanford s Mobilize Center 99 were established to focus on innovative biomedical technologies for healthcare 100 During the COVID 19 pandemic edit The COVID 19 pandemic accelerated the adoption of mHealth solutions for remote consultations contact tracing apps telehealth services and remote patient monitoring to maintain healthcare access during lockdowns 101 102 103 Present Ongoing research and integrationCurrent research focuses on AI driven diagnostics blockchain for secure health data management machine learning for predictive analytics and the integration of mHealth into mainstream healthcare systems 104 105 Research editEmerging trends and areas of interest Emergency response systems e g road traffic accidents emergency obstetric care Human resources coordination management and supervision Mobile synchronous voice and asynchronous SMS telemedicine diagnostic and decision support to remote clinicians 106 Clinician focused evidence based formulary database and decision support information available at the point of care 106 Pharmaceutical supply chain integrity and patient safety systems e g Sproxil and mPedigree 107 Clinical care and remote patient monitoring citation needed Health extension services Inpatient monitoring 108 Health services monitoring and reporting Health related mLearning for the general public Public health services for example tobacco cessation 109 Mental health promotion 110 24 and illness prevention 111 Training and continuing professional development for health care workers 112 Health promotion and community mobilization Support of long term conditions for example medication reminders and diabetes self management 113 114 Peer to peer personal health management for telemedicine 115 Social mobilization for infectious disease prevention 116 Surgical follow up such as for major joint arthroplasty patients 117 Mobile social media for global health personnel 4 for example the capacity to facilitate professional connectedness and to empower health workforce 118 According to the Vodafone Group Foundation on February 13 2008 full citation needed a partnership for emergency communications was created between the group and United Nations Foundation Such partnership will increase the effectiveness of the information and communications technology response to major emergencies and disasters around the world See also edit nbsp Medicine portal nbsp Technology portal nbsp Telecommunication portalHealth informatics Health 2 0 Open source software packages for mHealth Telehealth Healthcare workforce information systems Telemedicine service providersReferences edit a b Adibi Sasan ed February 19 2015 Mobile Health A Technology Road Map Springer Series in Bio Neuroinformatics Vol 5 Springer p 1 doi 10 1007 978 3 319 12817 7 ISBN 978 3 319 12817 7 a b Cipresso P Serino S Villani D Repetto C Selitti L Albani G Mauro A Gaggioli A Riva G 2012 Is your phone so smart to affect your states An exploratory study based on psychophysiological measures Neurocomputing 84 23 30 doi 10 1016 j neucom 2011 12 027 a b c d e f g h i j k Vital Wave Consulting February 2009 mHealth for Development The Opportunity of Mobile Technology for Healthcare in the Developing World PDF United Nations Foundation Vodafone Foundation p 9 Archived from the original PDF on 2012 12 03 a b Pimmer Christoph Tulenko Kate 2016 The convergence of mobile and social media Affordances and constraints of mobile networked communication for health workers in low and middle income countries Mobile Media amp Communication 4 2 252 269 doi 10 1177 2050157915622657 S2CID 167748382 Germanakos P Mourlas C Samaras G A Mobile Agent Approach for Ubiquitous and Personalized eHealth Information Systems PDF Proceedings of the Workshop on Personalization for e Health of the 10th International Conference on User Modeling UM 05 Edinburgh July 29 2005 pp 67 70 a b Alhur Mohammad Salem Alshamari Shaher Olah Judit Aldreabi Hanadi 2022 01 01 Unsupervised Machine Learning to Identify Positive and Negative Themes in Jordanian mHealth Apps International Journal of E Services and Mobile Applications 14 1 1 21 doi 10 4018 IJESMA 313950 ISSN 1941 627X a b c Adibi Sasan ed November 24 2014 mHealth Multidisciplinary Verticals CRC Press Taylor amp Francis Group p 259 ISBN 978 1 482 21480 2 a b Masson M December 2014 Benefits of TED Talks Canadian Family Physician 60 12 1080 PMC 4264800 PMID 25500595 Istepanian Robert S H Laxminarayan Swamy Pattichis Constantinos S eds 2006 M Health Emerging Mobile Health Systems Topics in Biomedical Engineering Boston MA Springer Bibcode 2006mhem book I doi 10 1007 b137697 ISBN 978 0 387 26558 2 OCLC 836533004 a b Torgan Carol November 6 2009 The mHealth Summit Local amp Global Converge caroltorgan com Retrieved July 29 2011 mHealth a new vision for healthcare PDF What is digital health technology and what can it do for me NIHR Evidence 2022 doi 10 3310 nihrevidence 53447 S2CID 252584020 Rowland SP Fitzgerald JE Holme T Powell J McGregor A 2020 What is the clinical value of mHealth for patients npj Digital Medicine 3 4 doi 10 1038 s41746 019 0206 x PMC 6957674 PMID 31970289 a b c d e f g h Odendaal Willem A Anstey Watkins Jocelyn Leon Natalie Goudge Jane Griffiths Frances Tomlinson Mark Daniels Karen March 2020 Health workers perceptions and experiences of using mHealth technologies to deliver primary healthcare services a qualitative evidence synthesis The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 3 3 CD011942 doi 10 1002 14651858 CD011942 pub2 ISSN 1469 493X PMC 7098082 PMID 32216074 Moungui Henri Claude Nana Djeunga Hugues Clotaire Anyiang Che Frankline Cano Mireia Postigo Jose Antonio Ruiz Carrion Carme 2024 01 05 Dissemination Strategies for mHealth Apps Systematic Review JMIR mHealth and uHealth 12 1 e50293 doi 10 2196 50293 PMC 10799285 PMID 38180796 Pimmer C Bruhlmann F Odetola TD Dipeolu O Oluwasola DO Ajuwon AJ 2008 Facilitating Professional Mobile Learning Communities with Instant Messaging Computers amp Education 128 102 11 doi 10 1016 j compedu 2018 09 005 S2CID 53744443 a b Devi Balla Rama Syed Abdul Shabbir Kumar Arun Iqbal Usman Nguyen Phung Anh Li Yu Chuan Jack Jian Wen Shan 2015 11 01 mHealth An updated systematic review with a focus on HIV AIDS and tuberculosis long term management using mobile phones Computer Methods and Programs in Biomedicine 122 2 257 265 doi 10 1016 j cmpb 2015 08 003 ISSN 1872 7565 PMID 26304621 Murray Melanie Caroline Margaret Lester Richard T Money Deborah M Kestler Mary H Alimenti Ariane Pick Neora Albert Arianne YK Maan Evelyn J Qiu Annie Q 2017 Mobile Text Messaging to Improve Medication Adherence and Viral Load in a Vulnerable Canadian Population Living With Human Immunodeficiency Virus A Repeated Measures Study Journal of Medical Internet Research 19 6 e190 doi 10 2196 jmir 6631 PMC 5472843 PMID 28572079 Maddison Ralph Rolleston Anna Stewart Ralph Jiang Yannan Whittaker Robyn Dale Leila Pfaeffli 2015 Text Message and Internet Support for Coronary Heart Disease Self Management Results From the Text4Heart Randomized Controlled Trial Journal of Medical Internet Research 17 10 e237 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Antonio Gronlund Ake 2014 05 08 Mobile Technologies and Geographic Information Systems to Improve Health Care Systems A Literature Review JMIR mHealth and uHealth 2 2 e3216 doi 10 2196 mhealth 3216 PMC 4114429 PMID 25099368 Wirth Felix Nikolaus Johns Marco Meurers Thierry Prasser Fabian 2020 11 10 Citizen Centered Mobile Health Apps Collecting Individual Level Spatial Data for Infectious Disease Management Scoping Review JMIR mHealth and uHealth 8 11 e22594 doi 10 2196 22594 PMC 7674146 PMID 33074833 Boonchieng Ekkarat Boonchieng Waraporn Senaratana Wilawan Singkaew Jaras 2014 Development of mHealth for public health information collection with GIS using private cloud A case study of Saraphi district Chiang Mai Thailand 2014 International Computer Science and Engineering Conference ICSEC pp 350 353 doi 10 1109 ICSEC 2014 6978221 ISBN 978 1 4799 4963 2 S2CID 1637426 Huang Lanlan Xu Yubin Chen Xiuwan Li Huaiyu Wu Yuhang 2012 Design and Implementation of Location Based Mobile Health System 2012 Fourth International Conference on Computational and Information Sciences pp 919 922 doi 10 1109 ICCIS 2012 118 ISBN 978 1 4673 2406 9 S2CID 17391991 Istepanian R S H Lacal J C 2003 Emerging mobile communication technologies for health Some imperative notes on m health Proceedings of the 25th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society IEEE Cat No 03CH37439 pp 1414 1416 doi 10 1109 IEMBS 2003 1279581 ISBN 0 7803 7789 3 S2CID 15038909 Retrieved 2023 12 05 Manolio Teri A Bailey Wilson Joan E Collins Francis S October 2006 Genes environment and the value of prospective cohort studies Nature Reviews Genetics 7 10 812 820 doi 10 1038 nrg1919 ISSN 1471 0056 PMID 16983377 S2CID 20773705 The Genes Environment and Health Initiative GEI Genome gov Retrieved 2023 12 05 Genes Environment and Health Initiative Invests In Genetic Studies Environmental Monitoring Technologies National Institutes of Health NIH 2015 10 14 Retrieved 2023 12 05 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Health care delivery Open mHealth architecture an engine for health care innovation Science 330 6005 759 760 doi 10 1126 science 1196187 ISSN 1095 9203 PMID 21051617 S2CID 206529278 About Us Open mHealth Retrieved 2023 12 05 Steinhubl Steven R Muse Evan D Topol Eric J 2013 Can Mobile Health Technologies Transform Health Care JAMA 310 22 2395 2396 doi 10 1001 jama 2013 281078 PMID 24158428 Retrieved 2023 12 05 Smart Health and Wellbeing SHB nsf12512 www nsf gov Retrieved 2023 12 05 About ASSIST Center for Advanced Self Powered Systems of Integrated Sensors and Technologies ASSIST Retrieved 2023 12 05 Bell Karissa 2014 06 26 Fitbit Updates App With Exercise and Run Tracking Features Mashable Retrieved 2023 12 05 About Us MD2K Retrieved 2023 12 05 ABOUT Mobilize Center Retrieved 2023 12 05 Big Data to Knowledge Resources NIH Common Fund commonfund nih gov Retrieved 2023 12 05 Kang Harjeevan Singh Exworthy Mark 2022 07 13 Wearing the Future Wearables to Empower Users to Take Greater Responsibility for Their Health and Care Scoping Review JMIR mHealth and uHealth 10 7 e35684 doi 10 2196 35684 ISSN 2291 5222 PMC 9330198 PMID 35830222 Wu Min PhD Luo Jake 2019 11 25 Wearable Technology Applications in Healthcare A Literature Review HIMSS www himss org Retrieved 2023 12 05 Collins Francis S Varmus Harold 2015 02 26 A new initiative on precision medicine The New England Journal of Medicine 372 9 793 795 doi 10 1056 NEJMp1500523 ISSN 1533 4406 PMC 5101938 PMID 25635347 Apple Watch Wikipedia 2023 12 02 retrieved 2023 12 05 About mHealthHUB org mHealthHUB org Retrieved December 5 2023 Overview pathsup org Retrieved 2023 12 05 Dang Amit Arora Dimple Rane Pawan 2020 05 31 Role of digital therapeutics and the changing future of healthcare Journal of Family Medicine and Primary Care 9 5 2207 2213 doi 10 4103 jfmpc jfmpc 105 20 ISSN 2249 4863 PMC 7380804 PMID 32754475 Bohr Adam Memarzadeh Kaveh 2020 The rise of artificial intelligence in healthcare applications Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare 25 60 doi 10 1016 B978 0 12 818438 7 00002 2 ISBN 9780128184387 PMC 7325854 RePORT RePORTER reporter nih gov Retrieved 2023 12 05 RePORT RePORTER reporter nih gov Retrieved 2023 12 05 NIBIB supported Centers for Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering www nibib nih gov Retrieved 2023 12 05 Taha Abdul Rahman Shehadeh Mustafa Alshehhi Ali Altamimi Tariq Housser Emma Simsekler Mecit Can Emre Alfalasi Buthaina Al Memari Shammah Al Hosani Farida Al Zaabi Yousif Almazroui Shereena Alhashemi Hamed Alhajri Noora 2022 02 24 The integration of mHealth technologies in telemedicine during the COVID 19 era A cross sectional study PLOS ONE 17 2 e0264436 Bibcode 2022PLoSO 1764436T doi 10 1371 journal pone 0264436 ISSN 1932 6203 PMC 8870491 PMID 35202424 Ling Hua Egolum Ugochukwu 2021 05 11 Evaluation of Daily Activity Duration in Patients with Heart Failure During the Covid 19 Pandemic Journal of the American College of Cardiology 77 18 809 doi 10 1016 S0735 1097 21 02168 9 ISSN 0735 1097 PMC 8091250 Memphis MD2K Center of Excellence at The University of mContain mcontain md2k org Retrieved 2023 12 05 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint numeric names authors list link Yeung Andy Wai Kan Torkamani Ali Butte Atul J Glicksberg Benjamin S Schuller Bjorn Rodriguez Blanca Ting Daniel S W Bates David Schaden Eva Peng Hanchuan Willschke Harald van der Laak Jeroen Car Josip Rahimi Kazem Celi Leo Anthony 2023 09 26 The promise of digital healthcare technologies Frontiers in Public Health 11 1196596 doi 10 3389 fpubh 2023 1196596 ISSN 2296 2565 PMC 10562722 PMID 37822534 Kumar Ritik Arjunaditya Singh Divyangi Srinivasan Kathiravan Hu Yuh Chung 2022 12 27 AI Powered Blockchain Technology for Public Health A Contemporary Review Open Challenges and Future Research Directions Healthcare 11 1 81 doi 10 3390 healthcare11010081 ISSN 2227 9032 PMC 9819078 PMID 36611541 a b Mechael P August 2007 WHO mHealth Review Towards the Development of an mHealth Strategy Report Bennett Simeon 14 May 2010 Ghana News West African Innovation Hits Global Stage Joy Online Modified for length by Richard Akuoko Bloomberg Archived from the original on 2010 05 16 Retrieved 2010 08 14 Dobkin Bruce H Dorsch Andrew 2011 The Promise of mHealth Daily Activity Monitoring and Outcome Assessments by Wearable Sensors Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair 25 9 788 798 doi 10 1177 1545968311425908 ISSN 1545 9683 PMC 4098920 PMID 21989632 Fradkin Nick Zbikowski Susan M Christensen Trevor 2022 03 09 Analysis of Demographic Characteristics of Users of a Free Tobacco Cessation Smartphone App Observational Study JMIR Public Health and Surveillance 8 3 e32499 doi 10 2196 32499 ISSN 2369 2960 PMC 8943539 PMID 35262491 Adkins Elizabeth C O Loughlin Kristen Neary Martha Schueller Stephen M 2018 Discovery of and Interest in Health Apps Among Those With Mental Health Needs Survey and Focus Group Study Journal of Medical Internet Research 20 6 e10141 doi 10 2196 10141 PMC 6018235 PMID 29891468 Deady Mark GLozier N Calvo R A Johnston D M 2020 Preventing depression using a smartphone app a randomized controlled trial Psychological Medicine 2020 3 457 466 doi 10 1017 S0033291720002081 hdl 10044 1 80590 PMID 32624013 S2CID 220372098 Martin Nick 22 July 2013 Charting the Future of Capacity Building for mHealth TechChange Retrieved August 4 2013 Elliott Jane 16 January 2010 Text reminder to take epilepsy tablets BBC News Chomutare T Fernandez Luque L Arsand E Hartvigsen G 22 September 2011 Features of mobile diabetes applications Journal of Medical Internet Research 13 3 e65 doi 10 2196 jmir 1874 PMC 3222161 PMID 21979293 Bailey Eric August 15 2013 Deborah Jeffries MD talks about collaborative video and emerging telemedicine trends mHealthNews HIMSS Media Archived from the original on 2013 08 25 Abbott Patricia Barbosa Sayonara 2015 Using Information Technology and Social Mobilization to Combat Disease PDF Acta Paulista de Enfermagem 28 1 ISSN 0103 2100 Retrieved 5 April 2015 Koutras C Bitsaki M Koutras G Nikolaou C Heep H 17 August 2015 Socioeconomic impact of e Health services in major joint replacement A scoping review Technol Health Care 23 6 809 17 doi 10 3233 THC 151036 PMID 26409523 Abdul SS Lin CW Scholl J Fernandez Luque L Jian WS Hsu MH Li YC 2011 Facebook use leads to health care reform in Taiwan The Lancet 377 9783 2083 2084 doi 10 1016 S0140 6736 11 60919 7 PMID 21684378 S2CID 32789692 Further reading editAsangansi Ime Braa Kristin 2010 Safran C Reti S Marin H F eds The emergence of mobile supported national health information systems in developing countries MEDINFO 2010 Studies in health technology and informatics Vol 160 IOS Press pp 540 544 doi 10 3233 978 1 60750 588 4 540 ISBN 978 1 60750 588 4 PMID 20841745 nbsp Brown David 30 November 2007 Globally Deaths From Measles Drop Sharply World The Washington Post Retrieved 2010 08 14 Describes role of EpiSurveyor mobile data collection software in contributing to the highly successful fight against measles mortality The doctor in your pocket The Economist 15 September 2005 Giuffrida Antonio El Wahab Shireen Anta Rafael February 2009 Mobile Health The potential of mobile telephony to bring health care to the majority Report Inter American Development Bank Huang Anpeng Chen Chao Bian Kaigui et al March 2014 WE CARE An Intelligent Mobile Telecardiology System to Enable mHealth Applications IEEE Journal of Biomedical and Health Informatics 18 2 693 702 doi 10 1109 jbhi 2013 2279136 PMID 24608067 S2CID 14856105 Huang Anpeng Worldwide Gallery for Mobile Health Archived from the original on 2014 10 20 JMIR mHealth and uHealth JMIR mHealth and uHealth JMIR Publications ISSN 2291 5222 nbsp Peer reviewed journal on mHealth and uHealth ubiquitous health Kaplan Warren A 23 May 2006 Can the ubiquitous power of mobile phones be used to improve health outcomes in developing countries Globalization and Health 2 9 doi 10 1186 1744 8603 2 9 PMC 1524730 PMID 16719925 nbsp Mechael Patricia N Winter 2009 The Case for mHealth in Developing Countries Innovations Technology Governance Globalization 4 1 103 118 doi 10 1162 itgg 2009 4 1 103 Mechael Patricia N Sloninsky Daniela August 2008 Towards the Development of an mHealth Strategy A Literature Review PDF Working Document New York Earth Institute at Columbia University Mobile Medical Applications U S Food and Drug Administration Archived from the original on 2 May 2013 Olmeda Christopher J 2000 Information Technology in Systems of Care Delfin Press ISBN 978 0 9821442 0 6 Saran Cliff 3 April 2008 Technology plays crucial role in vaccination distribution Computer Weekly TechTarget Retrieved 2010 08 14 Discusses use of handheld electronic data collection in managing public health data and activities Shackleton Sally Jean May 2007 Rapid Assessment of Cell Phones for Development Report Implemented by Women sNet UNICEF South Africa Tal Amir Torous John eds September 2017 Special Issue Digital and Mobile Mental Health Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal 40 3 ISBN 978 1 4338 9119 9 United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs Division for Public Administration and Development Management 2007 Mobile Applications on Health and Learning PDF Report Compendium of ICT Applications on Electronic Government Vol 1 United Nations ST ESA PAD SER E 113 Reitebuch Lukas 2022 Mobile Health Applications Springer ISBN 978 3 662 66253 3 A world of witnesses The Economist 10 April 2008 Retrieved 2017 10 26 Discusses use of EpiSurveyor software in public health monitoring in Africa Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title MHealth amp oldid 1212030958, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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