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Israeli citizenship law

January 24, 2023

Israeli citizenship law details the conditions by which a person holds citizenship of Israel. The two primary pieces of legislation governing these requirements are the 1950 Law of Return and 1952 Citizenship Law.

Citizenship Law, 5712-1952
חוק האזרחות, התשי"ב-1952‎
Knesset
CitationSH 95 146
Territorial extentIsrael
Enacted by2nd Knesset
Enacted1 April 1952[1]
Commenced14 July 1952[1]
Legislative history
First reading20 November 1951
Second reading25–26 March 1952
Third reading1 April 1952[2]
Repeals
Palestinian Citizenship Order 1925
Status: Amended

Every Jew in the world has the unrestricted right to immigrate to Israel and become an Israeli citizen. Individuals born within the country receive Israeli citizenship at birth if at least one parent is a citizen. Non-Jewish foreigners may naturalize after living in the country for at least three years while holding permanent residency and demonstrating knowledge in the Hebrew language. Naturalizing non-Jews are additionally required to renounce their previous nationalities, while Jewish immigrants are not subject to this requirement. All male and female Jewish citizens, as well as male citizens of Druze and Circassian descent must perform compulsory military service; other non-Jewish citizens and Haredi Jews are exempt from conscription.

Israel was formerly administered by the British Empire as part of a League of Nations mandate for Palestine and local residents were British protected persons. The dissolution of the mandate in 1948 and subsequent conflict created a set of complex citizenship circumstances for the non-Jewish inhabitants of the region that continue unresolved.

Terminology

The distinction between the meaning of the terms citizenship and nationality is not always clear in the English language and differs by country. Generally, nationality refers a person's legal belonging to a state and is the common term used in international treaties when referring to members of a state; citizenship refers to the set of rights and duties a person has in that nation.[3]

In the Israeli context, nationality is not linked to a person's origin from a particular territory but has a specific meaning encompassing the national constituency. Although the term may also be used in other countries to indicate a person's ethnic group, the meaning in Israeli law is particularly expansive by including any person practicing Judaism and their descendants.[4] Members of the Jewish nationality form the core part of Israel's citizenry,[5] while the Supreme Court of Israel has ruled that an Israeli nationality does not exist.[5][6] Legislation has defined Israel as the nation state of the Jewish people since 2018.[7]

History

National status under British mandate

See also: History of Palestinian nationality and Mandatory Palestine
 
A British mandate-era passport for a Palestinian resident

The region of Palestine was conquered by the Ottoman Empire in 1516. Accordingly, Ottoman nationality law applied to the area. Palestine was governed by the Ottomans for four centuries until British occupation in 1917 during the First World War.[8] The area nominally remained an Ottoman territory following the conclusion of the war until the United Kingdom obtained a League of Nations mandate for the region in 1922. Similarly, local residents ostensibly continued their status as Ottoman subjects, although British authorities began issuing provisional certificates of Palestinian nationality shortly after the start of occupation.[9]

The Treaty of Lausanne established the basis for separate nationalities in Mandatory Palestine and all other territories ceded by the Ottoman Empire. Ottoman/Turkish subjects who were ordinarily resident in Palestine on 6 August 1924 became Palestinian citizens on that date.[10] Turkish nationals originating from Mandatory territory but habitually resident elsewhere on that date had a right to choose Palestinian citizenship, but this required an application within two years of the treaty's enforcement and approval by the Mandatory government.[11] The Palestinian Citizenship Order 1925 confirmed the transition from Ottoman/Turkish to Palestinian citizenship in local legislation.[12] This law was amended several times, with its final revision in 1942.[13]

Legitimate children of a Palestinian father automatically held Palestinian citizenship. Any person born outside of these conditions who held no other nationality and were otherwise stateless at birth also automatically acquired citizenship. Foreigners could obtain Palestinian citizenship through naturalization after residing in the territory for at least two of the three years preceding an application, fulfilling a language requirement (in English, Hebrew, or Arabic), affirming their intention to permanently reside in Mandate territory, and satisfying a good character requirement.[14]

Despite Britain's sovereignty over Palestinian territory, domestic law treated the mandate as foreign territory. Palestinian citizens were treated as British protected persons, rather than British subjects, meaning that they were aliens in the United Kingdom but could be issued Mandatory Palestine passports by British authorities. Protected persons could not travel to the UK without first requesting permission, but were afforded the same consular protection as British subjects when travelling outside of the British Empire.[15] This arrangement continued until termination of the British mandate on 14 May 1948,[16] the same date on which the State of Israel was established.[17]

Post-1948 transition

For the first four years after its establishment, Israel had no citizenship law and technically had no citizens.[1] Despite Israel's status as the successor state to Mandatory Palestine,[18] Israeli courts during this time offered conflicting opinions on the continuing validity of Palestinian citizenship legislation enacted during the British mandate.[19] While almost all courts held that Palestinian citizenship had ceased to exist at the end of the mandate in 1948 without a replacement status, there was one case in which a judge ruled that all residents of Palestine at the time of Israel's establishment were automatically Israeli nationals.[20] The Supreme Court settled this issue in 1952, ruling that Palestinian citizens of the British mandate had not automatically become Israeli.[21]

Israeli citizenship policy is centered on two early pieces of legislation: the 1950 Law of Return and 1952 Citizenship Law.[22] The Law of Return grants every Jew the right to migrate to and settle in Israel, reinforcing the central Zionist tenant of the return of all Jews to their traditional homeland.[23] The Citizenship Law details the requirements for Israeli citizenship, dependent on an individual's religious affiliation,[24] and explicitly repeals all prior British-enacted legislation concerning Palestinian nationality.[25]

Status of Palestinian Arabs

See also: Arab citizens of Israel and 1948 Palestinian exodus

Jewish residents of former Mandatory Palestine at the time of Israel's establishment were granted Israeli citizenship on the basis of return, but non-Jewish Palestinians were subject to strict residency requirements for claiming that status. Non-Jewish residents in Israel could acquire citizenship on the basis of their residence in 1952 if they were nationals of the British mandate before 1948, had registered as Israeli residents since February 1949 and remained registered, and had not left the country before claiming citizenship.[26]

These requirements were intended to systemically exclude Arabs from participation in the new state. The UNRWA estimated that 720,000 Palestinian Arabs were displaced during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War,[27] with only 170,000 remaining in Israel following its establishment. Until the Citizenship Law was enacted in 1952, all of these individuals were stateless. About 90 percent of the remaining Arab population were barred from Israeli citizenship under the residence requirements and held no nationality.[28]

Palestinians who returned to their homes in Israel after the war did not satisfy the conditions for citizenship under the 1952 law. This class of residents continued living in Israel but held no citizenship or residence status. A 1960 Supreme Court ruling partially addressed this by allowing a looser interpretation of the residential requirements; individuals who had permission to temporarily leave Israel during or shortly after the conflict qualified for citizenship, despite their gap in residence. The Knesset amended the Citizenship Law in 1980 to fully resolve statelessness for this group of residents; all Arab residents who had been living in Israel before 1948 were granted citizenship regardless of their eligibility under the 1952 residence requirements, along with their children.[29]

Palestinians who fled to neighboring countries were not granted citizenship there and remained stateless, except those who resettled in Jordan (which included the West Bank during this period). West Bank Palestinians held Jordanian nationality until 1988, when Jordan renounced its sovereignty claim over the area and unilaterally severed all links to the region. Palestinians living in the West Bank lost Jordanian nationality while those residing in the rest of Jordan maintained that status.[30]

Qualification under right of return

Main article: Law of Return

Apostate and irreligious Jews

See also: Apostasy in Judaism

Although the Law of Return gave every Jew the right to immigrate to Israel, the original text and all other legislation up to that point lacked a clear definition for who was considered a Jew.[31] This absence of clarity was tested in the 1962 Supreme Court case Rufeisen v Minister of the Interior in which Oswald Rufeisen, a Polish Jew who had converted to Catholicism, was ruled to have no longer met the criterion of being a Jew on his religious conversion.[32] The Supreme Court further elaborated on this in 1970, when it determined that persons who are born to Jewish mothers but do not practice Judaism are considered to be part of the Jewish people as long as they have not converted to another religion. Converting to any other faith is considered to be a deliberate act of dissociation from the Jewish people.[33]

The Law of Return was amended in 1970 to provide a more detailed explanation of who qualifies: a Jew means any person born to a Jewish mother, or someone who has converted to Judaism and is not an adherent of another religion. The amendment extended the right of return to Israel to include children, grandchildren, and a spouse of a Jew, as well as spouses of their children and grandchildren.[34] This entitlement was given despite the fact that not all applicable persons would be considered Jews under halakha (Jewish religious law).[35]

The Citizenship Law was amended in 1971 to allow any Jew who formally expresses their desire to migrate to Israel to immediately become an Israeli citizen, without any requirement to enter Israeli territory. This change was made to facilitate emigration of Jews from the Soviet Union, who were routinely denied exit visas,[36] especially after the 1967 Six-Day War.[37] Migration from the Soviet Union remained at low levels until exit restrictions were relaxed in the late 1980s.[24]

While some emigrants made their way to Western countries, most settled in Israel. Other states imposed quotas on the number of Jews who could immigrate from the Soviet Union at the request of the Israeli government, which intended to redirect the flow of migrants to Israel itself. After the United States began enforcing an entry quota, the number of Soviet Jews emigrating to Israel increased sharply from just 2,250 in 1988 to over 200,000 in 1990[38] and remained at high levels following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 and subsequent 1998 Russian financial crisis. About 940,000 Jews from the former Soviet Union departed for Israel between 1989 and 2002.[39] Most of this wave of migrants were nonpracticing and secular Jews; a significant portion were not considered Jewish under halakha, but qualified for immigration based on the Law of Return.[40]

Recognition of non-Orthodox Jews

The definition of a Jew in the 1970 Law of Return amendment does not explain the meaning of "conversion" and has been interpreted to allow for adherents of any Jewish movement to qualify for right of return.[41] The Chief Rabbinate operates under an Orthodox interpretation of halakha and is the authoritative institution for religious matters within Israel, which has led to disputes over whether converts into non-Orthodox movements of Judaism should be recognized as Jews.[42] Foreigners who convert to Conservative or Reform Judaism within the country have been entitled to citizenship under the Law of Return since 2021.[43] Both the Chief Rabbinate and Supreme Court consider followers of Messianic Judaism as Christians and specifically bar them from right of return,[44] unless they otherwise have sufficient Jewish descent.[45]

Ethiopian Jews, also known as Beta Israel, lived as an isolated community away from mainstream Judaism since at least the Early Middle Ages prior to their contact with the outside world in the 19th century. Over the course of their prolonged separation, this population developed a number of religious practices heavily influenced by Coptic Christianity differing from those of other Jews.[46] Their status as Jews was disputed until the Chief Rabbinate confirmed its recognition of this group as Jews in 1973 and declared its support for their immigration to Israel.[47] Following Ethiopia's communist revolution and the subsequent outbreak of civil war, the Israeli government resettled 45,000 people, nearly the entire Ethiopian Jewish population.[48]

Falash Mura

Migrating with the Beta Israel were the Falash Mura, Jews who converted to Christianity for ease of integration with Ethiopian society but largely remained associated the Ethiopian Jewish community. A ministerial decision in 1992 ruled this community ineligible for right of return, but some migrants were allowed to immigrate to Israel for family reunification.[49] Subsequent government decisions have allowed more Falash Mura to migrate, though they are required to convert to Judaism before receiving citizenship. About 33,000 members of this community entered Israel from 1993 to 2013.[42]

Acquisition and loss of citizenship

Entitlement by birth, descent, or adoption

Individuals born within the territory of Israel receive citizenship at birth if at least one parent is an Israeli citizen. Children born overseas are Israeli citizens by descent if either parent is a citizen, limited to the first generation born abroad.[24] Adopted children are automatically granted citizenship at the time of adoption, regardless of their religious status.[50] Individuals born in Israel who are between the ages of 18 and 21 and have never held any nationality are entitled to Israeli citizenship, provided that they have been continuously resident in the country for the five years immediately preceding their application.[51]

Voluntary acquisition

 
A welcoming for new immigrants from North America

Any Jew who immigrates to Israel as an oleh (Jewish immigrant) under the Law of Return automatically becomes an Israeli citizen.[52] In this context, a Jew means a person born to a Jewish mother, or someone who has converted to Judaism and does not adhere to another religion. This right to citizenship extends to any children or grandchildren of a Jew, as well as the spouse of a Jew, or the spouse of a child or grandchild of a Jew. A Jew who voluntarily converts to another religion forfeits their right to claim citizenship under this provision.[53] At the end of 2020, 21 percent of the total Jewish population in Israel was born overseas.[54]

Foreigners may naturalize as Israeli citizens after residing in Israel for at least three of the previous five years while holding permanent residency. Candidates must be physically present in the country at the time of application, be able to demonstrate knowledge of the Hebrew language, have the intention of permanently settling in Israel, and renounce any foreign nationalities.[55] Although Arabic was previously an official language and has a special recognized status,[56] there is no similar knowledge stipulation for it as part of the naturalization process.[57] All of these requirements may be partially or completely waived for a candidate if they: served in the Israel Defense Forces or suffered the loss of a child during their military service period, are a minor child of a naturalized parent or Israeli resident, or made extraordinary contributions to Israel.[58] Successful applicants are required to swear an oath of allegiance to the State of Israel.[55]

Dual/multiple citizenship is explicitly allowed for an oleh who becomes Israeli by right of return. This is to encourage the overseas Jewish diaspora to migrate to Israel without forcing them to lose their previous national statuses. By contrast, naturalization candidates are required to renounce their original nationalities to obtain citizenship. Persons opting to naturalize are typically individuals who migrate to Israel for employment or family reasons, or are permanent residents of East Jerusalem and the Golan Heights.[59]

Relinquishment and deprivation

Israeli citizenship can be voluntarily relinquished by making a declaration of renunciation, provided that the declarant is living overseas, already possesses another nationality, and has no military service obligations.[60] Returnees living in Israel who obtained Israeli citizenship may also voluntarily renounce that status if continuing to hold it would cause their loss of another country's nationality.[61] Between 2003 and 2015, there were 8,308 people who renounced their Israeli citizenship.[62]

Citizenship may be involuntarily removed from individuals who fraudulently acquired it or from those who willfully perform an act that constitutes a breach of loyalty to the state.[63] The Minister of Interior may revoke citizenship from a person who obtained that status based on false information within three years of that person having become an Israeli citizen. For persons who fradulently acquired citizenship more than three years earlier, the Minister must request the Administrative Court to revoke citizenship.[64] Revocation on the basis of disloyalty is exceptionally rare; Israel has revoked citizenship in these circumstances on three occasions since 1948, twice in 2002 and once in 2017.[63] Israeli citizenship may also be revoked from citizens who illegally travel to countries officially declared as enemy states (Syria, Lebanon, Iraq, and Iran)[65] or if they obtain nationality from one of those nations.[66]

Spousal access to citizenship

Non-Jewish spouses have right of return if they immigrate to Israel at the same time as their Jewish spouses;[67] same-sex spouses of Jews have been eligible for this since 2014.[68] Otherwise, they are granted temporary residence permits that are gradually replaced by less restrictive conditions of stay over a period of 4.5 years until they become eligible for citizenship. Until 1996, non-Jewish spouses without right of return were immediately granted permanent residency upon their entry into Israel.[69] Marriages must be valid under Israeli law for the partner of a citizen to be eligible for citizenship under the 4.5-year naturalization process. Common-law or same-sex partners are subject to a longer 7.5-year gradual process that grants permanent residency, after which they may apply for naturalization under the standard procedure.[70]

Male spouses under the age of 35 and female spouses under 25 originating from the Palestinian territories are prohibited from obtaining citizenship and residency.[71] The 2003 Citizenship and Entry into Israel Law effectively discouraged further marriages between Israeli citizens and Palestinians by preventing couples in these circumstances from cohabitation.[72] Although challenged as unconstitutional, this restriction was upheld by the Supreme Court in 2006[73] and 2012 and continued to be effective until the law's expiration in July 2021.[74][75] These restrictions were reimplemented in law with no expiration time in March 2022.[76]

Rights and obligations of citizens

See also: Visa requirements for Israeli citizens

Israeli citizens are required to register for Israeli identity cards,[77] eligible to hold Israeli passports,[78] and able to vote in all elections.[79] Dual citizens are prohibited from serving in the Knesset or in any government roles that require handling sensitive security matters.[80] Conscription is mandatory for all male and female Jewish citizens, and male citizens of Druze and Circassian descent; non-Jewish citizens and Haredi Jews are exempted.[81]

References

Citations

  1. ^ a b c Margalith 1953, p. 63.
  2. ^ "Citizenship Law, 1952" (in Hebrew). Knesset. from the original on 3 March 2022. Retrieved 2 March 2022.
  3. ^ Kondo 2001, pp. 2–3.
  4. ^ Tekiner 1991, p. 49.
  5. ^ a b Tekiner 1991, p. 50.
  6. ^ Goldenberg, Tia (4 October 2013). "Supreme Court rejects 'Israeli' nationality status". The Times of Israel. from the original on 13 February 2020. Retrieved 6 November 2018.
  7. ^ Berger, Miriam (31 July 2018). "Israel's hugely controversial "nation-state" law, explained". Vox. from the original on 27 January 2022. Retrieved 2 March 2022.
  8. ^ Qafisheh 2010, p. 1.
  9. ^ Qafisheh 2010, p. 5.
  10. ^ Qafisheh 2010, pp. 14–15.
  11. ^ Qafisheh 2010, p. 16.
  12. ^ Qafisheh 2010, p. 17.
  13. ^ Survey of Palestine, Volume 1, p. 206.
  14. ^ Survey of Palestine, Volume 1, pp. 206–207.
  15. ^ Jones 1945, pp. 127–128.
  16. ^ Qafisheh 2010, pp. 7, 16.
  17. ^ Kohn 1954, p. 369.
  18. ^ Masri 2015, p. 362.
  19. ^ Masri 2015, p. 372.
  20. ^ Goodwin-Gill & McAdam 2007, pp. 459–460.
  21. ^ Kattan 2005, p. 84.
  22. ^ Harpaz & Herzog 2018, p. 1.
  23. ^ Harpaz & Herzog 2018, pp. 1–2.
  24. ^ a b c Harpaz & Herzog 2018, p. 4.
  25. ^ Goodwin-Gill & McAdam 2007, p. 460.
  26. ^ Harpaz & Herzog 2018, pp. 4–5.
  27. ^ Davis 1995, p. 23.
  28. ^ Davis 1995, pp. 26–27.
  29. ^ Shachar 1999, pp. 250–251.
  30. ^ Masri 2015, p. 375.
  31. ^ Savir 1963, pp. 123–124.
  32. ^ Savir 1963, p. 128.
  33. ^ Richmond 1993, pp. 106–109.
  34. ^ Perez 2011, p. 61.
  35. ^ Harpaz & Herzog 2018, pp. 3–4.
  36. ^ Quigley 1991, pp. 388–389.
  37. ^ Stern, Sol (16 April 1972). "The Russian Jews Wonder Whether Israel Is Really Ready for Them". The New York Times. from the original on 1 October 2021. Retrieved 1 October 2021.
  38. ^ Quigley 1991, pp. 390–391.
  39. ^ Tolts 2003, p. 71.
  40. ^ Emmons 1997, p. 344.
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  42. ^ a b Harpaz & Herzog 2018, p. 16.
  43. ^ Kingsley, Patrick (1 March 2021). "Israeli Court Says Converts to Non-Orthodox Judaism Can Claim Citizenship". The New York Times. from the original on 18 October 2021. Retrieved 18 October 2021.
  44. ^ "Israeli Court Rules Jews for Jesus Cannot Automatically Be Citizens". The New York Times. Associated Press. 27 December 1989. from the original on 19 July 2021. Retrieved 2 October 2021.
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  46. ^ Weil 1997, pp. 397–399.
  47. ^ Weil 1997, pp. 400–401.
  48. ^ Kaplan & Rosen 1994, pp. 62–66.
  49. ^ Kaplan & Rosen 1994, pp. 66–68.
  50. ^ Harpaz & Herzog 2018, pp. 5–6.
  51. ^ Kassim 2000, p. 206.
  52. ^ Harpaz & Herzog 2018, pp. 2, 4.
  53. ^ Harpaz & Herzog 2018, p. 3.
  54. ^ Jews, By Continent of Origin, Continent of Birth and Period of Immigration (PDF). Statistical Abstract of Israel 2020 (Report). Central Bureau of Statistics. 31 August 2021. (PDF) from the original on 28 October 2021. Retrieved 27 October 2021.
  55. ^ a b Herzog 2017, pp. 61–62.
  56. ^ "Israel Passes 'National Home' Law, Drawing Ire of Arabs". The New York Times. 18 July 2018. from the original on 24 December 2018. Retrieved 30 September 2021.
  57. ^ Amara 1999, p. 90.
  58. ^ Shapira 2017, pp. 127–128.
  59. ^ Harpaz & Herzog 2018, pp. 9–10.
  60. ^ "Give up (renounce) Israeli citizenship – for Israelis living abroad". Government of Israel. from the original on 1 November 2020. Retrieved 29 September 2021.
  61. ^ "Give up (renounce) Israeli citizenship in order to keep your foreign citizenship". Government of Israel. from the original on 5 October 2021. Retrieved 29 September 2021.
  62. ^ Eichner, Itamar (23 June 2016). "8,308 Israelis renounced citizenship over past 12 years". Ynet. from the original on 7 April 2019. Retrieved 29 September 2021.
  63. ^ a b Harpaz & Herzog 2018, p. 6.
  64. ^ Levush, Ruth (23 March 2017). "Israel: Amendment Authorizing Revocation of Israeli Nationality Passed". Library of Congress. from the original on 30 September 2021. Retrieved 2 April 2018.
  65. ^ Herzog 2010, p. 57.
  66. ^ Herzog 2010, pp. 62–63.
  67. ^ Kaplan 2015, pp. 1090–1091.
  68. ^ Sharon, Jeremy (12 August 2014). "Non-Jewish partners in gay marriage are now entitled to make aliya". The Jerusalem Post. from the original on 24 October 2021. Retrieved 27 October 2021.
  69. ^ Shapira 2017, p. 131.
  70. ^ Shapira 2017, p. 132.
  71. ^ Carmi 2007, p. 32.
  72. ^ Nikfar 2005, p. 2.
  73. ^ Carmi 2007, p. 26.
  74. ^ Boxerman, Aaron (6 July 2021). "With ban on Palestinian family unification expiring, what happens next?". The Times of Israel. from the original on 4 October 2021. Retrieved 4 October 2021.
  75. ^ Kershner, Isabel (6 July 2021). "Israel's New Government Fails to Extend Contentious Citizenship Law". The New York Times. from the original on 6 August 2021. Retrieved 4 October 2021.
  76. ^ Chacar, Henriette (10 March 2022). Oatis, Jonathan (ed.). "Israel's Knesset passes law barring Palestinian spouses". Reuters. from the original on 11 March 2022. Retrieved 11 March 2022.
  77. ^ Tawil-Souri 2011, p. 71.
  78. ^ "Passports, Travel Documents and laissez passer". Consulate General of Israel to the Midwest. from the original on 20 February 2020. Retrieved 4 October 2021.
  79. ^ Jean, Celia (26 February 2020). "How many Israelis are eligible to vote in the upcoming election?". The Jerusalem Post. from the original on 12 August 2021. Retrieved 4 October 2021.
  80. ^ Harpaz & Herzog 2018, p. 10.
  81. ^ Hamanaka 2016, pp. 73–75, 84–85.

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External links

  • Ministry of Aliyah and Immigration

January 24, 2023
israeli, citizenship, details, conditions, which, person, holds, citizenship, israel, primary, pieces, legislation, governing, these, requirements, 1950, return, 1952, citizenship, citizenship, 5712, 1952חוק, האזרחות, התשי, 1952, knessetcitationsh, 146territor. Israeli citizenship law details the conditions by which a person holds citizenship of Israel The two primary pieces of legislation governing these requirements are the 1950 Law of Return and 1952 Citizenship Law Citizenship Law 5712 1952חוק האזרחות התשי ב 1952 KnessetCitationSH 95 146Territorial extentIsraelEnacted by2nd KnessetEnacted1 April 1952 1 Commenced14 July 1952 1 Legislative historyFirst reading20 November 1951Second reading25 26 March 1952Third reading1 April 1952 2 RepealsPalestinian Citizenship Order 1925Status AmendedEvery Jew in the world has the unrestricted right to immigrate to Israel and become an Israeli citizen Individuals born within the country receive Israeli citizenship at birth if at least one parent is a citizen Non Jewish foreigners may naturalize after living in the country for at least three years while holding permanent residency and demonstrating knowledge in the Hebrew language Naturalizing non Jews are additionally required to renounce their previous nationalities while Jewish immigrants are not subject to this requirement All male and female Jewish citizens as well as male citizens of Druze and Circassian descent must perform compulsory military service other non Jewish citizens and Haredi Jews are exempt from conscription Israel was formerly administered by the British Empire as part of a League of Nations mandate for Palestine and local residents were British protected persons The dissolution of the mandate in 1948 and subsequent conflict created a set of complex citizenship circumstances for the non Jewish inhabitants of the region that continue unresolved Contents 1 Terminology 2 History 2 1 National status under British mandate 2 2 Post 1948 transition 2 3 Status of Palestinian Arabs 2 4 Qualification under right of return 2 4 1 Apostate and irreligious Jews 2 4 2 Recognition of non Orthodox Jews 2 4 3 Falash Mura 3 Acquisition and loss of citizenship 3 1 Entitlement by birth descent or adoption 3 2 Voluntary acquisition 3 3 Relinquishment and deprivation 3 4 Spousal access to citizenship 4 Rights and obligations of citizens 5 References 5 1 Citations 5 2 General sources 6 External linksTerminologyThe distinction between the meaning of the terms citizenship and nationality is not always clear in the English language and differs by country Generally nationality refers a person s legal belonging to a state and is the common term used in international treaties when referring to members of a state citizenship refers to the set of rights and duties a person has in that nation 3 In the Israeli context nationality is not linked to a person s origin from a particular territory but has a specific meaning encompassing the national constituency Although the term may also be used in other countries to indicate a person s ethnic group the meaning in Israeli law is particularly expansive by including any person practicing Judaism and their descendants 4 Members of the Jewish nationality form the core part of Israel s citizenry 5 while the Supreme Court of Israel has ruled that an Israeli nationality does not exist 5 6 Legislation has defined Israel as the nation state of the Jewish people since 2018 7 HistoryNational status under British mandate See also History of Palestinian nationality and Mandatory Palestine A British mandate era passport for a Palestinian resident The region of Palestine was conquered by the Ottoman Empire in 1516 Accordingly Ottoman nationality law applied to the area Palestine was governed by the Ottomans for four centuries until British occupation in 1917 during the First World War 8 The area nominally remained an Ottoman territory following the conclusion of the war until the United Kingdom obtained a League of Nations mandate for the region in 1922 Similarly local residents ostensibly continued their status as Ottoman subjects although British authorities began issuing provisional certificates of Palestinian nationality shortly after the start of occupation 9 The Treaty of Lausanne established the basis for separate nationalities in Mandatory Palestine and all other territories ceded by the Ottoman Empire Ottoman Turkish subjects who were ordinarily resident in Palestine on 6 August 1924 became Palestinian citizens on that date 10 Turkish nationals originating from Mandatory territory but habitually resident elsewhere on that date had a right to choose Palestinian citizenship but this required an application within two years of the treaty s enforcement and approval by the Mandatory government 11 The Palestinian Citizenship Order 1925 confirmed the transition from Ottoman Turkish to Palestinian citizenship in local legislation 12 This law was amended several times with its final revision in 1942 13 Legitimate children of a Palestinian father automatically held Palestinian citizenship Any person born outside of these conditions who held no other nationality and were otherwise stateless at birth also automatically acquired citizenship Foreigners could obtain Palestinian citizenship through naturalization after residing in the territory for at least two of the three years preceding an application fulfilling a language requirement in English Hebrew or Arabic affirming their intention to permanently reside in Mandate territory and satisfying a good character requirement 14 Despite Britain s sovereignty over Palestinian territory domestic law treated the mandate as foreign territory Palestinian citizens were treated as British protected persons rather than British subjects meaning that they were aliens in the United Kingdom but could be issued Mandatory Palestine passports by British authorities Protected persons could not travel to the UK without first requesting permission but were afforded the same consular protection as British subjects when travelling outside of the British Empire 15 This arrangement continued until termination of the British mandate on 14 May 1948 16 the same date on which the State of Israel was established 17 Post 1948 transition For the first four years after its establishment Israel had no citizenship law and technically had no citizens 1 Despite Israel s status as the successor state to Mandatory Palestine 18 Israeli courts during this time offered conflicting opinions on the continuing validity of Palestinian citizenship legislation enacted during the British mandate 19 While almost all courts held that Palestinian citizenship had ceased to exist at the end of the mandate in 1948 without a replacement status there was one case in which a judge ruled that all residents of Palestine at the time of Israel s establishment were automatically Israeli nationals 20 The Supreme Court settled this issue in 1952 ruling that Palestinian citizens of the British mandate had not automatically become Israeli 21 Israeli citizenship policy is centered on two early pieces of legislation the 1950 Law of Return and 1952 Citizenship Law 22 The Law of Return grants every Jew the right to migrate to and settle in Israel reinforcing the central Zionist tenant of the return of all Jews to their traditional homeland 23 The Citizenship Law details the requirements for Israeli citizenship dependent on an individual s religious affiliation 24 and explicitly repeals all prior British enacted legislation concerning Palestinian nationality 25 Status of Palestinian Arabs See also Arab citizens of Israel and 1948 Palestinian exodus Jewish residents of former Mandatory Palestine at the time of Israel s establishment were granted Israeli citizenship on the basis of return but non Jewish Palestinians were subject to strict residency requirements for claiming that status Non Jewish residents in Israel could acquire citizenship on the basis of their residence in 1952 if they were nationals of the British mandate before 1948 had registered as Israeli residents since February 1949 and remained registered and had not left the country before claiming citizenship 26 These requirements were intended to systemically exclude Arabs from participation in the new state The UNRWA estimated that 720 000 Palestinian Arabs were displaced during the 1948 Arab Israeli War 27 with only 170 000 remaining in Israel following its establishment Until the Citizenship Law was enacted in 1952 all of these individuals were stateless About 90 percent of the remaining Arab population were barred from Israeli citizenship under the residence requirements and held no nationality 28 Palestinians who returned to their homes in Israel after the war did not satisfy the conditions for citizenship under the 1952 law This class of residents continued living in Israel but held no citizenship or residence status A 1960 Supreme Court ruling partially addressed this by allowing a looser interpretation of the residential requirements individuals who had permission to temporarily leave Israel during or shortly after the conflict qualified for citizenship despite their gap in residence The Knesset amended the Citizenship Law in 1980 to fully resolve statelessness for this group of residents all Arab residents who had been living in Israel before 1948 were granted citizenship regardless of their eligibility under the 1952 residence requirements along with their children 29 Palestinians who fled to neighboring countries were not granted citizenship there and remained stateless except those who resettled in Jordan which included the West Bank during this period West Bank Palestinians held Jordanian nationality until 1988 when Jordan renounced its sovereignty claim over the area and unilaterally severed all links to the region Palestinians living in the West Bank lost Jordanian nationality while those residing in the rest of Jordan maintained that status 30 Qualification under right of return Main article Law of Return Apostate and irreligious Jews See also Apostasy in Judaism Although the Law of Return gave every Jew the right to immigrate to Israel the original text and all other legislation up to that point lacked a clear definition for who was considered a Jew 31 This absence of clarity was tested in the 1962 Supreme Court case Rufeisen v Minister of the Interior in which Oswald Rufeisen a Polish Jew who had converted to Catholicism was ruled to have no longer met the criterion of being a Jew on his religious conversion 32 The Supreme Court further elaborated on this in 1970 when it determined that persons who are born to Jewish mothers but do not practice Judaism are considered to be part of the Jewish people as long as they have not converted to another religion Converting to any other faith is considered to be a deliberate act of dissociation from the Jewish people 33 The Law of Return was amended in 1970 to provide a more detailed explanation of who qualifies a Jew means any person born to a Jewish mother or someone who has converted to Judaism and is not an adherent of another religion The amendment extended the right of return to Israel to include children grandchildren and a spouse of a Jew as well as spouses of their children and grandchildren 34 This entitlement was given despite the fact that not all applicable persons would be considered Jews under halakha Jewish religious law 35 The Citizenship Law was amended in 1971 to allow any Jew who formally expresses their desire to migrate to Israel to immediately become an Israeli citizen without any requirement to enter Israeli territory This change was made to facilitate emigration of Jews from the Soviet Union who were routinely denied exit visas 36 especially after the 1967 Six Day War 37 Migration from the Soviet Union remained at low levels until exit restrictions were relaxed in the late 1980s 24 While some emigrants made their way to Western countries most settled in Israel Other states imposed quotas on the number of Jews who could immigrate from the Soviet Union at the request of the Israeli government which intended to redirect the flow of migrants to Israel itself After the United States began enforcing an entry quota the number of Soviet Jews emigrating to Israel increased sharply from just 2 250 in 1988 to over 200 000 in 1990 38 and remained at high levels following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 and subsequent 1998 Russian financial crisis About 940 000 Jews from the former Soviet Union departed for Israel between 1989 and 2002 39 Most of this wave of migrants were nonpracticing and secular Jews a significant portion were not considered Jewish under halakha but qualified for immigration based on the Law of Return 40 Recognition of non Orthodox Jews The definition of a Jew in the 1970 Law of Return amendment does not explain the meaning of conversion and has been interpreted to allow for adherents of any Jewish movement to qualify for right of return 41 The Chief Rabbinate operates under an Orthodox interpretation of halakha and is the authoritative institution for religious matters within Israel which has led to disputes over whether converts into non Orthodox movements of Judaism should be recognized as Jews 42 Foreigners who convert to Conservative or Reform Judaism within the country have been entitled to citizenship under the Law of Return since 2021 43 Both the Chief Rabbinate and Supreme Court consider followers of Messianic Judaism as Christians and specifically bar them from right of return 44 unless they otherwise have sufficient Jewish descent 45 Ethiopian Jews also known as Beta Israel lived as an isolated community away from mainstream Judaism since at least the Early Middle Ages prior to their contact with the outside world in the 19th century Over the course of their prolonged separation this population developed a number of religious practices heavily influenced by Coptic Christianity differing from those of other Jews 46 Their status as Jews was disputed until the Chief Rabbinate confirmed its recognition of this group as Jews in 1973 and declared its support for their immigration to Israel 47 Following Ethiopia s communist revolution and the subsequent outbreak of civil war the Israeli government resettled 45 000 people nearly the entire Ethiopian Jewish population 48 Falash Mura Migrating with the Beta Israel were the Falash Mura Jews who converted to Christianity for ease of integration with Ethiopian society but largely remained associated the Ethiopian Jewish community A ministerial decision in 1992 ruled this community ineligible for right of return but some migrants were allowed to immigrate to Israel for family reunification 49 Subsequent government decisions have allowed more Falash Mura to migrate though they are required to convert to Judaism before receiving citizenship About 33 000 members of this community entered Israel from 1993 to 2013 42 Acquisition and loss of citizenshipEntitlement by birth descent or adoption Individuals born within the territory of Israel receive citizenship at birth if at least one parent is an Israeli citizen Children born overseas are Israeli citizens by descent if either parent is a citizen limited to the first generation born abroad 24 Adopted children are automatically granted citizenship at the time of adoption regardless of their religious status 50 Individuals born in Israel who are between the ages of 18 and 21 and have never held any nationality are entitled to Israeli citizenship provided that they have been continuously resident in the country for the five years immediately preceding their application 51 Voluntary acquisition A welcoming for new immigrants from North America Any Jew who immigrates to Israel as an oleh Jewish immigrant under the Law of Return automatically becomes an Israeli citizen 52 In this context a Jew means a person born to a Jewish mother or someone who has converted to Judaism and does not adhere to another religion This right to citizenship extends to any children or grandchildren of a Jew as well as the spouse of a Jew or the spouse of a child or grandchild of a Jew A Jew who voluntarily converts to another religion forfeits their right to claim citizenship under this provision 53 At the end of 2020 21 percent of the total Jewish population in Israel was born overseas 54 Foreigners may naturalize as Israeli citizens after residing in Israel for at least three of the previous five years while holding permanent residency Candidates must be physically present in the country at the time of application be able to demonstrate knowledge of the Hebrew language have the intention of permanently settling in Israel and renounce any foreign nationalities 55 Although Arabic was previously an official language and has a special recognized status 56 there is no similar knowledge stipulation for it as part of the naturalization process 57 All of these requirements may be partially or completely waived for a candidate if they served in the Israel Defense Forces or suffered the loss of a child during their military service period are a minor child of a naturalized parent or Israeli resident or made extraordinary contributions to Israel 58 Successful applicants are required to swear an oath of allegiance to the State of Israel 55 Dual multiple citizenship is explicitly allowed for an oleh who becomes Israeli by right of return This is to encourage the overseas Jewish diaspora to migrate to Israel without forcing them to lose their previous national statuses By contrast naturalization candidates are required to renounce their original nationalities to obtain citizenship Persons opting to naturalize are typically individuals who migrate to Israel for employment or family reasons or are permanent residents of East Jerusalem and the Golan Heights 59 Relinquishment and deprivation Israeli citizenship can be voluntarily relinquished by making a declaration of renunciation provided that the declarant is living overseas already possesses another nationality and has no military service obligations 60 Returnees living in Israel who obtained Israeli citizenship may also voluntarily renounce that status if continuing to hold it would cause their loss of another country s nationality 61 Between 2003 and 2015 there were 8 308 people who renounced their Israeli citizenship 62 Citizenship may be involuntarily removed from individuals who fraudulently acquired it or from those who willfully perform an act that constitutes a breach of loyalty to the state 63 The Minister of Interior may revoke citizenship from a person who obtained that status based on false information within three years of that person having become an Israeli citizen For persons who fradulently acquired citizenship more than three years earlier the Minister must request the Administrative Court to revoke citizenship 64 Revocation on the basis of disloyalty is exceptionally rare Israel has revoked citizenship in these circumstances on three occasions since 1948 twice in 2002 and once in 2017 63 Israeli citizenship may also be revoked from citizens who illegally travel to countries officially declared as enemy states Syria Lebanon Iraq and Iran 65 or if they obtain nationality from one of those nations 66 Spousal access to citizenship Non Jewish spouses have right of return if they immigrate to Israel at the same time as their Jewish spouses 67 same sex spouses of Jews have been eligible for this since 2014 68 Otherwise they are granted temporary residence permits that are gradually replaced by less restrictive conditions of stay over a period of 4 5 years until they become eligible for citizenship Until 1996 non Jewish spouses without right of return were immediately granted permanent residency upon their entry into Israel 69 Marriages must be valid under Israeli law for the partner of a citizen to be eligible for citizenship under the 4 5 year naturalization process Common law or same sex partners are subject to a longer 7 5 year gradual process that grants permanent residency after which they may apply for naturalization under the standard procedure 70 Male spouses under the age of 35 and female spouses under 25 originating from the Palestinian territories are prohibited from obtaining citizenship and residency 71 The 2003 Citizenship and Entry into Israel Law effectively discouraged further marriages between Israeli citizens and Palestinians by preventing couples in these circumstances from cohabitation 72 Although challenged as unconstitutional this restriction was upheld by the Supreme Court in 2006 73 and 2012 and continued to be effective until the law s expiration in July 2021 74 75 These restrictions were reimplemented in law with no expiration time in March 2022 76 Rights and obligations of citizensSee also Visa requirements for Israeli citizens Israeli citizens are required to register for Israeli identity cards 77 eligible to hold Israeli passports 78 and able to vote in all elections 79 Dual citizens are prohibited from serving in the Knesset or in any government roles that require handling sensitive security matters 80 Conscription is mandatory for all male and female Jewish citizens and male citizens of Druze and Circassian descent non Jewish citizens and Haredi Jews are exempted 81 ReferencesCitations a b c Margalith 1953 p 63 Citizenship Law 1952 in Hebrew Knesset Archived from the original on 3 March 2022 Retrieved 2 March 2022 Kondo 2001 pp 2 3 Tekiner 1991 p 49 a b Tekiner 1991 p 50 Goldenberg Tia 4 October 2013 Supreme Court rejects Israeli nationality status The Times of Israel Archived from the original on 13 February 2020 Retrieved 6 November 2018 Berger Miriam 31 July 2018 Israel s hugely controversial nation state law explained Vox Archived from the original on 27 January 2022 Retrieved 2 March 2022 Qafisheh 2010 p 1 Qafisheh 2010 p 5 Qafisheh 2010 pp 14 15 Qafisheh 2010 p 16 Qafisheh 2010 p 17 Survey of Palestine Volume 1 p 206 Survey of Palestine Volume 1 pp 206 207 Jones 1945 pp 127 128 Qafisheh 2010 pp 7 16 Kohn 1954 p 369 Masri 2015 p 362 Masri 2015 p 372 Goodwin Gill amp McAdam 2007 pp 459 460 Kattan 2005 p 84 Harpaz amp Herzog 2018 p 1 Harpaz amp Herzog 2018 pp 1 2 a b c Harpaz amp Herzog 2018 p 4 Goodwin Gill amp McAdam 2007 p 460 Harpaz amp Herzog 2018 pp 4 5 Davis 1995 p 23 Davis 1995 pp 26 27 Shachar 1999 pp 250 251 Masri 2015 p 375 Savir 1963 pp 123 124 Savir 1963 p 128 Richmond 1993 pp 106 109 Perez 2011 p 61 Harpaz amp Herzog 2018 pp 3 4 Quigley 1991 pp 388 389 Stern Sol 16 April 1972 The Russian Jews Wonder Whether Israel Is Really Ready for Them The New York Times Archived from the original on 1 October 2021 Retrieved 1 October 2021 Quigley 1991 pp 390 391 Tolts 2003 p 71 Emmons 1997 p 344 Richmond 1993 pp 110 112 a b Harpaz amp Herzog 2018 p 16 Kingsley Patrick 1 March 2021 Israeli Court Says Converts to Non Orthodox Judaism Can Claim Citizenship The New York Times Archived from the original on 18 October 2021 Retrieved 18 October 2021 Israeli Court Rules Jews for Jesus Cannot Automatically Be Citizens The New York Times Associated Press 27 December 1989 Archived from the original on 19 July 2021 Retrieved 2 October 2021 Zieve Tamara 16 December 2017 Will Israel ever accept Messianic Jews The Jerusalem Post Archived from the original on 2 October 2021 Retrieved 2 October 2021 Weil 1997 pp 397 399 Weil 1997 pp 400 401 Kaplan amp Rosen 1994 pp 62 66 Kaplan amp Rosen 1994 pp 66 68 Harpaz amp Herzog 2018 pp 5 6 Kassim 2000 p 206 Harpaz amp Herzog 2018 pp 2 4 Harpaz amp Herzog 2018 p 3 Jews By Continent of Origin Continent of Birth and Period of Immigration PDF Statistical Abstract of Israel 2020 Report Central Bureau of Statistics 31 August 2021 Archived PDF from the original on 28 October 2021 Retrieved 27 October 2021 a b Herzog 2017 pp 61 62 Israel Passes National Home Law Drawing Ire of Arabs The New York Times 18 July 2018 Archived from the original on 24 December 2018 Retrieved 30 September 2021 Amara 1999 p 90 Shapira 2017 pp 127 128 Harpaz amp Herzog 2018 pp 9 10 Give up renounce Israeli citizenship for Israelis living abroad Government of Israel Archived from the original on 1 November 2020 Retrieved 29 September 2021 Give up renounce Israeli citizenship in order to keep your foreign citizenship Government of Israel Archived from the original on 5 October 2021 Retrieved 29 September 2021 Eichner Itamar 23 June 2016 8 308 Israelis renounced citizenship over past 12 years Ynet Archived from the original on 7 April 2019 Retrieved 29 September 2021 a b Harpaz amp Herzog 2018 p 6 Levush Ruth 23 March 2017 Israel Amendment Authorizing Revocation of Israeli Nationality Passed Library of Congress Archived from the original on 30 September 2021 Retrieved 2 April 2018 Herzog 2010 p 57 Herzog 2010 pp 62 63 Kaplan 2015 pp 1090 1091 Sharon Jeremy 12 August 2014 Non Jewish partners in gay marriage are now entitled to make aliya The Jerusalem Post Archived from the original on 24 October 2021 Retrieved 27 October 2021 Shapira 2017 p 131 Shapira 2017 p 132 Carmi 2007 p 32 Nikfar 2005 p 2 Carmi 2007 p 26 Boxerman Aaron 6 July 2021 With ban on Palestinian family unification expiring what happens next The Times of Israel Archived from the original on 4 October 2021 Retrieved 4 October 2021 Kershner Isabel 6 July 2021 Israel s New Government Fails to Extend Contentious Citizenship Law The New York Times Archived from the original on 6 August 2021 Retrieved 4 October 2021 Chacar Henriette 10 March 2022 Oatis Jonathan ed Israel s Knesset passes law barring Palestinian spouses Reuters Archived from the original on 11 March 2022 Retrieved 11 March 2022 Tawil Souri 2011 p 71 Passports Travel Documents and laissez passer Consulate General of Israel to the Midwest Archived from the original on 20 February 2020 Retrieved 4 October 2021 Jean Celia 26 February 2020 How many Israelis are eligible to vote in the upcoming election The Jerusalem Post Archived from the original on 12 August 2021 Retrieved 4 October 2021 Harpaz amp Herzog 2018 p 10 Hamanaka 2016 pp 73 75 84 85 General sources Amara Muhammad 1999 Politics and Sociolinguistic Reflexes Palestinian Border Villages John Benjamins Publishing Company ISBN 978 9 02 724128 3 Carmi Na ama 2007 The Nationality and Entry into Israel Case before the Supreme Court of Israel Israel Studies Forum Berghahn Books 22 1 26 53 JSTOR 41804964 Davis Uri 1995 Jinsiyya Versus Muwatana The Question of Citizenship and the State in the Middle East The Cases of Israel Jordan and Palestine Arab Studies Quarterly Pluto Journals 17 1 2 19 50 JSTOR 41858111 Emmons Shelese 1997 Russian Jewish Immigration and its Effect on the State of Israel Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies Indiana University Press 5 1 341 355 Archived from the original on 5 October 2021 Retrieved 5 October 2021 Goodwin Gill Guy S McAdam Jane 2007 The Refugee in International Law 3rd ed Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 928130 5 Government of Mandatory Palestine 1946 Survey of Palestine PDF Report Vol 1 Government Printer Palestine Archived PDF from the original on 13 May 2021 Retrieved 1 October 2021 via Berman Jewish Policy Archive Hamanaka Shingo 2016 Military Service as a Process of Political Socialization The Case of Universal Conscription in Israel Annals of Japan Association for Middle East Studies Japan Association for Middle East Studies 32 1 71 87 doi 10 24498 ajames 32 1 71 Harpaz Yozzi Herzog Ben June 2018 Report on Citizenship Law Israel Report European University Institute hdl 1814 56024 Herzog Ben 2017 The construction of Israeli Citizenship Law Intertwining political philosophies Journal of Israeli History Taylor amp Francis 36 1 47 70 doi 10 1080 13531042 2017 1317668 S2CID 152105861 Herzog Ben 2010 The Revocation of Citizenship in Israel Israel Studies Forum Berghahn Books 25 1 57 72 JSTOR 41805054 Jones J Mervyn 1945 Who are British Protected Persons The British Yearbook of International Law Oxford University Press 22 122 145 Archived from the original on 23 October 2021 Retrieved 20 October 2021 via HeinOnline Kaplan Steven Rosen Chaim 1994 Ethiopian Jews in Israel The American Jewish Year Book American Jewish Committee 94 59 101 JSTOR 23605644 Kaplan Yehiel S 2015 Immigration Policy of Israel The Unique Perspective of a Jewish State Touro Law Review Touro Law Center 31 4 1089 1135 Archived from the original on 2 October 2021 Retrieved 2 October 2021 Kassim Anis F 2000 The Palestinians From Hyphenated to Integrated Citizenship In Butenschon Nils A Davis Uri Hassassian Manuel eds Citizenship and the State in the Middle East Approaches and Applications Syracuse University Press pp 201 224 ISBN 978 0 81 562829 3 Kattan Victor 2005 The Nationality of Denationalized Palestinians Nordic Journal of International Law Brill 74 67 102 doi 10 1163 1571810054301004 SSRN 993452 Kohn Leo April 1954 The Constitution of Israel The Journal of Educational Sociology American Sociological Association 27 8 369 379 doi 10 2307 2263817 JSTOR 2263817 Kondo Atushi ed 2001 Citizenship in a Global World Palgrave Macmillan doi 10 1057 9780333993880 ISBN 978 0 333 80266 3 Margalith Haim 1953 Enactment of a Nationality Law in Israel American Journal of Comparative Law Oxford University Press 2 1 63 66 doi 10 2307 837997 JSTOR 837997 Masri Mazen 2015 The Implications of the Acquisition of a New Nationality for the Right of Return of Palestinian Refugees Asian Journal of International Law Cambridge University Press 5 2 356 386 doi 10 1017 S2044251314000241 Nikfar Bethany M 2005 Families Divided An Analysis of Israel s Citizenship and Entry into Israel Law Northwestern Journal of International Human Rights Northwestern University 3 1 Archived from the original on 24 January 2021 Retrieved 4 October 2021 Perez Nahshon February 2011 Israel s Law of Return A Qualified Justification Modern Judaism Oxford University Press 31 1 59 84 doi 10 1093 mj kjq032 JSTOR 41262403 Qafisheh Mutaz M 2010 Genesis of Citizenship in Palestine and Israel Bulletin du Centre de recherche francais a Jerusalem 21 Archived from the original on 30 September 2021 Retrieved 30 September 2021 Quigley John 1991 Soviet Immigration To The West Bank Is It Legal Georgia Journal of International and Comparative Law University of Georgia 21 3 387 413 Archived from the original on 1 October 2021 Retrieved 1 October 2021 Richmond Nancy C 1 September 1993 Israel s Law of Return Analysis of Its Evolution and Present Application Penn State International Law Review Pennsylvania State University 12 1 95 133 Archived from the original on 27 September 2020 Retrieved 1 October 2021 Savir Yehuda 1963 The Definition of a Jew under Israel s Law of Return Southwestern Law Journal Southern Methodist University 17 1 123 133 Archived from the original on 30 September 2021 Retrieved 30 September 2021 via HeinOnline Shachar Ayelet 1999 Whose Republic Citizenship and Membership in the Israeli Polity Georgetown Immigration Law Journal Georgetown University 13 2 233 272 Archived from the original on 2 October 2021 Retrieved 2 October 2021 via HeinOnline Shapira Assaf 2017 Israel s Citizenship Policy towards Family Immigrants Developments and Implications Journal of Israeli History Taylor amp Francis 36 2 125 147 doi 10 1080 13531042 2018 1545676 S2CID 165436471 Tawil Souri Helga 2011 Colored Identity The Politics and Materiality of ID Cards in Palestine Israel Social Text Duke University Press 29 2 67 97 doi 10 1215 01642472 1259488 Tekiner Roselle 1991 Race and the Issue of National Identity in Israel International Journal of Middle East Studies Cambridge University Press 23 1 39 55 doi 10 1017 S0020743800034541 JSTOR 163931 S2CID 163043582 Tolts Mark 2003 Mass Aliyah and Jewish emigration from Russia Dynamics and factors East European Jewish Affairs Taylor amp Francis 33 2 71 96 doi 10 1080 13501670308578002 S2CID 161362436 Weil Shalva 1997 Religion Blood and the Equality of Rights The Case of Ethiopian Jews in Israel International Journal on Minority and Group Rights Brill 4 3 4 397 412 doi 10 1163 15718119620907256 JSTOR 24674566 External linksMinistry of Aliyah and Immigration Portal Israel 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