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Wikipedia

Water supply and sanitation in the Philippines

January 01, 2023

The Philippines' water supply system dates back to 1946, after the country declared independence. Government agencies, local institutions, non-government organizations, and other corporations are primarily in charge of the operation and administration of water supply and sanitation in the country.

Sources of water

 
The Ambuklao Dam and Hydroelectric Power Plant in Bokod, Benguet, Philippines.

The Philippines' main sources of water are rivers, lakes, river basins, and groundwater reservoirs. The longest and largest river, Cagayan River, discharges approximately 53,943 million cubic meters of water annually. Its groundwater reserves are 47,895 million cubic meters replenished by rainfall and seepage from rivers and lakes. The lakes are utilized mainly for fish cultivation. The four major groundwater reservoirs are in Cagayan, Central Luzon, Agusan, and Cotabato. There are 438 major dams and 423 smaller dams. Dams and reservoirs are mainly used for water storage, water supply, irrigation, regulation of flood, and hydropower.[1]

The water in the metropolitan area of Manila is mostly supplied by the Angat Dam, Ipo Dam, and La Mesa Dam (also known as Angat-Ipo-La Mesa water system). Well-known and larger dams in the rural areas include Ambuklao Dam (developed for flood control, irrigation, and hydroelectric power source of Baguio and some regions in Luzon) and Magat Dam (irrigation and hydroelectric power source in Isabela).

Usage

28.52 billion m3 of water were withdrawn from various sources in the Philippines in 2000: 74% (21.10 billion m3) was used for agricultural purposes, 9% (2.57 billion m3) for industrial processes, and 17% (4.85 billion m3) for domestic consumption.[2]

Agricultural

Agricultural water management in the Philippines is primarily focused on irrigation. The country has 3.126 million hectares of irrigable land, 50% (1.567 million hectares) of which already has irrigation facilities. 50% of irrigated areas are developed and operated by the government through the National Irrigation System (NIS). 36% is developed by the government and operated by irrigators' associations through the Communal Irrigation System, while the remaining 14% is developed and operated by an individual or small groups of farmers through a Private Irrigation System (PIS).[3]

Industrial

The uses of water for industrial purposes include the "utilization of water in factories, industrial plants and mines, and the use of water as an ingredient of a finished product."[4] Water-intensive industries are involved in the manufacturing of food and dairy, pulp and chemical products, as well as textile materials. These industries are usually found in the National Capital Region, Calabarzon, and Region III. In a 1999 study by the United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO), the intensive use of water in the industry is critical in terms of the production of hazardous wastes. Thousands of tons of solvent wastes, heavy metals, lubricants, and intractable wastes are improperly disposed of annually in Metro Manila.[5]

Domestic

According to a 1996 study by David and Inocencio, the medium of water provision is dependent on the income class of a certain household. Higher-income brackets usually rely on private waterworks as a source of water, while lower-income brackets usually consume less by depending on vended water (sold by those with access to private waterworks). Lower-income households pay much higher water prices than higher-income households due to lack of access to water service providers.[6]

Service provision

In 2000, the average water production was 175 liters per day per capita (L/d/c).[7] According to the National Water Resources Board (NWRB), the average consumption of water was 118 L/d/c in 2004. The highest consumption was recorded in the East Zone of Metro Manila as 232 L/d/c.[8]

Levels of water systems

According to a 2005 World Bank study, approximately 5,000 service providers exist in the Philippines.[9] Most of them only provide water, since sanitation is expected to be a private responsibility.[10] The water infrastructure provided is classified into three levels:

 
The handpump is an example of a Level I water system.
Levels of water systems in the Philippines[11]
Level I Stand-alone water points (e.g. handpumps, shallow wells, rainwater collectors) serving an average of 15 households within a 250-meter distance
Level II Piped water with a communal water point (e.g. borewell, spring system) serving an average of 4–6 households within a 25-meter distance
Level III Piped water supply with a private water point (e.g. house connection) based on daily water demand of more than 100 liters per person

Service providers

According to the Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) for Water Supply and Sanitation of UNICEF and WHO, access to an improved water source increased from 85% in 1990 to 92% in 2010.[12]

Local Government Units

Most households in the Philippines are provided water by their Local Government Units (LGUs), either directly through a city or municipal engineering department or through community-based organizations (CBOs). CBOs involved in water supply include 200 cooperatives, 3,100 Barangay Water and Sanitation Associations (BWSAs) and 500 Rural Water Supply Associations (RWSAs).[13] CBOs usually operate Level I or Level II water supply systems with support from the national government or non-governmental organizations (NGOs). In many cases, the CBOs later convert Level I and II facilities into Level III supply systems. Typically, all LGU-operated arrangements do not recover their full costs and rely heavily on local government subsidies.[14]

Water Districts

 
Local Water Utilities Administration (LWUA) Seal

A water district is a utility that is legally and financially separate from the municipality. In urban areas outside of Metro Manila, water districts served around 15.3 million people from 861 municipalities in 2011. To form a water district, the local government needs confirmation from the Local Water Utilities Administration (LWUA), a specialized lending institution for provincial waterworks, from which it will receive technical assistance and financial support. The local government appoints the board members of the water districts. This system typically has better performance and higher cost recovery than water systems that are run directly by municipalities. The Philippine Association of Water Districts (PAWD), fosters the exchange of experiences between water districts and provides training to its members.[15] In 2010, USAID and the ADB agreed to support PAWD in establishing a national Water Operators Partnerships (WOPs) program that promotes twinning partnerships among Water Districts.[16]

Large-scale Private Operators

 
The zones of Metro Manila allocated to Maynilad Water (red) and Manila Water (blue).

In Metro Manila, water service has been carried out by two private concessionaires since 1997: The Manila Water Company in the East Zone, and Maynilad Water Services, Inc. in the West Zone. Although national government has supported private service providers since the 1990s, there are few arrangements outside of Metro Manila. Joint ventures exist in Tagbilaran City and in Subic Bay.[17] These private water service providers provide Level III services together with water districts.

Small-scale independent providers

A significant share of the population in urban areas receive services from small-scale independent providers. It was estimated that before privatization in the late 1990s, 30% of the population of Metro Manila depended on them, majority buying water in bulk from water providers to sell it on to individual users.[18] There are also some cases of cooperation by concessionaires and independent providers.[19] In August 2007, 250 small-scale providers formed the National Water and Sanitation Association of the Philippines (NAWASA) as a gathering avenue for small-scale water service providers.[20]

Benchmarking of water utility models[21]
Local Government Units (LGU) Water Districts Private Operators
Level of Service Level I, II, and III Level III Level III
Availability (hours per day) 19 23 22
Consumption (liters per capita per day) 112 120 144
Staff (per 100 connections) 8 7 6
Tariff (Philippine peso per cubic meter) 7.60 17.82 15.37
Economic Regulation National Water and Resources Board (NWRB) National Water and Resources Board (NWRB) According to contract
Financing Public, NGOs, Tariffs Local Waterworks and Utilities Administration (LWUA), Tariffs Tariffs

Access

Water supply

Access to water is universal, affordable, efficient and of high quality. The creation of financially sustainable water service providers ("Water Districts") in small and medium towns with the continuous long-term support of a national agency (the "Local Water Utilities Administration" LWUA); and the improvement of access, service quality and efficiency in Manila through two high-profile water concessions awarded in 1997. The challenges include limited access to sanitation services, high pollution of water resources, often poor drinking water quality and poor service quality, a fragmentation of executive functions at the national level among numerous agencies, and a fragmentation of service provision at the local level into many small service providers.[citation needed]

In 2015, 92% of the total population had access to "at least basic water", or 94% in urban areas and 90% in rural areas. In 2015, there were still 8 million people without access to "at least basic water".[22][23] The term "at least basic water" is a new term since 2016, and is related to the previously used "improved water source".

In earlier years, according to the Joint Monitoring Program (JMP) report in March 2012, 43% of the Philippines had access to Level III private water service providers in 2010. Access to an improved water source increased from 84% in 1990 to 92% in 2012. However, there is a wide inconsistency between the access to water of urban areas (61%) and rural areas (25%). Although overall spending remained low, the national government has begun increasing investments in sectors outside Metro Manila.[24] In 2015, it was reported by the Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation that 74% of the population had access to improved sanitation, and that "good progress" had been made between 1990 and 2015.[25]

Sewage and Sanitation

In 2015, 74% of the total population had access to "improved" sanitation, or 78% in urban areas and 71% in rural areas. In 2015, there were still 27 million without access to "improved" sanitation.[22][23]

In 2005, only 5% of the total population was connected to a sewer network. The vast majority used flush toilets connected to septic tanks. Since sludge treatment and disposal facilities were rare, most effluents were discharged without treatment.[26] Within the entire country, septic tanks are the most common method of sewage treatment. In Metro Manila alone, about 75 local companies provide tank-desludging services.[12]

The first Philippine constructed wetland, serving about 700 households, was completed in 2006 in a peri-urban area of Bayawan City, which has been used to resettle families that lived along the coast in informal settlements and had no access to safe water supply and sanitation facilities.[27] In March 2008, Manila Water announced that a wastewater treatment plant was to be constructed in Taguig.[28]

Economic Aspects

Water bill information

Current charges before tax

  • Basic charge: This covers the cost of operating, maintaining, improving and expanding the distribution network, as well as the facilities responsible for bringing potable water to the end-user. The Basic Charge is based on the latest approved tariff schedule.[29]
  • Foreign Currency Different Adjustment (FCDA): This is a percentage of the basic charge which accounts for fluctuations of the Philippine Peso against other countries' currencies subject to periodic review and adjustment. The FCDA for the second quarter of 2015 is 0.18% of the Basic Charge. In 2018, the Metropolitan Waterworks and Sewerage System (MWSS) removed the FCDA in water bills of customers in Metro Manila when the Revised Concession Agreements (RCA) of Manila's water service providers took into effect.[30]
  • Environmental Charge: This is for the mitigation of environmental impacts in the course of water and wastewater operation.[29] It is 20% of the Basic Charge applicable to all customers.[31]
  • Sewer Charge: 0% of the Basic Charge is added for Residential and Semi-Business customers with a sewer line connection. 20% of Basic Charge, on the other hand, is charged for Commercial and Industrial customers.[31]
  • Maintenance Service Charge: This covers the maintenance of the water meter. The charge changes depending on the size of the water meter.[31] For customers of Manila Water in Metro Manila, the minimum charge is 1.50 Philippine pesos for a 13mm-sized meter.[29]

Value Added Tax

The value-added tax (VAT) is charged by the government and accounts for 12% of the sum of the items included in current charges before tax.

Other charges

These are special miscellaneous charges such as connection fees, unscheduled desludging of septic tank service fees, etc.

Previous Unpaid Amount

This pertains to charges billed prior to the billing period. This should be settled immediately together with the current charges to avoid the disconnection of water service.

Tariffs

The fragmented sector led to different tariff structures and levels according to the respective management model. The connection fees, which are charged in most of the cases, often impede new connections for poverty-stricken areas.[32]

LGU-operated systems In LGUs, tariff levels, and structures vary widely. Since most connections are not metered, it is difficult to charge tariffs depending on consumption. Where LGUs provide Level I or II services, they usually charge no or very low tariffs, although connection fees are common. The costs of providing the service are usually met by local governments.[33] The NWRB in its benchmarking project had about half of the average tariff of private operators and water districts. The cost of tariff in LGU-operated systems is, on average, lower than other management models.[32] In order to introduce cost recovery tariffs and effective regulation, the NWRB issued a primer on tariff setting and regulation in March 2005. The document provides the basic guidelines of the tariff setting. The manual helps to determine future revenue requirements and to set annual base tariffs based on estimated consumption levels. The process of tariff approval as well as the guidelines to prepare the required annual report are described in detail. Furthermore, the document gives advice on tariff structures and water rate adjustments.

Water Districts. In water districts, tariffs increased notably since 1996. The tariff structure is similar to the model used in Metro Manila, with an average tariff for the first 10m3 and increasing tariffs for additional consumption.[34] At the end of 2006, the national average tariff for 30 m3 was US$0.36 per m3, which is more than double of 1996.[33] The NWRB found an average tariff of US$0.41 within a sample of 18 water districts in 2004, which is the highest average tariff of all management models. The average connection fee was US$55, somewhat lower than among private operators.[32]

Metro Manila. In the capital region, an initial tariff is to be paid for the first 10 m3 consumed, with increasing blocks for additional consumption. Furthermore, consumers connected to sewerage pay an additional charge of 50% and all users must pay a 10% environmental surcharge.[35] For new consumers, a connection fee is charged, which was US$134 in April 2007 in the East Zone[36] For new consumers, a connection fee is charged, which was US$134 in April 2007 in the East Zone[37] According to the MWSS Regulatory Office, just before privatization, the average tariff per m3 in Metro Manila was US$0.26. After the concession contracts came into force in 1997, tariffs dropped to US$0.05 (East Zone) and US$0.12 (West Zone). In 2006, the average tariff rose to US$0.31 in the East Zone and US$0.43 in the West Zone (all figures converted into real 2006 prices). While the tariff was highest among private operators, the connection fee was higher within water districts.

Others. Users who rely on other sources such as private small-scale operators mostly pay more for water. In the capital region, it is a common practice to buy water from MWSS and resell. In this case, small-scale operators pay a higher tariff than the residential one and pass the higher cost on to the end-user.[38]

Cost-recovery

The operation ratio (O) of a certain water service provider reflects its cost-recovery situation. It is computed by the following formula:

 

where O is the operation cost, C is the total annual cost, and R is the annual revenue. An operation ratio under 1 means that revenues cover the costs of operation and maintenance. In a study last 2004, only 5 out of 45 had an operating ratio of more than 1, reflecting a poor operation ratio among the majority of the participating utilities. All the loss-making providers were operated directly by LGUs and were mostly characterized by a high share of non-revenue water, poor service continuity, low tariffs, and low coverage within their respective service areas. The five best-performing service providers consisted of four water districts and one private operator.[39]

Investment

According to the World Bank, investment in water supply and sanitation from 1983 to 2003 has been far below the required levels to maintain assets, to expand access and to improve service quality. Total investment has fluctuated at around ₱3–4 billion a year, while the cost of implementing the Clean Water Act of 2004 has been estimated at up to P35 billion a year.[40]

Political Aspects

History

From the Philippines' independence in 1946 until 1955, most water supply systems were operated by local authorities. From 1955 to 1971, control of urban water supply was passed to the national government.[41] In order to improve service delivery, the sector has been repeatedly subjected to extensive reforms which created numerous institutions and responsibilities. However, comprehensive water resources management was only introduced in 2004.

Pre-Marcos Administration

The Manila Waterworks Authority, founded in 1878, became part of the National Waterworks and Sewerage Authority (NAWASA) when it was founded in 1955.[42]

Marcos Administration (1965–1986)

  • 1971. NAWASA was transformed into the Metropolitan Waterworks and Sewerage System (MWSS) under the government of Ferdinand Marcos. MWSS was made responsible for service provision in Metro Manila, whereas other municipal and provincial water and sewerage systems in about 1,500 cities and towns were transferred back to local governments.[42]
  • 1973. A new management model for urban water supply was introduced: LGUs were encouraged to form utilities called Water Districts which would operate with a certain degree of autonomy from LGUs. They would receive technical assistance and financial support from the newly created Local Water Utilities Administration (LWUA).[41]
  • 1976. The National Water Resources Board (NWRB) was created through the National Water Code of the Philippines to coordinate policies concerning water resources.[43]
  • 1980. The Rural Waterworks Development Corporation (RWDC) was founded. It is responsible for water supply in areas where neither MWSS nor LWUA carries out the service or assists the LGUs, respectively. The RWDC was expected to create rural water supply associations in order to construct, operate, and maintain their own water supply systems in communities with fewer than 20,000 inhabitants.[41][44] It was also the beginning of the United Nations' International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade (1980–1989). The Integrated Water Supply Program (1980–2000) was initiated by the national government. Its main objective was to increase water coverage to 70% of the Filipino population by 1987 and 90% by 1992. Consequently, the development of the sector was supported with great effort: Between 1978 and 1990, more than US$120 million was invested in 11 rural water supply projects. Nevertheless, toward the end of the decade, only 4,400 functioning rural water systems, about 5% of the 96,200 potential systems, existed in the country. Many of the recently constructed systems failed shortly after completion, partly due to poor construction and service.[45] The Asian Development Bank (ADB) found that insufficient community participation may have led to inadequate operation and maintenance.[46]


Aquino Administration (1986-1992)

  • 1987. The Local Water Utilities Administration took over the work of Rural Waterworks Development Corporation (RWDS) which had been created only seven years earlier.[47] The Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Master Plan of 1988 provided for the installation of 81,900 rural water supply systems by 1991. The Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH) was expected to construct and rehabilitate Level I water wells, rainwater collectors, and springs. Every barangay should receive at least one additional potable water source. In addition, the Department of Local Government and Community Development (DLGCD) was given the task of training local water user associations in the operation and maintenance of water facilities.[48]
  • 1991. Under the Local Government Code, certain infrastructure functions were devolved to LGUs. Barangays, municipalities, provinces, and cities were authorized to finance, operate, and maintain their own water supply systems.
  • 1992. According to the Medium-Term Philippine Development Plan of 1983–1998, 80% of the rural population was provided with Level I water supply services at the end of Aquino's term of office in 1992. 61% had direct service connections in Metro Manila and 47% in other urban areas of the country were covered by Level II and III water systems.[43][49]

Ramos Administration (1992-1998)

Further information: Water privatization in Metro Manila

The planning, preparation, and implementation of the privatization of the Metropolitan Waterworks and Sewerage System (MWSS) occurred under the Ramos administration.[50]

  • 1995. The Water Crisis Act was passed, providing the legal framework for the privatization of MWSS. Private participation was implemented through a concession contract in which the concessionaires were assigned the task of operating and managing the facilities while MWSS preserved the ownership of the infrastructure.[51] In order to facilitate benchmark comparisons, the service area of Metro Manila was divided into two zones.
  • 1996. The plan to privatize Metropolitan Waterworks and Sewerage System (MWSS) emerged from the inability of the public utility to expand coverage to the growing population. By 1996, MWSS only provided the water supply for an average of 16 hours each day to two-thirds of its coverage population. According to the ADB, the share of non-revenue water (NRW), water which is not billed (e.g., due to leakage and illegal connections), was over 60% --- an extremely high percentage compared to other developing countries.[52]
  • 1997. The Maynilad Water Services, Inc. was awarded the concession contract for the West Zone, while the Manila Water Company, Inc. was awarded the East Zone of Metro Manila. The concession contracts, which are expected to last for 25 years, included targets concerning coverage, service quality, and economic efficiency. The objective was to increase water coverage in Metro Manila to 96% by 2006. The companies were expected to be regulated by the newly created MWSS Regulatory Office, financed by the concessionaires. After the concession came into force, public opposition soon emerged due to repeated tariff increases. However, it is worth mentioning that tariffs decreased after privatization in 1997, and did not reach the pre-privatization level until 2001 or 2002. Private concessionaires suffered from a severe drought and the Asian financial crisis of 1997.[53]

Estrada Administration (1998–2001)

According to the Medium-Term Philippine Development Plan (MTPDP) of 1998 up to 2004, the Estrada administration's main objectives concerning water were to (i) create an independent regulatory agency, (ii) develop a pricing mechanism that considers cost recovery, (iii) strengthen the implementation of watershed rules, and (iv) encourage private participation in water resources administration.[54]

Arroyo Administration (2001-2010)

Because of the rapid currency devaluation, MWSS' dollar-denominated debt service doubled. Consequently, tariffs continued to rise, and targets concerning coverage and NRW were adjusted downward with the agreement of the regulatory agency. Maynilad went bankrupt in 2003 and was turned over to MWSS in 2005. On the other hand, Manila Water had begun to make profits by 1999 and performed well financially and in reducing NRW.[55]

  • 2001-2004. Arroyo continued to support private participation schemes and began to pursue Economies of scale in the sector. Furthermore, her MTPDP for this period called for the creation of a single regulatory agency for all water supply and sanitation systems.[56] After this attempt failed, Economic regulation for LGUs and water districts were assigned to NWRB.[13]
  • 2004. The Philippines Clear Water Act was passed to improve water quality and prevent pollution through comprehensive and integrated water management. The act was the first attempt of the Philippine government in consolidating different laws concerning water resources management as well as water supply and sanitation.[57] The main objective of the act was to improve sanitation and wastewater treatment in the country.[58]
  • 2006. In December, an 84%-stake in Maynilad was competitively awarded by MWSS to an all-Filipino partnership with a construction company DM Consunji Holdings, Inc. (DMCI) and a telecommunications/real estate company Metro Pacific Investments Corporation (MPIC) for a sales price of US$503.9 million. The concession was hailed by the financial industry, receiving AsiaMoney's Country Deal of the Year 2007 and CFO Asia's one of 10 best deals in Asia.[59]
  • 2008. On August 27, Prospero Pichay was appointed chairman of the board of the Local Waterworks and Utilities Administration (LWUA), replacing acting chair Proceso Domingo. At the same time its domestic and foreign borrowing authority was proposed to be extended to $900 million, upon the approval of Department of Finance and the Central Bank, the Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas.[60][61]

Aquino Administration (2010–2016)

  • 2013. The Bottom-Up Budgeting (BUB) Project was implemented by the administration, in its National Budget, to fund projects that would help the country attain its Millennium Development Goals of inclusive growth and poverty reduction. In promoting good governance in the local level by having local governments listen to their constituents in terms of budgeting processes, the National Budget was guided to respond to the urgent needs of the people as identified at the grassroots level.[62]
  • 2014. Another program of the administration, through the Department of the Interior and Local Government, is the Sagana at Ligtas na Tubig Para sa Lahat (SALINTUBIG) program that aims to provide clean and potable water supply to almost 455 waterless municipalities in the Philippines. As of 2014, 253 projects and 118 more are ongoing all over the country.[63]
  • 2015. The BUB project proved to be a success as the Department of the Interior and Local Government, spearheaded by Secretary Mar Roxas, was able to build a potable water system supporting 385 households in Mati City, Davao Oriental. At the same time, a health station was constructed that is posed to benefit 2,375 households through the BUB project by the Department of Health. With a budget of P410 Million, for BUB projects in Davao Oriental, government projects are geared towards a safer and healthier future for all.[64]

Policy

General policies concerning the water and sanitation sector are formulated by the National Economic and Development Authority (NEDA) in its MTPDP. Since the 1990s, private sector participation and decentralization are the main objectives of water policies.[43] The MTPDP of 2004 up to 2010 aimed at extending the coverage of potable water to 92%–96% by 2010 through public and private investments, with priority given to 400 barangays with poor water supply coverage.[65]

The Department of Public Works and Highways provides technical assistance in rural water supply systems. National standards for drinking water quality, as well as standards concerning sanitation and sewerage collection, are set by the Department of Health.[66] The Philippine Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) is the lead ministry for implementing water sector legislation,[67] whereas the Department of Finance takes the lead in financing water policies at the national level. The National Water Resources Board (NWRB) under the DENR is responsible for water resources management.[68]

The responsibilities are defined by the 1976 National Water Code and the 2004 Clean Water Act, which consolidated laws on water supply and sanitation and water resources management.

1976 National Water Code (PD 1067)[69]

Regarded as Presidential Decree No. 1067, dated December 31, 1976, the 1976 National Water Code was an effort of then-President Ferdinand E. Marcos that aimed to strengthen water legislations in the face of the increasing scarcity of water and its changing water patterns. The Water Code was an intended solution to revise and consolidate regulations made on the ownership, appropriation, utilization, exploitation, development, conservation, and protection of water resources in the country. Founded on the principle that "All waters belong to the State," the National Water Resources Council was then created and tasked to control and regulate the use and development of water resources on behalf of the government.

Regulations were made through the acquisition of water permits, given to persons not limited to government-owned and controlled corporations, for water appropriation and usage. Specifications were included on the maximum amount of water diverted or withdrawn, the maximum rate of diversion or withdrawal, and the times during the year when water may be diverted or withdrawn. Instances may also arise where water permits are revoked on cases of non-use, violation of the conditions imposed by the council, unauthorized sale of water, pollution, and public acts detrimental to public health and safety.

In declared flood control areas, rules and regulations are administered to prohibit and control activities that may damage and cause deterioration of the lakes and dikes, changes in the natural flow of the river, and increases in flood losses or intensified floods. Watersheds, or areas of land adjacent to any surface water or overlying any groundwater, are to be declared as protected areas of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources. These efforts ensure the quality of water defined by a standard set by the National Pollution Council Commission according to the different uses of water. Except for those functions under the Code that may fall under specific government agencies, the council is given the power to make all necessary decisions and determinations provided for in the said Code. The Council may provide accompanying penalties consisting of fines not exceeding one thousand pesos (P1,000.00) and/or the suspensions or revocation of water permits or any rights given to use water as well as enforce its decisions with the assistance of local and national police agencies.

Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004 (RA 9275)[70]

Republic Act 9275 provides for a comprehensive water quality management policy amidst economic growth. The policy provides for the consistent protection, preservation, and revival of the quality of Philippine waters with frameworks patterned through the pursuit of sustainable development. Importantly provided for by this act are Water Quality Management Systems and Institutional Mechanisms.

Water Quality Management Systems involve area designations by the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR), national sewage and septage management programs, and allocation of special funds to support and maintain water quality. Areas that have similar hydrogeological conditions, which affect the physicochemical, biological, and bacteriological reactions and diffusions of pollutants in the water bodies, are declared as Water Quality Management Areas. The management area is governed by a DENR representative as chair and board members composed of representatives from local government units (LGUs), relevant national government agencies, registered non-governmental organizations, water utility sectors, and the business sector. On the other hand, water bodies with specific pollutants that have exceeded the guidelines for water quality are identified as Non-attainment Areas. LGUs are tasked to prepare and implement contingency plans, such as relocations, for the protection of the health and welfare of the residents, while the government improves the affected quality of water within the potentially affected areas.

Funds administered by the DENR, and other concerned agencies, are on special accounts in the National Treasury to be utilized in financing containment and clean-up operations in water pollution cases; restorations of ecosystems and rehabilitation of affected areas; research, enforcement and monitoring activities; technical assistance to implementing agencies; grants as rewards and incentives; and other disbursements made solely for the prevention, control of water pollution and administration of the management areas in the amounts authorized by the Department.

Wastewater charges are also established to provide a strong economic inducement for polluters to modify their production or management processes or to invest in pollution control technology in order to reduce the number of water pollutants generated in their discharge of wastewater into water bodies. Owners, or operators of facilities, that discharge regulated waste are then required to secure discharge permits.

Institutional Mechanisms emphasized the collaborative efforts made in the hopes of having cleaner and better quality water through the Lead Agency (DENR); the Roles of Local Government Units in sharing the responsibility of maintaining and improving water quality within their territorial jurisdictions; the Business and Industry Role in formulating incentives for the adoption of innovative equipment and processes that preserve and protect water bodies; and Linkage Mechanisms through partnerships with government agencies and departments such as the Philippine Coast Guard, DPWH, Department of Agriculture (DA), DOH, Department of Science and Technology (DOST), Department of Education (DepEd), Commission on Higher Education (CHED) and Department of the Interior and the Local Government (DILG).

Government Agencies and Institutions

Local Water Utilities Administration (LWUA)

The Local Water Utilities Administration is a specialized lending institution that promotes and oversees the development of provincial waterworks. It is also entrusted with setting water quality and service standards for water districts. Furthermore, it provides technical assistance and is sometimes involved in the districts through board members.[71]

P.D. 198 (May 25, 1973), the Provincial Water Utilities Act of 1973 created LWUA and the water districts.[72] The decree authorized the formation, on local option basis, of autonomous water districts to develop the local water supply systems and the establishment of a national-level agency to cater to the needs of these water districts. According to the LWUA website, to date, it has established 584 water districts covering about 691 cities and towns outside Metro Manila. It has completed a total of 1,431 water supply projects while extending P 17 billion in loans to the districts of which P11 million has been availed to the benefit of some 12 million Filipinos with improved water.[73]

National Water and Resources Board (NWRB)

Main article: National Water Resources Board (Philippines)

The National Water Resources Board is the forefront government agency that handles the Philippines' water sectors' policies, regulations, and quasi-judicial functions. It acts accordingly with the principles of the Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) as it ensures the efficiency, conservation, utilization, development, and protection of the state's water supply.

Rural Waterworks Development Corporation (RWDC)

Executive Order No. 577 which was passed last January 12, 1980, aims to provide full coverage of water supply services in the country. In line with this, Rural Waterworks Development Corporation was established to bring and administer water supply in areas with less than 20,000 as population. RWDC works together with LWUA in determining areas under their jurisdiction.

Department of the Interior and Local Government

Main article: Department of the Interior and Local Government

Concerning local government-managed systems, the Department of the Interior and Local Government (DILG) define and enforces quality and performance standards. However, in both cases, local governments retain the responsibilities for planning, financing, and regulating water supply.[13]

Philippine Center for Water and Sanitation

The Philippine Center for Water and Sanitation (PCWS) provides technical assistance to local governments, communities, and non-profits on low-cost water supply and sanitation options. It also engages in action research with households. It leads the Philippines water sanitation and health (WASH) coalition of non-profit organizations and local governments. It was created in 1990 under the name of International Training Network (ITN) and adopted its current name in 1998.[74]

Philippine Society of Sanitary Engineers, Inc.

Financing and External Cooperation

Outside the privatized services in Metro Manila, one source of finance for water supply is government grants channeled through the Local Water Utilities Administration (LWUA) and the Municipal Development Funds Office (MDFO). But these are far from sufficient to meet investment needs, which is why loan financing is necessary. Some LGUs obtain loans from public banks such as the Development Bank of the Philippines (DBP) and the Land Bank of the Philippines (LBP), and also from corporations in other countries, such as the World Bank, and JICA from Japan (see below).[75]

External development agencies that work on water supply and sanitation in the Philippines include the ADB, GTZ, JICA, USAID, and the World Bank.

Asian Development Bank (ADB)

The Asian Development Bank (ADB) has assisted the government in increasing sanitized water supply to different sectors in the Philippines. Through the MWSS New Water Source Development Project, approved in 2003 and ended in October 2008, ADB has contributed a total of US$3.26 million, whereas MWSS provided US$1.71 million. The joint-project sought to develop up to 3 water source projects for Metro Manila and to improve the financial management as well as the accounting and fiscal control systems of MWSS. In 2008, studies for two water source projects were completed emphasizing environmental and social impacts amidst water quality improvements.[76]

The following report shows information about past performances:

ADB Assistance to Water Supply and Sanitation Sector in the Philippines
Number Title Type Approval

Date

Amount

($ millions)

EA
A Loans
1 190 Manila Water Supply August 28, 1974 51.30 MWSS
2 251 Provincial Cities Water Supply December 16, 1975 16.80 LWUA
3 351 Second Manila Water Supply September 7, 1978 49.00 MWSS
4 457 Manila Sewerage June 24, 1980 42.80 MWSS
5 545 Water Supply Sector November 25, 1981 46.00 LWUA
6 645 Manila Water Supply Rehabilitation October 23, 1983 39.30 MWSS
7 812 Island Provinces Rural Areas Water Supply Sector December 4, 1986 24.00 DPWH
8 947 Second Manila Water Supply Rehabilitation January 24, 1989 26.40 MWSS
9 986 Angat Water Supply Organization November 14, 1989 130.00 MWSS
10 1052 Second Island Provinces Rural Water Supply November 20, 1990 24.00 DPWH

Table only shows a part of the report. For more information, click the link cited above.


In 2013, ADB made preparations of loans for financing (i) the Water District Development Sector Project, (ii) the Urban Water and Sanitation Sector Project, (iii) the Angat Water Transmission Improvement Project, and (iv) future technical assistance and other lending activities to be discussed with the specific government agencies involved.[77]

ADB was also able to release a report on the assessments of current conditions and constraints to developing water supply and sanitation in the country, strategies to be implemented to counter and solve these constraints, and road maps and plans on a sustainable sanitation reality for all. The Philippine Sustainable Sanitation Roadmap and Plan (PSSR), included in the report, served as a guide for water sanitation efforts as it presented the vision, goals, outcomes, outputs, activities, and inputs needed to achieve an improved water quality nationwide. Approved by the subcommittee on Water Resources in 2010, the Department of Health (DOH) has agreed to spearhead the agenda by preparing a national sustainable sanitation plan based on the PSSR. The DILG has also aligned its water and sanitation strategy with the requirements of the PSSR.[78]

German Corporation for International Cooperation (GIZ)

The German Corporation for International Cooperation (GTZ, now GIZ) supported the sector through the rural water supply and sanitation program, designed to improve the living conditions of the poor in selected rural areas of the country. The program sought to overcome the institutional confusion and to strengthen governmental organizations at the national, provincial, and municipal levels. Its main partner was the Department of the Interior and Local Government (DILG). In addition, the decentralization plan of the National Water Resources Board was supported. The program, which ran from 2006 to 2009, helped to introduce low-cost options for sanitation, such as urine-diverting dry toilets, and the first Philippine constructed wetland, treating wastewater from about 700 households in Bayawan.[27][79]

World Bank

The World Bank supports the Philippine water supply and sanitation sector through various projects, often in collaboration with the government and the Land Bank of the Philippines.

Manila Third Sewerage Project

In 2007, the World Bank approved an investment loan of US$5 million. The project aimed to (i) assist the Philippine government in reforming institutions in order to attract private investment in the wastewater sector, (ii) improve the coordination of institutions responsible for preventing water pollution, and (iii) promote innovative wastewater treatment techniques. The project, which ran from 2007 to 2012, provided technical assistance as well as support for institutional coordination and private sector involvement.[80]

The project followed the Manila Second Sewerage Project, which was carried out from 1996 to 2005. After the privatization of MWSS, it was restructured in order to adapt it to the new institutional framework. The objectives were to (i) reduce the pollution of waterways in Metro Manila and its surrounding bays, (ii) reduce the health risks caused by human exposure to sewage in Metro Manila, and (iii) establish a gradual low-cost improvement of sewerage services in Metro Manila. From 1997 to 2005, the number of people with sewer connections increased from 721,000 to 1,101,000 and the population with regularly desludging septic tanks rose from only 1,600 to 288,000. The total cost of the project was US$48.06 million.[81]

Urban Water and Sanitation Project APL2

This project aimed to reach approximately 40 LGU-operated water systems, which were given technical assistance and financial support. The four components of the project were: to (i) finance civil works, equipment, and supervision for improved water supply systems in LGUs, including private sector participation where feasible, (ii) finance improved sanitation infrastructure, (iii) provide investment and assistance in micro-drainage infrastructure, and (iv) provide funds for the hiring of a construction supervision consultant and specialized consultants. The World Bank decided to contribute through a US$30 million loan to the project, while the remaining US$5.2 million are financed by local institutions. The project began in 2001 and ended in 2008.[82]

The World Bank supports private sector participation through Design-Build-Lease contracts and Long-Term Operation and Maintenance contracts between LGUs and private operators. Therefore, the Development Bank of the Philippines (DBP) and the Land Bank of the Philippines (LBP) channel financing from the World Bank to LGUs, which engage private operators. Under the Design-Build-Lease contracts, valid for 15 years and renewable for an additional 15 years, a local private operator prepares, builds, and operates a new water supply system. A World Bank loan channeled through the DBP finances 90% of the construction cost, and the remainder is contributed through the LGU. The water tariff must cover expenses for operation and maintenance, as well as a lease fee and a return for the private operator.

Long-Term Operation and Maintenance contracts are used in LGUs which recruit a private company to construct a new water supply system and later engage water associations or user cooperatives to operate the system under the contracts, which are awarded for 15 years with the possibility of renewal for another 15 years. Similar to the Design-Build-Operate contracts, 90% of the construction cost of the water system is financed with a World Bank loan channeled through the LBP. The water user groups are required to work under commercial rules. They have full administrative, accounting and financial autonomy.[75]

Metro Manila Wastewater Management Project (MWMP)

Last 2012, the World Bank was able to approve a budget of $275 million for a project aimed at improving wastewater collection and treatment practices in several catchment areas of Metro Manila as well as Manila Bay's water quality. Also called the Metro Manila Wastewater Management Program (MWMP), this project supports investments from the Manila Water Company, Inc. (MWCI) and Maynilad Water Services, Inc. in increasing collection and wastewater treatment primarily from households and establishments in the area. The project is divided into 2 components as MWCI takes charge of the east zone and Maynilad the west zone, of the metropolitan.[83]

With a budget of $193.4 million, investments by Manila Water include: (i) a sewage treatment plant, and the necessary sewage lines, covering North and South Pasig, (ii) the carrying out of other wastewater management investment sub-projects agreed upon by the government, Land Bank of the Philippines, World Bank and MWCI.

With a budget of $178.3 million, investments by Maynilad include: (i) sewage treatment plants and associated wastewater conveyance systems in Quezon City, Pasay, Alabang, Muntinlupa, Valenzuela, and (ii) a septage treatment plant in the southern part of Metro Manila.[84]

With about 2 million cubic meters of wastewater generated daily, and only 17% of them getting treated before disposal to water bodies around the metro, water pollution has destroyed most of Manila Bay and the nearby Laguna de Bay. Manila Water and Maynilad have both conceptualized a 25-year program that ensures 100% wastewater collection and treatment for Metro Manila. With the MWMP, their efforts would be supported and would not only aid in improving the current state of the surrounding environment but also contribute a boost in recreational and tourism opportunities.[84]

Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA)

The Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), along with the international community striving to achieve the targets of United Nations' Millennium Development Goals (MDG), has been campaigning to make a significant reduction in the number of people who still lack access to safe drinking water. Reliable water resources management, improvement of access to water supply in urban areas, reduction of non-revenue water (NRW), improvement of water/energy use, sustainable rural water supply, and promotion of improved sanitation in developing countries are the main issues that JICA prioritizes. In 2008, through the Development Bank of the Philippines, about $200 million was loaned to the Philippines to fund local governments and domestic private-sector companies for the development of water supply and sewerage facilities. Despite the establishment of funding, financing will only be granted to water utilities if the business management improves, hence JICA actively assists the water supply utilities' capacity development through practical cooperation with financial aid. JICA not only works to improve access to safe drinking water in urban areas of developing countries, but also aids water facilities with business planning and management.[85]

Issues

Drinking water quality

Water quality usually does not meet the standards set by the national government, especially in urban areas. As a result, waterborne diseases remain to be a severe public health concern in the country. About 4,200 people die each year due to contaminated drinking water.[26]

Non-revenue water

Non-revenue water (NRW) is defined as the difference between the amount of water put into the distribution system and the amount of water billed to consumers. It is usually used as an indicator for water utility performance. High levels of non-revenue water usually indicate low-quality water utility. It has three components:

  • Physical losses, which consist of leakage from the system caused by poor operations and maintenance, the lack of active leakage control, and poor quality of underground assets.
  • Commercial losses, caused by under-registration of water meters, errors in data handling, and theft.
  • Unbilled authorized consumption, which includes water used by a specific utility for operational purposes (e.g. firefighting and specific consumer groups).

Non-revenue water decreased in the East Zone of Metro Manila since privatization. In 1996, Manila had an NRW of 61%, while capital cities from other Asian countries ranged from having 35–38%. In 2002, NRW dropped to 53% in the East Zone. On the other hand, non-revenue water in the West Zone increased as the primary waterwork utility encountered severe financial problems.[86] According to Manila Water, one of the private concessionaires, the share of NRW continued to fall until the end of 2010 where it reached 11%.[87]

According to the National Water Resources Board (NWRB), the average share of NRW among participating service providers was 27.5% in 2004. The particularly high NRW of Manila's West Zone was confirmed to have a record with 68%. Generally, the smaller utilities performed better concerning NRW than the larger ones. However, many NRW data are based on estimates, given the fact that only 15 of the 45 service providers had 100% production and consumption metering coverage.[88]

Labor Productivity

The number of staff was reduced at the Metropolitan Waterworks and Sewerage System (MWSS) after privatization. On average, 10 employees were responsible for 1,000 connections in 1996. Fast forward to 2002, only about 4 employees were left, reflecting a decrease of around 58%.[86] According to LWUA, only about 7 employees per 1,000 connections worked in water districts in 2002.[89] In contrast to water districts, LGUs have an average of 21 employees per 1,000 connections in 2002. However, small LGUs still suffer from their low number of total connections.[90]

Other challenges

The NWRB Philippines Towns Water Utilities 2004 Data Book found an average of 7 employees per 1,000 connections in 2004. On average, private utilities performed best and systems directly managed by LGUs performed worst. Not surprisingly, providers with more than 10,000 connections need significantly fewer employees per connection than those with fewer than 10,000 connections.[91]

 
The Pasig River in Manila, one of the world's most polluted rivers.

Population and Pollution

One-third of Philippine river systems are considered suitable for public water supply.[92] It is estimated that in 2025, water availability will be marginal in most major cities and in 8 of the 19 major river basins.[93] Besides severe health concerns, water pollution also leads to problems in the Fishing and Tourism industries.[94] The national government recognized the problem and, since 2004, has sought to introduce sustainable water resources development management.[57]

With rapid increases in population, urbanization, and industrialization, the quality of Philippine's waters has been reduced, especially in densely populated areas and regions of industrial and agricultural activities.[95] According to data from the DENR and PEM, domestic, agricultural and industrial wastewater are the three main sources of water pollution. These are also known as "point sources" that emanate toxic substances into "non-point sources" or certain bodies of water. Domestic wastewater consists of sewage containing organic waste, solids, and coliforms produced by domestic activities such as laundry, bathing, cooking, and other kitchen activities. Agricultural wastewater, the major source of pollution in rural areas, contains pollutants resulting from agricultural and livestock activities like the maintenance of piggeries which usually do not have proper wastewater treatment facilities. Different industries also contribute largely to water pollution. Industrial activities such as slaughterhouses, and manufacturing of food, textile, and paper emit large amounts of organic waste.[4]

El Niño and Global Warming

El Niño, a weather phenomenon occurring about every two to seven years when warm water in the western tropical Pacific Ocean shifts Eastward, causing ocean temperatures to rise, last developed in the country in late 2014. For the past several decades, it has been observed that its occurrence has increased due to climate change as a result of global warming. Its negative impacts may either be heavy rainfall or drought. El Niño greatly impacts the power supply, water supply, and agricultural sectors of the country. The reduced rainfall leading to drought causes a shortage in water supply, leading to water rationing in some situations, as well as hydropower and food shortage.[96]

 
The La Mesa Watershed is the only remaining rainforest of its size in Metro Manila, Philippines.

Denudation of Forest Cover

The supply of water from most freshwater bodies usually comes from watersheds --- patches of forest cover that absorb rainwater and channel it into streams, rivers, and eventually dams were many human communities (especially Metro Manila) source their freshwater.[97] Despite the role of the forest in the replenishment and maintenance of both ground and surface water, the Philippines is considered to be one of the most severely deforested countries in the tropics as it has lost more than 97% of its original forest cover in the last 50 years.[98]

Saltwater Intrusion

Metro Manila is one of the areas in most risk of saltwater intrusion. Since the late 1960s, saline water intrusion has been evident along with the coastal areas of Metro Manila, stretching from Las Pinas to Malabon. The shallow water table aquifer is in direct contact with the sea in these coastal areas. The over-pumping of groundwater results to cones of depression which increases the risk of saltwater intrusion. According to a joint study by MWSS and JICA in 1991, most groundwater samples from Metro Manila's coastal areas were salinized. However, compared to the early 1980s, the saline intrusion was found to have improved conditions because of the conversion of water source from groundwater to surface water upon the completion of the Manila Water Supply Project II in 1987. Aside from excessive withdrawal of groundwater, seepage of brackish water along the Pasig River is another cause of saltwater intrusion because of seawater movement during tides.[99]

See also

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  89. ^ National Economic and Development Authority (NEDA) (2004). (PDF). Medium-Term Philippine Development Plan. Philippines. ISSN 0119-3880. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 6, 2007. Retrieved April 10, 2008. , p. 122
  90. ^ World Bank Water and Sanitation Program – East Asia and the Pacific (June 6, 2003). (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on October 27, 2007. Retrieved April 8, 2008. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help), p. 10
  91. ^ National Water Resources Board (NWRB); Local Water Utilities Administration (LWUA); Department of the Interior and Local Government (DILG) Water and Sanitation Program (WSP) World Bank. "Philippines Towns Water Utilities 2004 Data Book": 12, 16. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  92. ^ Asian Development Bank (ADB) (August 2009). "Country Environmental Analysis for Philippines". Retrieved April 16, 2008. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  93. ^ Asian Development Bank; Asia-Pacific Water Forum (2007). Country Paper Philippines. Asian Water Development Outlook 2007. Asian Development Bank. ISBN 9789814136068. Retrieved April 14, 2008., p. 8
  94. ^ World Bank (December 2003). "Philippines Environment Monitor 2003" (PDF). Retrieved April 16, 2008. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help), p. 18–19
  95. ^ "State of water: Philippines". www.wepa-db.net. Retrieved November 9, 2015.
  96. ^ "How El Niño could affect the Philippines in 2015". Rappler. Retrieved November 10, 2015.
  97. ^ "Bulacan deforestation 'drying up' Metro Manila water supply". Rappler. Retrieved November 9, 2015.
  98. ^ "Turning the Tide: Improving Water Resource Management in the Philippines" (PDF). Policy Brief: Senate Economic Planning Office. August 2011. Retrieved October 3, 2015.
  99. ^ "Metro Manila and Metro Cebu Groundwater Assessment" (PDF). Philippine Institute for Development Studies. February 2001. Retrieved October 2, 2015.

External links

Service providers

  • Metropolitan Waterworks and Sewerage System (MWSS)
  • Manila Water Company (Concessionaire of the East Zone of Metro Manila)
  • Maynilad Water Services, Inc. (Concessionaire of the West Zone of Metro Manila)
  • Philippine Association of Water Districts
  • Local Water Utilities Administration
  • Metropolitan Waterworks and Sewerage System Regulatory Office
  • National Water Resources Board (NWRB)
  • Philippine Water Partnership

January 01, 2023
water, supply, sanitation, philippines, philippines, water, supply, system, dates, back, 1946, after, country, declared, independence, government, agencies, local, institutions, government, organizations, other, corporations, primarily, charge, operation, admi. The Philippines water supply system dates back to 1946 after the country declared independence Government agencies local institutions non government organizations and other corporations are primarily in charge of the operation and administration of water supply and sanitation in the country Contents 1 Sources of water 2 Usage 2 1 Agricultural 2 2 Industrial 2 3 Domestic 3 Service provision 3 1 Levels of water systems 3 2 Service providers 3 2 1 Local Government Units 3 2 2 Water Districts 3 2 3 Large scale Private Operators 3 2 4 Small scale independent providers 4 Access 4 1 Water supply 4 2 Sewage and Sanitation 5 Economic Aspects 5 1 Water bill information 5 1 1 Current charges before tax 5 1 2 Value Added Tax 5 1 3 Other charges 5 1 4 Previous Unpaid Amount 5 2 Tariffs 5 3 Cost recovery 5 4 Investment 6 Political Aspects 6 1 History 6 1 1 Pre Marcos Administration 6 1 2 Marcos Administration 1965 1986 6 1 3 Aquino Administration 1986 1992 6 1 4 Ramos Administration 1992 1998 6 1 5 Estrada Administration 1998 2001 6 1 6 Arroyo Administration 2001 2010 6 1 7 Aquino Administration 2010 2016 6 2 Policy 6 2 1 1976 National Water Code PD 1067 69 6 2 2 Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004 RA 9275 70 6 3 Government Agencies and Institutions 6 3 1 Local Water Utilities Administration LWUA 6 3 2 National Water and Resources Board NWRB 6 3 3 Rural Waterworks Development Corporation RWDC 6 3 4 Department of the Interior and Local Government 6 3 5 Philippine Center for Water and Sanitation 6 3 6 Philippine Society of Sanitary Engineers Inc 7 Financing and External Cooperation 7 1 Asian Development Bank ADB 7 2 German Corporation for International Cooperation GIZ 7 3 World Bank 7 3 1 Manila Third Sewerage Project 7 3 2 Urban Water and Sanitation Project APL2 7 3 3 Metro Manila Wastewater Management Project MWMP 7 3 4 Japan International Cooperation Agency JICA 8 Issues 8 1 Drinking water quality 8 2 Non revenue water 8 3 Labor Productivity 8 4 Other challenges 8 4 1 Population and Pollution 8 4 2 El Nino and Global Warming 8 4 3 Denudation of Forest Cover 8 4 4 Saltwater Intrusion 9 See also 10 References 11 External links 11 1 Service providersSources of water Edit The Ambuklao Dam and Hydroelectric Power Plant in Bokod Benguet Philippines The Philippines main sources of water are rivers lakes river basins and groundwater reservoirs The longest and largest river Cagayan River discharges approximately 53 943 million cubic meters of water annually Its groundwater reserves are 47 895 million cubic meters replenished by rainfall and seepage from rivers and lakes The lakes are utilized mainly for fish cultivation The four major groundwater reservoirs are in Cagayan Central Luzon Agusan and Cotabato There are 438 major dams and 423 smaller dams Dams and reservoirs are mainly used for water storage water supply irrigation regulation of flood and hydropower 1 The water in the metropolitan area of Manila is mostly supplied by the Angat Dam Ipo Dam and La Mesa Dam also known as Angat Ipo La Mesa water system Well known and larger dams in the rural areas include Ambuklao Dam developed for flood control irrigation and hydroelectric power source of Baguio and some regions in Luzon and Magat Dam irrigation and hydroelectric power source in Isabela Usage Edit28 52 billion m3 of water were withdrawn from various sources in the Philippines in 2000 74 21 10 billion m3 was used for agricultural purposes 9 2 57 billion m3 for industrial processes and 17 4 85 billion m3 for domestic consumption 2 Agricultural Edit Agricultural water management in the Philippines is primarily focused on irrigation The country has 3 126 million hectares of irrigable land 50 1 567 million hectares of which already has irrigation facilities 50 of irrigated areas are developed and operated by the government through the National Irrigation System NIS 36 is developed by the government and operated by irrigators associations through the Communal Irrigation System while the remaining 14 is developed and operated by an individual or small groups of farmers through a Private Irrigation System PIS 3 Industrial Edit The uses of water for industrial purposes include the utilization of water in factories industrial plants and mines and the use of water as an ingredient of a finished product 4 Water intensive industries are involved in the manufacturing of food and dairy pulp and chemical products as well as textile materials These industries are usually found in the National Capital Region Calabarzon and Region III In a 1999 study by the United Nations Industrial Development Organization UNIDO the intensive use of water in the industry is critical in terms of the production of hazardous wastes Thousands of tons of solvent wastes heavy metals lubricants and intractable wastes are improperly disposed of annually in Metro Manila 5 Domestic Edit According to a 1996 study by David and Inocencio the medium of water provision is dependent on the income class of a certain household Higher income brackets usually rely on private waterworks as a source of water while lower income brackets usually consume less by depending on vended water sold by those with access to private waterworks Lower income households pay much higher water prices than higher income households due to lack of access to water service providers 6 Service provision EditIn 2000 the average water production was 175 liters per day per capita L d c 7 According to the National Water Resources Board NWRB the average consumption of water was 118 L d c in 2004 The highest consumption was recorded in the East Zone of Metro Manila as 232 L d c 8 Levels of water systems EditAccording to a 2005 World Bank study approximately 5 000 service providers exist in the Philippines 9 Most of them only provide water since sanitation is expected to be a private responsibility 10 The water infrastructure provided is classified into three levels The handpump is an example of a Level I water system Levels of water systems in the Philippines 11 Level I Stand alone water points e g handpumps shallow wells rainwater collectors serving an average of 15 households within a 250 meter distanceLevel II Piped water with a communal water point e g borewell spring system serving an average of 4 6 households within a 25 meter distanceLevel III Piped water supply with a private water point e g house connection based on daily water demand of more than 100 liters per personService providers Edit According to the Joint Monitoring Programme JMP for Water Supply and Sanitation of UNICEF and WHO access to an improved water source increased from 85 in 1990 to 92 in 2010 12 Local Government Units Edit Most households in the Philippines are provided water by their Local Government Units LGUs either directly through a city or municipal engineering department or through community based organizations CBOs CBOs involved in water supply include 200 cooperatives 3 100 Barangay Water and Sanitation Associations BWSAs and 500 Rural Water Supply Associations RWSAs 13 CBOs usually operate Level I or Level II water supply systems with support from the national government or non governmental organizations NGOs In many cases the CBOs later convert Level I and II facilities into Level III supply systems Typically all LGU operated arrangements do not recover their full costs and rely heavily on local government subsidies 14 Water Districts Edit Local Water Utilities Administration LWUA Seal A water district is a utility that is legally and financially separate from the municipality In urban areas outside of Metro Manila water districts served around 15 3 million people from 861 municipalities in 2011 To form a water district the local government needs confirmation from the Local Water Utilities Administration LWUA a specialized lending institution for provincial waterworks from which it will receive technical assistance and financial support The local government appoints the board members of the water districts This system typically has better performance and higher cost recovery than water systems that are run directly by municipalities The Philippine Association of Water Districts PAWD fosters the exchange of experiences between water districts and provides training to its members 15 In 2010 USAID and the ADB agreed to support PAWD in establishing a national Water Operators Partnerships WOPs program that promotes twinning partnerships among Water Districts 16 Large scale Private Operators Edit The zones of Metro Manila allocated to Maynilad Water red and Manila Water blue In Metro Manila water service has been carried out by two private concessionaires since 1997 The Manila Water Company in the East Zone and Maynilad Water Services Inc in the West Zone Although national government has supported private service providers since the 1990s there are few arrangements outside of Metro Manila Joint ventures exist in Tagbilaran City and in Subic Bay 17 These private water service providers provide Level III services together with water districts Small scale independent providers Edit A significant share of the population in urban areas receive services from small scale independent providers It was estimated that before privatization in the late 1990s 30 of the population of Metro Manila depended on them majority buying water in bulk from water providers to sell it on to individual users 18 There are also some cases of cooperation by concessionaires and independent providers 19 In August 2007 250 small scale providers formed the National Water and Sanitation Association of the Philippines NAWASA as a gathering avenue for small scale water service providers 20 Benchmarking of water utility models 21 Local Government Units LGU Water Districts Private OperatorsLevel of Service Level I II and III Level III Level IIIAvailability hours per day 19 23 22Consumption liters per capita per day 112 120 144Staff per 100 connections 8 7 6Tariff Philippine peso per cubic meter 7 60 17 82 15 37Economic Regulation National Water and Resources Board NWRB National Water and Resources Board NWRB According to contractFinancing Public NGOs Tariffs Local Waterworks and Utilities Administration LWUA Tariffs TariffsAccess EditWater supply Edit Access to water is universal affordable efficient and of high quality The creation of financially sustainable water service providers Water Districts in small and medium towns with the continuous long term support of a national agency the Local Water Utilities Administration LWUA and the improvement of access service quality and efficiency in Manila through two high profile water concessions awarded in 1997 The challenges include limited access to sanitation services high pollution of water resources often poor drinking water quality and poor service quality a fragmentation of executive functions at the national level among numerous agencies and a fragmentation of service provision at the local level into many small service providers citation needed In 2015 92 of the total population had access to at least basic water or 94 in urban areas and 90 in rural areas In 2015 there were still 8 million people without access to at least basic water 22 23 The term at least basic water is a new term since 2016 and is related to the previously used improved water source In earlier years according to the Joint Monitoring Program JMP report in March 2012 43 of the Philippines had access to Level III private water service providers in 2010 Access to an improved water source increased from 84 in 1990 to 92 in 2012 However there is a wide inconsistency between the access to water of urban areas 61 and rural areas 25 Although overall spending remained low the national government has begun increasing investments in sectors outside Metro Manila 24 In 2015 it was reported by the Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation that 74 of the population had access to improved sanitation and that good progress had been made between 1990 and 2015 25 Sewage and Sanitation Edit In 2015 74 of the total population had access to improved sanitation or 78 in urban areas and 71 in rural areas In 2015 there were still 27 million without access to improved sanitation 22 23 In 2005 only 5 of the total population was connected to a sewer network The vast majority used flush toilets connected to septic tanks Since sludge treatment and disposal facilities were rare most effluents were discharged without treatment 26 Within the entire country septic tanks are the most common method of sewage treatment In Metro Manila alone about 75 local companies provide tank desludging services 12 The first Philippine constructed wetland serving about 700 households was completed in 2006 in a peri urban area of Bayawan City which has been used to resettle families that lived along the coast in informal settlements and had no access to safe water supply and sanitation facilities 27 In March 2008 Manila Water announced that a wastewater treatment plant was to be constructed in Taguig 28 Economic Aspects EditWater bill information Edit Current charges before tax Edit Basic charge This covers the cost of operating maintaining improving and expanding the distribution network as well as the facilities responsible for bringing potable water to the end user The Basic Charge is based on the latest approved tariff schedule 29 Foreign Currency Different Adjustment FCDA This is a percentage of the basic charge which accounts for fluctuations of the Philippine Peso against other countries currencies subject to periodic review and adjustment The FCDA for the second quarter of 2015 is 0 18 of the Basic Charge In 2018 the Metropolitan Waterworks and Sewerage System MWSS removed the FCDA in water bills of customers in Metro Manila when the Revised Concession Agreements RCA of Manila s water service providers took into effect 30 Environmental Charge This is for the mitigation of environmental impacts in the course of water and wastewater operation 29 It is 20 of the Basic Charge applicable to all customers 31 Sewer Charge 0 of the Basic Charge is added for Residential and Semi Business customers with a sewer line connection 20 of Basic Charge on the other hand is charged for Commercial and Industrial customers 31 Maintenance Service Charge This covers the maintenance of the water meter The charge changes depending on the size of the water meter 31 For customers of Manila Water in Metro Manila the minimum charge is 1 50 Philippine pesos for a 13mm sized meter 29 Value Added Tax Edit The value added tax VAT is charged by the government and accounts for 12 of the sum of the items included in current charges before tax Other charges Edit These are special miscellaneous charges such as connection fees unscheduled desludging of septic tank service fees etc Previous Unpaid Amount Edit This pertains to charges billed prior to the billing period This should be settled immediately together with the current charges to avoid the disconnection of water service Tariffs Edit The fragmented sector led to different tariff structures and levels according to the respective management model The connection fees which are charged in most of the cases often impede new connections for poverty stricken areas 32 LGU operated systems In LGUs tariff levels and structures vary widely Since most connections are not metered it is difficult to charge tariffs depending on consumption Where LGUs provide Level I or II services they usually charge no or very low tariffs although connection fees are common The costs of providing the service are usually met by local governments 33 The NWRB in its benchmarking project had about half of the average tariff of private operators and water districts The cost of tariff in LGU operated systems is on average lower than other management models 32 In order to introduce cost recovery tariffs and effective regulation the NWRB issued a primer on tariff setting and regulation in March 2005 The document provides the basic guidelines of the tariff setting The manual helps to determine future revenue requirements and to set annual base tariffs based on estimated consumption levels The process of tariff approval as well as the guidelines to prepare the required annual report are described in detail Furthermore the document gives advice on tariff structures and water rate adjustments Water Districts In water districts tariffs increased notably since 1996 The tariff structure is similar to the model used in Metro Manila with an average tariff for the first 10m3 and increasing tariffs for additional consumption 34 At the end of 2006 the national average tariff for 30 m3 was US 0 36 per m3 which is more than double of 1996 33 The NWRB found an average tariff of US 0 41 within a sample of 18 water districts in 2004 which is the highest average tariff of all management models The average connection fee was US 55 somewhat lower than among private operators 32 Metro Manila In the capital region an initial tariff is to be paid for the first 10 m3 consumed with increasing blocks for additional consumption Furthermore consumers connected to sewerage pay an additional charge of 50 and all users must pay a 10 environmental surcharge 35 For new consumers a connection fee is charged which was US 134 in April 2007 in the East Zone 36 For new consumers a connection fee is charged which was US 134 in April 2007 in the East Zone 37 According to the MWSS Regulatory Office just before privatization the average tariff per m3 in Metro Manila was US 0 26 After the concession contracts came into force in 1997 tariffs dropped to US 0 05 East Zone and US 0 12 West Zone In 2006 the average tariff rose to US 0 31 in the East Zone and US 0 43 in the West Zone all figures converted into real 2006 prices While the tariff was highest among private operators the connection fee was higher within water districts Others Users who rely on other sources such as private small scale operators mostly pay more for water In the capital region it is a common practice to buy water from MWSS and resell In this case small scale operators pay a higher tariff than the residential one and pass the higher cost on to the end user 38 Cost recovery Edit The operation ratio O of a certain water service provider reflects its cost recovery situation It is computed by the following formula O C R displaystyle O C R where O is the operation cost C is the total annual cost and R is the annual revenue An operation ratio under 1 means that revenues cover the costs of operation and maintenance In a study last 2004 only 5 out of 45 had an operating ratio of more than 1 reflecting a poor operation ratio among the majority of the participating utilities All the loss making providers were operated directly by LGUs and were mostly characterized by a high share of non revenue water poor service continuity low tariffs and low coverage within their respective service areas The five best performing service providers consisted of four water districts and one private operator 39 Investment Edit According to the World Bank investment in water supply and sanitation from 1983 to 2003 has been far below the required levels to maintain assets to expand access and to improve service quality Total investment has fluctuated at around 3 4 billion a year while the cost of implementing the Clean Water Act of 2004 has been estimated at up to P35 billion a year 40 Political Aspects EditHistory Edit From the Philippines independence in 1946 until 1955 most water supply systems were operated by local authorities From 1955 to 1971 control of urban water supply was passed to the national government 41 In order to improve service delivery the sector has been repeatedly subjected to extensive reforms which created numerous institutions and responsibilities However comprehensive water resources management was only introduced in 2004 Pre Marcos Administration Edit The Manila Waterworks Authority founded in 1878 became part of the National Waterworks and Sewerage Authority NAWASA when it was founded in 1955 42 Marcos Administration 1965 1986 Edit 1971 NAWASA was transformed into the Metropolitan Waterworks and Sewerage System MWSS under the government of Ferdinand Marcos MWSS was made responsible for service provision in Metro Manila whereas other municipal and provincial water and sewerage systems in about 1 500 cities and towns were transferred back to local governments 42 1973 A new management model for urban water supply was introduced LGUs were encouraged to form utilities called Water Districts which would operate with a certain degree of autonomy from LGUs They would receive technical assistance and financial support from the newly created Local Water Utilities Administration LWUA 41 1976 The National Water Resources Board NWRB was created through the National Water Code of the Philippines to coordinate policies concerning water resources 43 1980 The Rural Waterworks Development Corporation RWDC was founded It is responsible for water supply in areas where neither MWSS nor LWUA carries out the service or assists the LGUs respectively The RWDC was expected to create rural water supply associations in order to construct operate and maintain their own water supply systems in communities with fewer than 20 000 inhabitants 41 44 It was also the beginning of the United Nations International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade 1980 1989 The Integrated Water Supply Program 1980 2000 was initiated by the national government Its main objective was to increase water coverage to 70 of the Filipino population by 1987 and 90 by 1992 Consequently the development of the sector was supported with great effort Between 1978 and 1990 more than US 120 million was invested in 11 rural water supply projects Nevertheless toward the end of the decade only 4 400 functioning rural water systems about 5 of the 96 200 potential systems existed in the country Many of the recently constructed systems failed shortly after completion partly due to poor construction and service 45 The Asian Development Bank ADB found that insufficient community participation may have led to inadequate operation and maintenance 46 Aquino Administration 1986 1992 Edit 1987 The Local Water Utilities Administration took over the work of Rural Waterworks Development Corporation RWDS which had been created only seven years earlier 47 The Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Master Plan of 1988 provided for the installation of 81 900 rural water supply systems by 1991 The Department of Public Works and Highways DPWH was expected to construct and rehabilitate Level I water wells rainwater collectors and springs Every barangay should receive at least one additional potable water source In addition the Department of Local Government and Community Development DLGCD was given the task of training local water user associations in the operation and maintenance of water facilities 48 1991 Under the Local Government Code certain infrastructure functions were devolved to LGUs Barangays municipalities provinces and cities were authorized to finance operate and maintain their own water supply systems 1992 According to the Medium Term Philippine Development Plan of 1983 1998 80 of the rural population was provided with Level I water supply services at the end of Aquino s term of office in 1992 61 had direct service connections in Metro Manila and 47 in other urban areas of the country were covered by Level II and III water systems 43 49 Ramos Administration 1992 1998 Edit Further information Water privatization in Metro ManilaThe planning preparation and implementation of the privatization of the Metropolitan Waterworks and Sewerage System MWSS occurred under the Ramos administration 50 1995 The Water Crisis Act was passed providing the legal framework for the privatization of MWSS Private participation was implemented through a concession contract in which the concessionaires were assigned the task of operating and managing the facilities while MWSS preserved the ownership of the infrastructure 51 In order to facilitate benchmark comparisons the service area of Metro Manila was divided into two zones 1996 The plan to privatize Metropolitan Waterworks and Sewerage System MWSS emerged from the inability of the public utility to expand coverage to the growing population By 1996 MWSS only provided the water supply for an average of 16 hours each day to two thirds of its coverage population According to the ADB the share of non revenue water NRW water which is not billed e g due to leakage and illegal connections was over 60 an extremely high percentage compared to other developing countries 52 1997 The Maynilad Water Services Inc was awarded the concession contract for the West Zone while the Manila Water Company Inc was awarded the East Zone of Metro Manila The concession contracts which are expected to last for 25 years included targets concerning coverage service quality and economic efficiency The objective was to increase water coverage in Metro Manila to 96 by 2006 The companies were expected to be regulated by the newly created MWSS Regulatory Office financed by the concessionaires After the concession came into force public opposition soon emerged due to repeated tariff increases However it is worth mentioning that tariffs decreased after privatization in 1997 and did not reach the pre privatization level until 2001 or 2002 Private concessionaires suffered from a severe drought and the Asian financial crisis of 1997 53 Estrada Administration 1998 2001 Edit According to the Medium Term Philippine Development Plan MTPDP of 1998 up to 2004 the Estrada administration s main objectives concerning water were to i create an independent regulatory agency ii develop a pricing mechanism that considers cost recovery iii strengthen the implementation of watershed rules and iv encourage private participation in water resources administration 54 Arroyo Administration 2001 2010 Edit Because of the rapid currency devaluation MWSS dollar denominated debt service doubled Consequently tariffs continued to rise and targets concerning coverage and NRW were adjusted downward with the agreement of the regulatory agency Maynilad went bankrupt in 2003 and was turned over to MWSS in 2005 On the other hand Manila Water had begun to make profits by 1999 and performed well financially and in reducing NRW 55 2001 2004 Arroyo continued to support private participation schemes and began to pursue Economies of scale in the sector Furthermore her MTPDP for this period called for the creation of a single regulatory agency for all water supply and sanitation systems 56 After this attempt failed Economic regulation for LGUs and water districts were assigned to NWRB 13 2004 The Philippines Clear Water Act was passed to improve water quality and prevent pollution through comprehensive and integrated water management The act was the first attempt of the Philippine government in consolidating different laws concerning water resources management as well as water supply and sanitation 57 The main objective of the act was to improve sanitation and wastewater treatment in the country 58 2006 In December an 84 stake in Maynilad was competitively awarded by MWSS to an all Filipino partnership with a construction company DM Consunji Holdings Inc DMCI and a telecommunications real estate company Metro Pacific Investments Corporation MPIC for a sales price of US 503 9 million The concession was hailed by the financial industry receiving AsiaMoney s Country Deal of the Year 2007 and CFO Asia s one of 10 best deals in Asia 59 2008 On August 27 Prospero Pichay was appointed chairman of the board of the Local Waterworks and Utilities Administration LWUA replacing acting chair Proceso Domingo At the same time its domestic and foreign borrowing authority was proposed to be extended to 900 million upon the approval of Department of Finance and the Central Bank the Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas 60 61 Aquino Administration 2010 2016 Edit 2013 The Bottom Up Budgeting BUB Project was implemented by the administration in its National Budget to fund projects that would help the country attain its Millennium Development Goals of inclusive growth and poverty reduction In promoting good governance in the local level by having local governments listen to their constituents in terms of budgeting processes the National Budget was guided to respond to the urgent needs of the people as identified at the grassroots level 62 2014 Another program of the administration through the Department of the Interior and Local Government is the Sagana at Ligtas na Tubig Para sa Lahat SALINTUBIG program that aims to provide clean and potable water supply to almost 455 waterless municipalities in the Philippines As of 2014 253 projects and 118 more are ongoing all over the country 63 2015 The BUB project proved to be a success as the Department of the Interior and Local Government spearheaded by Secretary Mar Roxas was able to build a potable water system supporting 385 households in Mati City Davao Oriental At the same time a health station was constructed that is posed to benefit 2 375 households through the BUB project by the Department of Health With a budget of P410 Million for BUB projects in Davao Oriental government projects are geared towards a safer and healthier future for all 64 Policy Edit General policies concerning the water and sanitation sector are formulated by the National Economic and Development Authority NEDA in its MTPDP Since the 1990s private sector participation and decentralization are the main objectives of water policies 43 The MTPDP of 2004 up to 2010 aimed at extending the coverage of potable water to 92 96 by 2010 through public and private investments with priority given to 400 barangays with poor water supply coverage 65 The Department of Public Works and Highways provides technical assistance in rural water supply systems National standards for drinking water quality as well as standards concerning sanitation and sewerage collection are set by the Department of Health 66 The Philippine Department of Environment and Natural Resources DENR is the lead ministry for implementing water sector legislation 67 whereas the Department of Finance takes the lead in financing water policies at the national level The National Water Resources Board NWRB under the DENR is responsible for water resources management 68 The responsibilities are defined by the 1976 National Water Code and the 2004 Clean Water Act which consolidated laws on water supply and sanitation and water resources management 1976 National Water Code PD 1067 69 Edit Regarded as Presidential Decree No 1067 dated December 31 1976 the 1976 National Water Code was an effort of then President Ferdinand E Marcos that aimed to strengthen water legislations in the face of the increasing scarcity of water and its changing water patterns The Water Code was an intended solution to revise and consolidate regulations made on the ownership appropriation utilization exploitation development conservation and protection of water resources in the country Founded on the principle that All waters belong to the State the National Water Resources Council was then created and tasked to control and regulate the use and development of water resources on behalf of the government Regulations were made through the acquisition of water permits given to persons not limited to government owned and controlled corporations for water appropriation and usage Specifications were included on the maximum amount of water diverted or withdrawn the maximum rate of diversion or withdrawal and the times during the year when water may be diverted or withdrawn Instances may also arise where water permits are revoked on cases of non use violation of the conditions imposed by the council unauthorized sale of water pollution and public acts detrimental to public health and safety In declared flood control areas rules and regulations are administered to prohibit and control activities that may damage and cause deterioration of the lakes and dikes changes in the natural flow of the river and increases in flood losses or intensified floods Watersheds or areas of land adjacent to any surface water or overlying any groundwater are to be declared as protected areas of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources These efforts ensure the quality of water defined by a standard set by the National Pollution Council Commission according to the different uses of water Except for those functions under the Code that may fall under specific government agencies the council is given the power to make all necessary decisions and determinations provided for in the said Code The Council may provide accompanying penalties consisting of fines not exceeding one thousand pesos P1 000 00 and or the suspensions or revocation of water permits or any rights given to use water as well as enforce its decisions with the assistance of local and national police agencies Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004 RA 9275 70 Edit Republic Act 9275 provides for a comprehensive water quality management policy amidst economic growth The policy provides for the consistent protection preservation and revival of the quality of Philippine waters with frameworks patterned through the pursuit of sustainable development Importantly provided for by this act are Water Quality Management Systems and Institutional Mechanisms Water Quality Management Systems involve area designations by the Department of Environment and Natural Resources DENR national sewage and septage management programs and allocation of special funds to support and maintain water quality Areas that have similar hydrogeological conditions which affect the physicochemical biological and bacteriological reactions and diffusions of pollutants in the water bodies are declared as Water Quality Management Areas The management area is governed by a DENR representative as chair and board members composed of representatives from local government units LGUs relevant national government agencies registered non governmental organizations water utility sectors and the business sector On the other hand water bodies with specific pollutants that have exceeded the guidelines for water quality are identified as Non attainment Areas LGUs are tasked to prepare and implement contingency plans such as relocations for the protection of the health and welfare of the residents while the government improves the affected quality of water within the potentially affected areas Funds administered by the DENR and other concerned agencies are on special accounts in the National Treasury to be utilized in financing containment and clean up operations in water pollution cases restorations of ecosystems and rehabilitation of affected areas research enforcement and monitoring activities technical assistance to implementing agencies grants as rewards and incentives and other disbursements made solely for the prevention control of water pollution and administration of the management areas in the amounts authorized by the Department Wastewater charges are also established to provide a strong economic inducement for polluters to modify their production or management processes or to invest in pollution control technology in order to reduce the number of water pollutants generated in their discharge of wastewater into water bodies Owners or operators of facilities that discharge regulated waste are then required to secure discharge permits Institutional Mechanisms emphasized the collaborative efforts made in the hopes of having cleaner and better quality water through the Lead Agency DENR the Roles of Local Government Units in sharing the responsibility of maintaining and improving water quality within their territorial jurisdictions the Business and Industry Role in formulating incentives for the adoption of innovative equipment and processes that preserve and protect water bodies and Linkage Mechanisms through partnerships with government agencies and departments such as the Philippine Coast Guard DPWH Department of Agriculture DA DOH Department of Science and Technology DOST Department of Education DepEd Commission on Higher Education CHED and Department of the Interior and the Local Government DILG Government Agencies and Institutions Edit Local Water Utilities Administration LWUA Edit The Local Water Utilities Administration is a specialized lending institution that promotes and oversees the development of provincial waterworks It is also entrusted with setting water quality and service standards for water districts Furthermore it provides technical assistance and is sometimes involved in the districts through board members 71 P D 198 May 25 1973 the Provincial Water Utilities Act of 1973 created LWUA and the water districts 72 The decree authorized the formation on local option basis of autonomous water districts to develop the local water supply systems and the establishment of a national level agency to cater to the needs of these water districts According to the LWUA website to date it has established 584 water districts covering about 691 cities and towns outside Metro Manila It has completed a total of 1 431 water supply projects while extending P 17 billion in loans to the districts of which P11 million has been availed to the benefit of some 12 million Filipinos with improved water 73 National Water and Resources Board NWRB Edit Main article National Water Resources Board Philippines The National Water Resources Board is the forefront government agency that handles the Philippines water sectors policies regulations and quasi judicial functions It acts accordingly with the principles of the Integrated Water Resource Management IWRM as it ensures the efficiency conservation utilization development and protection of the state s water supply Rural Waterworks Development Corporation RWDC Edit Executive Order No 577 which was passed last January 12 1980 aims to provide full coverage of water supply services in the country In line with this Rural Waterworks Development Corporation was established to bring and administer water supply in areas with less than 20 000 as population RWDC works together with LWUA in determining areas under their jurisdiction Department of the Interior and Local Government Edit Main article Department of the Interior and Local Government Concerning local government managed systems the Department of the Interior and Local Government DILG define and enforces quality and performance standards However in both cases local governments retain the responsibilities for planning financing and regulating water supply 13 Philippine Center for Water and Sanitation Edit The Philippine Center for Water and Sanitation PCWS provides technical assistance to local governments communities and non profits on low cost water supply and sanitation options It also engages in action research with households It leads the Philippines water sanitation and health WASH coalition of non profit organizations and local governments It was created in 1990 under the name of International Training Network ITN and adopted its current name in 1998 74 Philippine Society of Sanitary Engineers Inc EditFinancing and External Cooperation EditOutside the privatized services in Metro Manila one source of finance for water supply is government grants channeled through the Local Water Utilities Administration LWUA and the Municipal Development Funds Office MDFO But these are far from sufficient to meet investment needs which is why loan financing is necessary Some LGUs obtain loans from public banks such as the Development Bank of the Philippines DBP and the Land Bank of the Philippines LBP and also from corporations in other countries such as the World Bank and JICA from Japan see below 75 External development agencies that work on water supply and sanitation in the Philippines include the ADB GTZ JICA USAID and the World Bank Asian Development Bank ADB Edit The Asian Development Bank ADB has assisted the government in increasing sanitized water supply to different sectors in the Philippines Through the MWSS New Water Source Development Project approved in 2003 and ended in October 2008 ADB has contributed a total of US 3 26 million whereas MWSS provided US 1 71 million The joint project sought to develop up to 3 water source projects for Metro Manila and to improve the financial management as well as the accounting and fiscal control systems of MWSS In 2008 studies for two water source projects were completed emphasizing environmental and social impacts amidst water quality improvements 76 The following report shows information about past performances ADB Assistance to Water Supply and Sanitation Sector in the Philippines Number Title Type Approval Date Amount millions EAA Loans1 190 Manila Water Supply August 28 1974 51 30 MWSS2 251 Provincial Cities Water Supply December 16 1975 16 80 LWUA3 351 Second Manila Water Supply September 7 1978 49 00 MWSS4 457 Manila Sewerage June 24 1980 42 80 MWSS5 545 Water Supply Sector November 25 1981 46 00 LWUA6 645 Manila Water Supply Rehabilitation October 23 1983 39 30 MWSS7 812 Island Provinces Rural Areas Water Supply Sector December 4 1986 24 00 DPWH8 947 Second Manila Water Supply Rehabilitation January 24 1989 26 40 MWSS9 986 Angat Water Supply Organization November 14 1989 130 00 MWSS10 1052 Second Island Provinces Rural Water Supply November 20 1990 24 00 DPWHTable only shows a part of the report For more information click the link cited above In 2013 ADB made preparations of loans for financing i the Water District Development Sector Project ii the Urban Water and Sanitation Sector Project iii the Angat Water Transmission Improvement Project and iv future technical assistance and other lending activities to be discussed with the specific government agencies involved 77 ADB was also able to release a report on the assessments of current conditions and constraints to developing water supply and sanitation in the country strategies to be implemented to counter and solve these constraints and road maps and plans on a sustainable sanitation reality for all The Philippine Sustainable Sanitation Roadmap and Plan PSSR included in the report served as a guide for water sanitation efforts as it presented the vision goals outcomes outputs activities and inputs needed to achieve an improved water quality nationwide Approved by the subcommittee on Water Resources in 2010 the Department of Health DOH has agreed to spearhead the agenda by preparing a national sustainable sanitation plan based on the PSSR The DILG has also aligned its water and sanitation strategy with the requirements of the PSSR 78 German Corporation for International Cooperation GIZ Edit The German Corporation for International Cooperation GTZ now GIZ supported the sector through the rural water supply and sanitation program designed to improve the living conditions of the poor in selected rural areas of the country The program sought to overcome the institutional confusion and to strengthen governmental organizations at the national provincial and municipal levels Its main partner was the Department of the Interior and Local Government DILG In addition the decentralization plan of the National Water Resources Board was supported The program which ran from 2006 to 2009 helped to introduce low cost options for sanitation such as urine diverting dry toilets and the first Philippine constructed wetland treating wastewater from about 700 households in Bayawan 27 79 World Bank Edit The World Bank supports the Philippine water supply and sanitation sector through various projects often in collaboration with the government and the Land Bank of the Philippines Manila Third Sewerage Project Edit In 2007 the World Bank approved an investment loan of US 5 million The project aimed to i assist the Philippine government in reforming institutions in order to attract private investment in the wastewater sector ii improve the coordination of institutions responsible for preventing water pollution and iii promote innovative wastewater treatment techniques The project which ran from 2007 to 2012 provided technical assistance as well as support for institutional coordination and private sector involvement 80 The project followed the Manila Second Sewerage Project which was carried out from 1996 to 2005 After the privatization of MWSS it was restructured in order to adapt it to the new institutional framework The objectives were to i reduce the pollution of waterways in Metro Manila and its surrounding bays ii reduce the health risks caused by human exposure to sewage in Metro Manila and iii establish a gradual low cost improvement of sewerage services in Metro Manila From 1997 to 2005 the number of people with sewer connections increased from 721 000 to 1 101 000 and the population with regularly desludging septic tanks rose from only 1 600 to 288 000 The total cost of the project was US 48 06 million 81 Urban Water and Sanitation Project APL2 Edit This project aimed to reach approximately 40 LGU operated water systems which were given technical assistance and financial support The four components of the project were to i finance civil works equipment and supervision for improved water supply systems in LGUs including private sector participation where feasible ii finance improved sanitation infrastructure iii provide investment and assistance in micro drainage infrastructure and iv provide funds for the hiring of a construction supervision consultant and specialized consultants The World Bank decided to contribute through a US 30 million loan to the project while the remaining US 5 2 million are financed by local institutions The project began in 2001 and ended in 2008 82 The World Bank supports private sector participation through Design Build Lease contracts and Long Term Operation and Maintenance contracts between LGUs and private operators Therefore the Development Bank of the Philippines DBP and the Land Bank of the Philippines LBP channel financing from the World Bank to LGUs which engage private operators Under the Design Build Lease contracts valid for 15 years and renewable for an additional 15 years a local private operator prepares builds and operates a new water supply system A World Bank loan channeled through the DBP finances 90 of the construction cost and the remainder is contributed through the LGU The water tariff must cover expenses for operation and maintenance as well as a lease fee and a return for the private operator Long Term Operation and Maintenance contracts are used in LGUs which recruit a private company to construct a new water supply system and later engage water associations or user cooperatives to operate the system under the contracts which are awarded for 15 years with the possibility of renewal for another 15 years Similar to the Design Build Operate contracts 90 of the construction cost of the water system is financed with a World Bank loan channeled through the LBP The water user groups are required to work under commercial rules They have full administrative accounting and financial autonomy 75 Metro Manila Wastewater Management Project MWMP Edit Last 2012 the World Bank was able to approve a budget of 275 million for a project aimed at improving wastewater collection and treatment practices in several catchment areas of Metro Manila as well as Manila Bay s water quality Also called the Metro Manila Wastewater Management Program MWMP this project supports investments from the Manila Water Company Inc MWCI and Maynilad Water Services Inc in increasing collection and wastewater treatment primarily from households and establishments in the area The project is divided into 2 components as MWCI takes charge of the east zone and Maynilad the west zone of the metropolitan 83 With a budget of 193 4 million investments by Manila Water include i a sewage treatment plant and the necessary sewage lines covering North and South Pasig ii the carrying out of other wastewater management investment sub projects agreed upon by the government Land Bank of the Philippines World Bank and MWCI With a budget of 178 3 million investments by Maynilad include i sewage treatment plants and associated wastewater conveyance systems in Quezon City Pasay Alabang Muntinlupa Valenzuela and ii a septage treatment plant in the southern part of Metro Manila 84 With about 2 million cubic meters of wastewater generated daily and only 17 of them getting treated before disposal to water bodies around the metro water pollution has destroyed most of Manila Bay and the nearby Laguna de Bay Manila Water and Maynilad have both conceptualized a 25 year program that ensures 100 wastewater collection and treatment for Metro Manila With the MWMP their efforts would be supported and would not only aid in improving the current state of the surrounding environment but also contribute a boost in recreational and tourism opportunities 84 Japan International Cooperation Agency JICA Edit The Japan International Cooperation Agency JICA along with the international community striving to achieve the targets of United Nations Millennium Development Goals MDG has been campaigning to make a significant reduction in the number of people who still lack access to safe drinking water Reliable water resources management improvement of access to water supply in urban areas reduction of non revenue water NRW improvement of water energy use sustainable rural water supply and promotion of improved sanitation in developing countries are the main issues that JICA prioritizes In 2008 through the Development Bank of the Philippines about 200 million was loaned to the Philippines to fund local governments and domestic private sector companies for the development of water supply and sewerage facilities Despite the establishment of funding financing will only be granted to water utilities if the business management improves hence JICA actively assists the water supply utilities capacity development through practical cooperation with financial aid JICA not only works to improve access to safe drinking water in urban areas of developing countries but also aids water facilities with business planning and management 85 Issues EditDrinking water quality Edit Water quality usually does not meet the standards set by the national government especially in urban areas As a result waterborne diseases remain to be a severe public health concern in the country About 4 200 people die each year due to contaminated drinking water 26 Non revenue water Edit Non revenue water NRW is defined as the difference between the amount of water put into the distribution system and the amount of water billed to consumers It is usually used as an indicator for water utility performance High levels of non revenue water usually indicate low quality water utility It has three components Physical losses which consist of leakage from the system caused by poor operations and maintenance the lack of active leakage control and poor quality of underground assets Commercial losses caused by under registration of water meters errors in data handling and theft Unbilled authorized consumption which includes water used by a specific utility for operational purposes e g firefighting and specific consumer groups Non revenue water decreased in the East Zone of Metro Manila since privatization In 1996 Manila had an NRW of 61 while capital cities from other Asian countries ranged from having 35 38 In 2002 NRW dropped to 53 in the East Zone On the other hand non revenue water in the West Zone increased as the primary waterwork utility encountered severe financial problems 86 According to Manila Water one of the private concessionaires the share of NRW continued to fall until the end of 2010 where it reached 11 87 According to the National Water Resources Board NWRB the average share of NRW among participating service providers was 27 5 in 2004 The particularly high NRW of Manila s West Zone was confirmed to have a record with 68 Generally the smaller utilities performed better concerning NRW than the larger ones However many NRW data are based on estimates given the fact that only 15 of the 45 service providers had 100 production and consumption metering coverage 88 Labor Productivity Edit The number of staff was reduced at the Metropolitan Waterworks and Sewerage System MWSS after privatization On average 10 employees were responsible for 1 000 connections in 1996 Fast forward to 2002 only about 4 employees were left reflecting a decrease of around 58 86 According to LWUA only about 7 employees per 1 000 connections worked in water districts in 2002 89 In contrast to water districts LGUs have an average of 21 employees per 1 000 connections in 2002 However small LGUs still suffer from their low number of total connections 90 Other challenges EditThe NWRB Philippines Towns Water Utilities 2004 Data Book found an average of 7 employees per 1 000 connections in 2004 On average private utilities performed best and systems directly managed by LGUs performed worst Not surprisingly providers with more than 10 000 connections need significantly fewer employees per connection than those with fewer than 10 000 connections 91 The Pasig River in Manila one of the world s most polluted rivers Population and Pollution Edit One third of Philippine river systems are considered suitable for public water supply 92 It is estimated that in 2025 water availability will be marginal in most major cities and in 8 of the 19 major river basins 93 Besides severe health concerns water pollution also leads to problems in the Fishing and Tourism industries 94 The national government recognized the problem and since 2004 has sought to introduce sustainable water resources development management 57 With rapid increases in population urbanization and industrialization the quality of Philippine s waters has been reduced especially in densely populated areas and regions of industrial and agricultural activities 95 According to data from the DENR and PEM domestic agricultural and industrial wastewater are the three main sources of water pollution These are also known as point sources that emanate toxic substances into non point sources or certain bodies of water Domestic wastewater consists of sewage containing organic waste solids and coliforms produced by domestic activities such as laundry bathing cooking and other kitchen activities Agricultural wastewater the major source of pollution in rural areas contains pollutants resulting from agricultural and livestock activities like the maintenance of piggeries which usually do not have proper wastewater treatment facilities Different industries also contribute largely to water pollution Industrial activities such as slaughterhouses and manufacturing of food textile and paper emit large amounts of organic waste 4 El Nino and Global Warming Edit El Nino a weather phenomenon occurring about every two to seven years when warm water in the western tropical Pacific Ocean shifts Eastward causing ocean temperatures to rise last developed in the country in late 2014 For the past several decades it has been observed that its occurrence has increased due to climate change as a result of global warming Its negative impacts may either be heavy rainfall or drought El Nino greatly impacts the power supply water supply and agricultural sectors of the country The reduced rainfall leading to drought causes a shortage in water supply leading to water rationing in some situations as well as hydropower and food shortage 96 The La Mesa Watershed is the only remaining rainforest of its size in Metro Manila Philippines Denudation of Forest Cover Edit The supply of water from most freshwater bodies usually comes from watersheds patches of forest cover that absorb rainwater and channel it into streams rivers and eventually dams were many human communities especially Metro Manila source their freshwater 97 Despite the role of the forest in the replenishment and maintenance of both ground and surface water the Philippines is considered to be one of the most severely deforested countries in the tropics as it has lost more than 97 of its original forest cover in the last 50 years 98 Saltwater Intrusion Edit Metro Manila is one of the areas in most risk of saltwater intrusion Since the late 1960s saline water intrusion has been evident along with the coastal areas of Metro Manila stretching from Las Pinas to Malabon The shallow water table aquifer is in direct contact with the sea in these coastal areas The over pumping of groundwater results to cones of depression which increases the risk of saltwater intrusion According to a joint study by MWSS and JICA in 1991 most groundwater samples from Metro Manila s coastal areas were salinized However compared to the early 1980s the saline intrusion was found to have improved conditions because of the conversion of water source from groundwater to surface water upon the completion of the Manila Water Supply Project II in 1987 Aside from excessive withdrawal of groundwater seepage of brackish water along the Pasig River is another cause of saltwater intrusion because of seawater movement during tides 99 See also EditPollution of the Pasig River Environmental issues in the PhilippinesReferences Edit WATER RESOURCES www denr gov ph Retrieved October 29 2015 Asian Development Bank Asia Pacific Water Forum 2007 Country Paper Philippines Asian Water Development Outlook 2007 Asian Development Bank ISBN 9789814136068 Retrieved April 14 2008 p 5 Agricultural Water Management Systems in the Philippines Current Status and Policy Direction www fftc agnet org Retrieved October 29 2015 a b Greenpeace Southeast Asia The state of water resources in the Philippines Quezon City Greenpeace 2007 http www greenpeace org seasia ph Global seasia report 2007 10 the state of water in the phil pdf accessed October 3 2015 Luken Ralph A Industrial Policy and the Environment in the Philippines Vienna United Nations Industrial Development Organization 1999 http www unido org fileadmin import userfiles timminsk rio10 ind philippines eng pdf accessed October 29 2015 David Cristina C and Arlene B Inocencio Understanding Household Demand and Supply of Water Paper presented at the Pulong Saliksikan sa PIDS on Water Policies September 24 1996 http dirp4 pids gov ph ris pdf pidspn9604 pdf accessed October 3 2015 The Philippines had 75 766 140 inhabitants in 2000 source http devdata worldbank org query National Water Resources Board NWRB Local Water Utilities Administration LWUA Department of the Interior and Local Government DILG Water and Sanitation Program WSP World Bank Philippines Towns Water Utilities 2004 Data Book a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help p 12 36 World Bank December 2005 Philippines Meeting Infrastructure Challenges PDF Retrieved April 9 2008 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help p 110 World Bank December 2005 Philippines Meeting Infrastructure Challenges PDF Retrieved April 9 2008 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help p 116 World Bank Water and Sanitation Program East Asia and the Pacific February 5 2007 Identifying Elements of Sustainability Lessons Learned from Rural Water Supply Projects in the Philippines PDF Archived from the original PDF on October 24 2007 Retrieved April 9 2008 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help p 4 a b World Bank December 2005 Philippines Meeting Infrastructure Challenges PDF Retrieved April 9 2008 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help p 116 a b c World Bank December 2005 Philippines Meeting Infrastructure Challenges PDF Retrieved April 9 2008 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help p 110 World Bank December 2005 Philippines Meeting Infrastructure Challenges PDF Retrieved April 9 2008 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help p 112 113 What is PAWD Retrieved January 4 2013 Philippines Water Association Adopts National Water Operator Partnerships Program WaterLinks March 12 2010 Retrieved January 4 2013 World Bank December 2005 Philippines Meeting Infrastructure Challenges PDF Retrieved April 9 2008 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help p 113 World Bank Water and Sanitation Program East Asia and the Pacific January 1 2004 The Experience of Small Scale Water Providers in Serving the Poor in Metro Manila PDF Archived from the original PDF on October 27 2007 Retrieved April 15 2008 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help p 1 World Bank December 2005 Philippines Meeting Infrastructure Challenges PDF Retrieved April 9 2008 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help p 114 116 IRC Small scale providers success story highlights the need for cheap and accessible financing Philippines July 4 2008 quoting Asian Development Bank Water Champion Elsa Mejia Small Private Providers at the Water Front June 2008 National Economic and Development Authority Philippine Water Sector Supply Roadmap Pasig City National Economic and Development Authority 2010 p 8 a b WASHwatch org Philippines washwatch org Retrieved May 9 2017 a b WHO UNICEF 2015 Progress on sanitation and drinking water 2015 update and MDG assessment Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation Asian Development Bank Philippines Water Supply and Sanitation Sector Assessment Strategy and Road Map Mandaluyong City Asian Development Bank 2013 http www adb org sites default files institutional document 33810 files philippines water supply sector assessment pdf October 3 2015 World Health Organization October 2 2015 Progress on Sanitation and Drinking Water 2015 Update and MDG Assessment World Health Organization p 68 ISBN 978 92 4 150914 5 a b World Bank December 2005 Philippines Meeting Infrastructure Challenges PDF Retrieved April 9 2008 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help p 107 a b Lipkow U von Munch E 2010 Constructed wetland for a peri urban housing area Bayawan City Philippines Case study of sustainable sanitation projects Sustainable Sanitation Alliance SuSanA Manila Water Company Ltd March 18 2008 Manila Water Company Manila Water to build P105 M sewage treatment plant in Taguig Archived from the original on April 9 2008 Retrieved April 14 2008 a b c Manila Water Billing Information Manila Water Retrieved November 7 2022 Miraflor Madelaine FCDA removal to hike Maynilad lower Manila Water rates Manila Bulletin Retrieved November 7 2022 a b c Maynilad Water Services Inc How to Read your Water Bill Maynilad Retrieved November 7 2022 a b c National Water Resources Board NWRB Local Water Utilities Administration LWUA Department of the Interior and Local Government DILG Water and Sanitation Program WSP World Bank Philippines Towns Water Utilities 2004 Data Book a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help p 16 a b World Bank December 2005 Philippines Meeting Infrastructure Challenges PDF Retrieved April 9 2008 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help p 122 GDP Deflator source World Development Indicators database http devdata worldbank org query Manila Water Company Official website FAQs Archived from the original on November 8 2007 Retrieved April 11 2008 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Official website FAQs Manila Water Company Archived from the original on November 8 2007 Retrieved April 11 2008 Tariff matrix PDF MWSS Regulatory Office Retrieved April 11 2008 World Bank December 2005 Philippines Meeting Infrastructure Challenges PDF Retrieved April 9 2008 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help p 123 National Water Resources Board NWRB Local Water Utilities Administration LWUA Department of the Interior and Local Government DILG Water and Sanitation Program WSP World Bank Philippines Towns Water Utilities 2004 Data Book a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help p 6 9 11 36 World Bank December 2005 Philippines Meeting Infrastructure Challenges PDF Asian Development Bank ADB ISBN 971 561 524 4 Retrieved April 9 2008 p 116 118 a b c World Bank Water and Sanitation Program East Asia and the Pacific June 6 2003 Management Models for Small Towns Water Supply Lessons learned from case studies in the Philippines PDF Retrieved April 8 2008 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help p 5 a b World Bank Water and Sanitation Program East Asia and the Pacific June 2003 Urban Sewerage and Sanitation Lessons learned from case studies in the Philippines PDF Retrieved April 8 2008 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help p 5 a b c World Bank December 2005 Philippines Meeting Infrastructure Challenges PDF Retrieved April 9 2008 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help p 109 Llanto Gilberto M December 2002 Infrastructure Development Experience and Policy Options for the Future PDF Discussion Paper Series Philippines Philippine Institute for Development Studies 2002 26 Retrieved April 8 2008 p 32 Phillips Mark August 2007 Household water in rural Asia a case study of the construction of a piped water system in Bangui Ilocos Norte Philippines Environment Development and Sustainability Springer Netherlands 9 3 241 261 doi 10 1007 s10668 005 9021 4 ISSN 1387 585X S2CID 154296550 p 244 Asian Development Bank ADB 2006 Report and Recommendation of the President to the Board of Directors on Proposed Loans to the Republic of the Philippines for the Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Sector Project a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help pp 73 Llanto Gilberto M December 2002 Infrastructure Development Experience and Policy Options for the Future PDF Discussion Paper Series Philippines Philippine Institute for Development Studies 2002 26 Retrieved April 8 2008 p 33 World Bank Water and Sanitation Program East Asia and the Pacific February 5 2007 Identifying Elements of Sustainability Lessons Learned from Rural Water Supply Projects in the Philippines PDF Archived from the original PDF on October 24 2007 Retrieved April 9 2008 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help p 2 Llanto Gilberto M December 2002 Infrastructure Development Experience and Policy Options for the Future PDF Discussion Paper Series Philippines Philippine Institute for Development Studies 2002 26 Retrieved April 8 2008 p 33 34 Llanto Gilberto M December 2002 Infrastructure Development Experience and Policy Options for the Future PDF Discussion Paper Series Philippines Philippine Institute for Development Studies 2002 26 Retrieved April 8 2008 p 34 Llanto Gilberto M December 2002 Infrastructure Development Experience and Policy Options for the Future PDF Discussion Paper Series Philippines Philippine Institute for Development Studies 2002 26 Retrieved April 8 2008 p 36 McIntosh Arthur C Yniguez Cesar E October 1997 Second Water Utilities Data Book Asian and Pacific Region Asian Development Bank ISBN 971 561 125 7 Retrieved April 25 2008 p 4 7 Wu Xun Malaluan Nepomuceno A 2008 A Tale of Two Concessionaires A Natural Experiment of Water Privatisation in Metro Manila Urban Studies 45 1 207 229 doi 10 1177 0042098007085108 p 212 217 National Economic Development Authority NEDA 1998 Medium Term Philippine Development Plan 1998 2004 Philippines a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Wu Xun Malaluan Nepomuceno A 2008 A Tale of Two Concessionaires A Natural Experiment of Water Privatisation in Metro Manila Urban Studies 45 1 207 229 doi 10 1177 0042098007085108 S2CID 221015268 p 212 217 National Economic Development Authority NEDA 2001 Medium Term Philippine Development Plan 2001 2004 Philippines Retrieved April 15 2008 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help part 1 chapter 6 a b Asian Development Bank Asia Pacific Water Forum 2007 Country Paper Philippines Asian Water Development Outlook 2007 Asian Development Bank ISBN 9789814136068 Retrieved April 14 2008 p 6 World Bank Water and Sanitation Program East Asia and the Pacific September 27 2007 Philippines Sanitation Sourcebook and Decision Aid PDF Archived from the original PDF on October 24 2007 Retrieved April 9 2008 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help p iv Country Water Action Philippines A Second Chance for an Ailing Utility The Maynilad Experience ADB June 2008 Pichay appointed as head of waterworks agency Retrieved June 19 2016 PHILIPPINE ENVIRONMENT LAWS CHAN ROBLES VIRTUAL LAW LIBRARY Retrieved June 19 2016 Bottom up Budgeting summit shows program s progress GOVPH Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines Retrieved November 9 2015 Bulacan town no longer waterless GOVPH Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines Retrieved November 9 2015 Roxas highlights the success of Bottom up Budgeting projects in Mati City GOVPH Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines Retrieved November 9 2015 National Economic and Development Authority NEDA 2004 Medium Term Philippine Development Plan 2004 2010 PDF Medium Term Philippine Development Plan Philippines ISSN 0119 3880 Archived from the original PDF on May 30 2008 Retrieved April 10 2008 p 53 162 World Bank December 2005 Philippines Meeting Infrastructure Challenges PDF Retrieved April 9 2008 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help p 209 Asian Development Bank Asia Pacific Water Forum 2007 Country Paper Philippines Asian Water Development Outlook 2007 Asian Development Bank ISBN 9789814136068 Retrieved April 14 2008 p 3 The World Bank 2010 pgs 82 87 Sustaining water for all in a changing climate World Bank Group Implementation Progress Report Retrieved October 24 2011 P D No 1067 www lawphil net Retrieved October 29 2015 R A 9275 www lawphil net Retrieved October 29 2015 Safe water for the Filipino Retrieved June 19 2016 pd198 Retrieved June 19 2016 lwua gov ph LWUA Thirty years of service to a once thirsty nation Philippine Center for Water and Sanitation about us retrieved on August 28 2011 a b World Bank December 2006 Engaging local private operators in water supply and sanitation services Initial lessons from emerging experience in Cambodia Colombia Paraguay the Philippines and Uganda PDF Water Supply amp Sanitation Working Notes 12 Retrieved April 21 2008 p 7 8 Asian Development Bank July 5 2006 30551 35379 MWSS TA Loan Retrieved April 14 2008 Philippine Water Supply Sector Assessment PDF Philippines Water supply and sanitation sector assessment strategy and road map PDF Mandaluyong Philippines Asian Development Bank 2013 DILG GTZ Water and Sanitation Program September 2007 Program Brief Rural water supply and sanitation PDF Philippines Retrieved April 14 2008 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help World Bank June 12 2007 Projects Philippines PH GEF Manila Third Sewerage Project Retrieved April 14 2008 World Bank May 16 2006 Implementation completion report on a loan in the amount of US 48 million equivalent to Metropolitan Waterworks and Sewerage System for a Manila Second Sewerage Project PDF Retrieved April 19 2008 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help World Bank June 12 2007 Projects Philippines LGU Urban Water and Sanitation Project APL2 Retrieved April 14 2008 Projects Metro Manila Wastewater Management Project The World Bank www worldbank org Retrieved November 9 2015 a b World Bank Approves US 275M Financing for Better Sanitation Services in Metro Manila www worldbank org Retrieved November 9 2015 JICA s Assistance Strategy on Water Supply and Sanitation PDF Japan International Cooperation Agency May 2012 Retrieved October 3 2015 a b Centre on Regulation and Competition March 2006 Shifting The Boundary of the State The Privatization and Regulation of Water Service in Metropolitan Manila PDF Working Paper Series No 123 ISBN 1 905381 22 0 Retrieved April 14 2008 p 5 Philippine Star website May 3 2011 Manila Water reports system loss down to 11 The Philippine STAR Archived from the original on November 6 2007 Retrieved April 14 2008 National Water Resources Board NWRB Local Water Utilities Administration LWUA Department of the Interior and Local Government DILG Water and Sanitation Program WSP World Bank Philippines Towns Water Utilities 2004 Data Book 12 13 32 39 40 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help National Economic and Development Authority NEDA 2004 Medium Term Philippine Development Plan 2004 2010 PDF Medium Term Philippine Development Plan Philippines ISSN 0119 3880 Archived from the original PDF on January 6 2007 Retrieved April 10 2008 p 122 World Bank Water and Sanitation Program East Asia and the Pacific June 6 2003 Management Models for Small Towns Water Supply Lessons learned from case studies in the Philippines PDF Archived from the original PDF on October 27 2007 Retrieved April 8 2008 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help p 10 National Water Resources Board NWRB Local Water Utilities Administration LWUA Department of the Interior and Local Government DILG Water and Sanitation Program WSP World Bank Philippines Towns Water Utilities 2004 Data Book 12 16 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Asian Development Bank ADB August 2009 Country Environmental Analysis for Philippines Retrieved April 16 2008 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Asian Development Bank Asia Pacific Water Forum 2007 Country Paper Philippines Asian Water Development Outlook 2007 Asian Development Bank ISBN 9789814136068 Retrieved April 14 2008 p 8 World Bank December 2003 Philippines Environment Monitor 2003 PDF Retrieved April 16 2008 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help p 18 19 State of water Philippines www wepa db net Retrieved November 9 2015 How El Nino could affect the Philippines in 2015 Rappler Retrieved November 10 2015 Bulacan deforestation drying up Metro Manila water supply Rappler Retrieved November 9 2015 Turning the Tide Improving Water Resource Management in the Philippines PDF Policy Brief Senate Economic Planning Office August 2011 Retrieved October 3 2015 Metro Manila and Metro Cebu Groundwater Assessment PDF Philippine Institute for Development Studies February 2001 Retrieved October 2 2015 External links EditService providers Edit Metropolitan Waterworks and Sewerage System MWSS Manila Water Company Concessionaire of the East Zone of Metro Manila Maynilad Water Services Inc Concessionaire of the West Zone of Metro Manila Philippine Association of Water Districts Local Water Utilities Administration Metropolitan Waterworks and Sewerage System Regulatory Office National Water Resources Board NWRB Philippine Water Partnership Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Water supply and sanitation in the Philippines amp oldid 1120853492 Local Water Utilities Administration LWUA, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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