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Interstellar probe

February 08, 2023

An interstellar probe is a space probe that has left—or is expected to leave—the Solar System and enter interstellar space, which is typically defined as the region beyond the heliopause. It also refers to probes capable of reaching other star systems.

Spacecraft that have left or are about to leave the Solar System are depicted as square boxes
Stars are literally moving targets on the time scales current technology might reach them

There are five interstellar probes, all launched by the American space agency NASA: Voyager 1, Voyager 2, Pioneer 10, Pioneer 11 and New Horizons. As of 2019, Voyager 1, Voyager 2 and Pioneer 10 are the only probes to have actually reached interstellar space.[1] The other two are on interstellar trajectories.

The termination shock is the point in the heliosphere where the solar wind slows down to subsonic speed. Even though the termination shock happens as close as 80–100 AU (astronomical units) the maximum extent of the region in which the Sun's gravitational field is dominant (the Hill sphere) is thought to be at around 230,000 astronomical units (3.6 light-years).[2] This point is close to the nearest known star system, Alpha Centauri, located 4.36 light years away. Although the probes will be under the influence of the Sun for a long time, their velocities far exceed the Sun's escape velocity, so they are leaving forever.

Interstellar space is defined as the space beyond a magnetic region that extends about 122 AU from the Sun, as detected by Voyager 1, and the equivalent region of influence surrounding other stars. Voyager 1 entered interstellar space in 2012.[3]

Currently, three projects are under consideration: Chinese Interstellar Express, NASA's Interstellar Probe, and StarChip from the Breakthrough Initiatives.

Overview

Planetary scientist G. Laughlin noted that with current technology a probe sent to Alpha Centauri would take 40,000 years to arrive, but expressed hope for new technology to be developed to make the trip within a human lifetime.[4] On that timescale the stars move notably. As an example, in 40,000 years Ross 248 will be closer to Earth than Alpha Centauri.[5]

One technology that has been proposed to achieve higher speeds is an E-sail.[6] By harnessing solar wind, it might be possible to achieve 20-30 AU per year without even using propellant.[6]

List of interstellar probes

 
Heliocentric positions of the five interstellar probes (squares) and other bodies (circles) until 2020, with launch and flyby dates. Markers denote positions on 1 January of each year, with every fifth year labelled.
Plot 1 is viewed from the north ecliptic pole, to scale.
Plots 2 to 4 are third-angle projections at 20% scale.
In the SVG file, hover over a trajectory or orbit to highlight it and its associated launches and flybys.
See also: List of artificial objects leaving the Solar System

Functional spacecraft

 
Artists view of a Voyager spacecraft in outer space.

Voyager 1 (1977–)

Voyager 1 is a space probe launched by NASA on September 5, 1977. At a distance of about 157.77 AU (2.360×1010 km) as of 4 February 2023,[7][8] it is the farthest manmade object from Earth.[9]

It was later estimated that Voyager 1 crossed the termination shock on December 16, 2004 at a distance of 94 AU from the Sun.[10][11]

At the end of 2011, Voyager 1 entered and discovered a stagnation region where charged particles streaming from the Sun slow and turn inward, and the Solar System's magnetic field is doubled in strength as interstellar space appears to be applying pressure. Energetic particles originating in the Solar System declined by nearly half, while the detection of high-energy electrons from outside increases 100-fold. The inner edge of the stagnation region is located approximately 113 astronomical units (AU) from the Sun.[12]

In 2013 it was thought Voyager 1 crossed the heliopause and entered interstellar space on August 25, 2012 at distance of 121 AU from the Sun, making it the first known human-manufactured object to do so.[13][14]

As of 2017, the probe was moving with a relative velocity to the Sun of about 16.95 km/s (3.58 AU/year).[15]

If it does not hit anything, Voyager 1 could reach the Oort cloud in about 300 years[16][17]

Voyager 2 (1977–)

Voyager 2 crossed the heliopause and entered interstellar space on November 5, 2018.[18] It had previously passed the termination shock into the heliosheath on August 30, 2007. As of 4 February 2023 Voyager 2 is at a distance of 130.98 AU (1.959×1010 km) from Earth.[19] The probe was moving at a velocity of 3.25 AU/year (15.428 km/s) relative to the Sun on its way to interstellar space in 2013.[20]

It's moving at a velocity of 15.4 km/s (55,000 km/h) relative to the Sun as of December 2014.[21] Voyager 2 is expected to provide the first direct measurements of the density and temperature of the interstellar plasma.[22]

New Horizons (2006–)

New Horizons was launched directly into a hyperbolic escape trajectory, getting a gravitational assist from Jupiter en route. By March 7, 2008, New Horizons was 9.37 AU from the Sun and traveling outward at 3.9 AU per year. It will, however, slow to an escape velocity of only 2.5 AU per year as it moves away from the Sun, so it will never catch up to either Voyager. As of early 2011, it was traveling at 3.356 AU/year (15.91 km/s) relative to the Sun.[23] On July 14, 2015, it completed a flyby of Pluto at a distance of about 33 AU from the Sun.[24][25] New Horizons next encountered 486958 Arrokoth on January 1, 2019, at about 43.4 AU from the Sun.[26][27][28]

The Heliosphere's termination shock was crossed by Voyager 1 at 94 astronomical units (AU) and Voyager 2 at 84 AU according to the IBEX mission.[29]

If New Horizons can reach the distance of 100 AU, it will be traveling at about 13 km/s (29,000 mph), around 4 km/s (8,900 mph) slower than Voyager 1 at that distance.[30]

Inactive missions

Pioneer 10 (1972–2003)

The last successful reception of telemetry from Pioneer 10 was on April 27, 2002, when it was at a distance of 80.22 AU, traveling at about 2.54 AU/year (12 km/s).[23]

Pioneer 11 (1973–1995)

Routine mission operations for Pioneer 11 were stopped September 30, 1995, when it was 6.5 billion km (approx 43.4 AU) from Earth, traveling at about 2.4 AU/year (11.4 km/s).[23]

Probe debris

New Horizons' third stage, a STAR-48 booster, is on a similar escape trajectory out of the Solar System as New Horizons, but will pass millions of kilometers from Pluto.[23] It crossed Pluto's orbit in October 2015.[23]

The third stage rocket boosters for Pioneer 10, Voyager 1, and Voyager 2 are also on escape trajectories out of the Solar System.

Proposed missions

StarChip

In April 2016, Breakthrough Initiatives announced Breakthrough Starshot, a program to develop a proof of concept fleet of small centimeter-sized light sail spacecraft, named StarChip,[31] capable of making the journey to Alpha Centauri, the nearest star system, at speeds of 20%[32][33] and 15%[34] of the speed of light, taking between 20 and 30 years to reach the star system, respectively, and about 4 years to notify Earth of a successful arrival.

Interstellar Express (IHP) (2019–)

A CNSA space mission first proposed in 2019 would be launched in 2024 with the intention to research the heliosphere. Both probes would use gravity assists at Jupiter and fly by Kuiper belt objects, and the second is also planned to fly by Neptune and Triton. The other goal is to reach 100 AU from the Sun by 2049, the centennial of the People's Republic of China's foundation.[35]

 
Model of the design for Interstellar Probe; antennas travel far beyond bounds of picture.
Interstellar Probe (spacecraft) (ISP) (2018–)

A NASA funded study, led by the Applied Physics Laboratory, on possible options for an interstellar probe. The nominal concept would launch on a SLS in the 2030s. It would perform either a fast Jupiter flyby, a powered Jupiter flyby, or a very close perihelion and propulsive maneuver, and reach a distance of 1000–2000 AU within 50 years. Possibilities for planetary, astrophysical and exoplanet science along the way are also being investigated.[36]

Interstellar Heliopause Probe (IHP) (2006)

A technology reference study published in 2006 with the ESA proposed an interstellar probe focused on leaving the heliosphere. The goal would be 200 AU in 25 years, with traditional launch but acceleration by a solar sail. The roughly 200–300 kg probe would carry a suite of several instruments including a plasma analyzer, plasma radio wave experiment, magnetometer, neutral and charged atom detector, dust analyzer, and a UV-photometer. Electrical power would come from an RTG.[37]

Innovative Interstellar Explorer (2003)

NASA proposal to send a 35 kg science payload out to at least 200 AU. It would achieve a top speed of 7.8 AU per year using a combination of a heavy lift rocket, Jupiter gravitational assistance, and an ion engine powered by standard radioisotope thermal generators. The probe suggested a launch in 2014 (to take advantage of Jupiter gravitational assist), to reach 200 AU around 2044.[38]

Realistic Interstellar Explorer and Interstellar Explorer (2000–2002)

Studies suggest various technologies including americium-241-based RTG, optical communication (as opposed to radio), and low-power semi-autonomous electronics. Trajectory uses a Jupiter gravity assist and Solar Oberth maneuver to achieve 20 AU/year, allowing 1000 AU within 50 years, and a mission extension up to 20,000 AU and 1000 years. Needed technology included advanced propulsion and solar shield for perihelion burn around the Sun. Solar thermal (STP), nuclear fission thermal (NTP), and nuclear fission pulse, as well as various RTG isotopes were examined. The studies also included recommendations for a solar probe (see also Parker Solar Probe), nuclear thermal technology, solar sail probe, 20 AU/year probe, and a long-term vision of a 200 AU/year probe to the star Epsilon Eridani.[39]

The "next step" interstellar probe in this study suggested a 5 megawatt fission reactor utilizing 16 metric tonnes of H2 propellant.[39] Targeting a launch in the mid-21st century, it would accelerate to 200 AU/year over 4200 AU and reach the star Epsilon Eridani after 3400 years of travel in the year 5500 AD.[39] However, this was a second-generation vision for a probe and the study acknowledged that even 20 AU/year might not be possible with then current (2002) technology.[39] For comparison, the fastest probe at the time of the study was Voyager 1 at about 3.6 AU/year (17 km/s), relative to the Sun.[23]

Interstellar Probe (1999)

Interstellar Probe was a proposed solar sail propulsion spacecraft planned by NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory. It was planned to reach as far as 200 AU within 10 years at a speed of 14 AU/year (about 70 km/s, and function up to 400+ AU).[40] A critical technology for the mission is a large 1 g/m2 solar sail.

TAU mission (1987)

TAU mission (Thousand Astronomical Units) was a proposed nuclear electric rocket craft that used a 1 MW fission reactor and an ion drive with a burn time of about 10 years to reach a speed of 106 km/s (about 20 AU/year) to achieve a distance of 1000 AU in 50 years.[41] The primary goal of the mission was to improve parallax measurements of the distances to stars inside and outside our galaxy, with secondary goals being the study of the heliopause, measurements of conditions in the interstellar medium, and (via communications with Earth) tests of general relativity.[42]

Mission concepts

Project Orion (1958–1965)

Project Orion was a proposed nuclear pulse propulsion craft that would have used fission or fusion bombs to apply motive force. The design was studied during the 1950s and 1960s in the United States of America, with one variant of the craft capable of interstellar travel.

Bracewell probe (1960)

Interstellar communication via a probe, as opposed to sending an electromagnetic signal.

Sanger Photon Rocket (1950s-1964)

Eugene Sanger proposed a spacecraft powered by antimatter in the 1950s.[43] Thrust was intended to come from reflected gamma-rays produced by electron-positron annihilation.[43]

Enzmann starship (1964/1973)

Proposed by 1964 and examined in an October 1973 issue of Analog, the Enzmann Starship proposed using a 12,000 ton ball of frozen deuterium to power thermonuclear powered pulse propulsion.[44] About twice as long as the Empire State Building and assembled in-orbit, the spacecraft was part of a larger project preceded by large interstellar probes and telescopic observation of target star systems.[44][45][46]

Project Daedalus (1973–1978)

Project Daedalus was a proposed nuclear pulse propulsion craft that used inertial confinement fusion of small pellets within a magnetic field nozzle to provide motive force. The design was studied during the 1970s by the British Interplanetary Society, and was meant to flyby Barnard's Star in under a century from launch. Plans included mining Helium-3 from Jupiter and a pre-launch mass of over 50 thousand metric tonnes from orbit.

Project Longshot (1987–1988)

Project Longshot was a proposed nuclear pulse propulsion craft that used inertial confinement fusion of small pellets within a magnetic field nozzle to provide motive force, in a manner similar to that of Project Daedalus. The design was studied during the 1990s by NASA and the US Naval Academy. The craft was designed to reach and study Alpha Centauri.

Starwisp (1985)

Starwisp is a hypothetical unmanned interstellar probe design proposed by Robert L. Forward.[47][48] It is propelled by a microwave sail, similar to a solar sail in concept, but powered by microwaves from an artificial source.

Medusa (1990s)

Medusa was a novel spacecraft design, proposed by Johndale C. Solem, using a large lightweight sail (spinnaker) driven by pressure pulses from a series of nuclear explosions. The design, published by the British Interplanetary Society, was studied during the 1990s as a means of interplanetary travel.[49][50][51][52][53]

Starseed launcher (1996)

Starseed launcher was concept for launching microgram interstellar probes at up to 1/3 light speed.[54]

AIMStar (1990s-2000s)

AIMStar was a proposed antimatter catalyzed nuclear pulse propulsion craft that would use clouds of antiprotons to initiate fission and fusion within fuel pellets.[55] A magnetic nozzle derived motive force from the resulting explosions. The design was studied during the 1990s by Penn State University. The craft was designed to reach a distance of 10,000 AU from the Sun in 50 years.

Project Icarus (2009+)

Project Icarus is a theoretical study for an interstellar probe and is being run under the guidance of the Tau Zero Foundation (TZF) and the British Interplanetary Society (BIS), and was motivated by Project Daedalus, a similar study that was conducted between 1973 and 1978 by the BIS.[56] The project is planned to take five years and began on September 30, 2009.[57]

Project Dragonfly (2014+)

The Initiative for Interstellar Studies (i4is) has initiated a project working on small interstellar spacecraft, propelled by a laser sail in 2014 under the name of Project Dragonfly.[58][59] Four student teams worked on concepts for such a mission in 2014 and 2015 in the context of a design competition.[60]

Breakthrough Starshot (2016+)

In 2016, the Breakthrough Initiatives announced a program to develop a fleet of lightweight light-sail probes for interstellar travel, aiming to make the journey to Alpha Centauri. This research program, with an initial funding of US$ 100 million imagines accelerating the probes to about 15% or 20% of the speed of light, resulting in a travel time of between twenty and thirty years.

Geoffrey A. Landis proposed for interstellar travel future-technology project interstellar probe with supplying the energy from an external source (laser of base station) and ion thruster.[61][62]

Trans-Neptunian probes at precursor distances

In the early 2000s many new, relatively large planetary bodies were found beyond Pluto, and with orbits extending hundreds of AU out past the heliosheath (90–1000 AU). The NASA probe New Horizons may explore this area now that it has performed its Pluto flyby in 2015 (Pluto's orbit ranges from about 29–49 AU). Some of these large objects past Pluto include 136199 Eris, 136108 Haumea, 136472 Makemake, and 90377 Sedna. Sedna comes as close as 76 AU, but travels out as far as 961 AU at aphelion, and minor planet (87269) 2000 OO67 goes out past 1060 AU at aphelion. Bodies like these affect how the Solar System is understood, and traverse an area previously only in the domain of interstellar missions or precursor probes. After the discoveries, the area is also in the domain of interplanetary probes; some of the discovered bodies may become targets for exploration missions,[63] an example of which is preliminary work on a probe to Haumea and its moons (at 35–51 AU).[64] Probe mass, power source, and propulsion systems are key technology areas for this type of mission.[63] In addition, a probe beyond 550 AU could use the Sun itself as a gravitational lens to observe targets outside the Solar System, such as planetary systems around other nearby stars,[65] although many challenges to this mission have been noted.[66]

Interstellar messages

See also: List of extraterrestrial memorials

See also

References

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Further reading

  • (.pdf)
    • Leonard David - Reaching for interstellar flight (2003) - MSNBC (MSNBC Webpage)
    • Ralph L. McNutt, et al. - A Realistic Interstellar Explorer (2000) - Johns Hopkins University (.pdf)
      • Ralph L. McNutt, et al. - Interstellar Explorer (2002) - Johns Hopkins University 2021-02-25 at the Wayback Machine (.pdf)
    • McNutt, et al. - Radioisotope Electric Propulsion (2006) - NASA Glenn Research Center (includes Centaur orbiter mission)
    • Scott W. Benson - Solar Power for Outer Planets Study (2007) - NASA Glenn Research Center (with SEP booster)

    External links

    • (2002 era Study)
    • Voyager mission website (NASA)

    February 08, 2023
    interstellar, probe, interstellar, probe, space, probe, that, left, expected, leave, solar, system, enter, interstellar, space, which, typically, defined, region, beyond, heliopause, also, refers, probes, capable, reaching, other, star, systems, spacecraft, th. An interstellar probe is a space probe that has left or is expected to leave the Solar System and enter interstellar space which is typically defined as the region beyond the heliopause It also refers to probes capable of reaching other star systems Spacecraft that have left or are about to leave the Solar System are depicted as square boxes Stars are literally moving targets on the time scales current technology might reach them There are five interstellar probes all launched by the American space agency NASA Voyager 1 Voyager 2 Pioneer 10 Pioneer 11 and New Horizons As of 2019 Voyager 1 Voyager 2 and Pioneer 10 are the only probes to have actually reached interstellar space 1 The other two are on interstellar trajectories The termination shock is the point in the heliosphere where the solar wind slows down to subsonic speed Even though the termination shock happens as close as 80 100 AU astronomical units the maximum extent of the region in which the Sun s gravitational field is dominant the Hill sphere is thought to be at around 230 000 astronomical units 3 6 light years 2 This point is close to the nearest known star system Alpha Centauri located 4 36 light years away Although the probes will be under the influence of the Sun for a long time their velocities far exceed the Sun s escape velocity so they are leaving forever Interstellar space is defined as the space beyond a magnetic region that extends about 122 AU from the Sun as detected by Voyager 1 and the equivalent region of influence surrounding other stars Voyager 1 entered interstellar space in 2012 3 Currently three projects are under consideration Chinese Interstellar Express NASA s Interstellar Probe and StarChip from the Breakthrough Initiatives Contents 1 Overview 2 List of interstellar probes 2 1 Functional spacecraft 2 1 1 Voyager 1 1977 2 1 2 Voyager 2 1977 2 1 3 New Horizons 2006 2 2 Inactive missions 2 2 1 Pioneer 10 1972 2003 2 2 2 Pioneer 11 1973 1995 2 3 Probe debris 2 4 Proposed missions 2 5 Mission concepts 3 Trans Neptunian probes at precursor distances 4 Interstellar messages 5 See also 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External linksOverview EditPlanetary scientist G Laughlin noted that with current technology a probe sent to Alpha Centauri would take 40 000 years to arrive but expressed hope for new technology to be developed to make the trip within a human lifetime 4 On that timescale the stars move notably As an example in 40 000 years Ross 248 will be closer to Earth than Alpha Centauri 5 One technology that has been proposed to achieve higher speeds is an E sail 6 By harnessing solar wind it might be possible to achieve 20 30 AU per year without even using propellant 6 List of interstellar probes Edit Heliocentric positions of the five interstellar probes squares and other bodies circles until 2020 with launch and flyby dates Markers denote positions on 1 January of each year with every fifth year labelled Plot 1 is viewed from the north ecliptic pole to scale Plots 2 to 4 are third angle projections at 20 scale In the SVG file hover over a trajectory or orbit to highlight it and its associated launches and flybys See also List of artificial objects leaving the Solar System Functional spacecraft Edit Artists view of a Voyager spacecraft in outer space Voyager 1 1977 Edit Voyager 1 is a space probe launched by NASA on September 5 1977 At a distance of about 157 77 AU 2 360 1010 km as of 4 February 2023 7 8 it is the farthest manmade object from Earth 9 It was later estimated that Voyager 1 crossed the termination shock on December 16 2004 at a distance of 94 AU from the Sun 10 11 At the end of 2011 Voyager 1 entered and discovered a stagnation region where charged particles streaming from the Sun slow and turn inward and the Solar System s magnetic field is doubled in strength as interstellar space appears to be applying pressure Energetic particles originating in the Solar System declined by nearly half while the detection of high energy electrons from outside increases 100 fold The inner edge of the stagnation region is located approximately 113 astronomical units AU from the Sun 12 In 2013 it was thought Voyager 1 crossed the heliopause and entered interstellar space on August 25 2012 at distance of 121 AU from the Sun making it the first known human manufactured object to do so 13 14 As of 2017 update the probe was moving with a relative velocity to the Sun of about 16 95 km s 3 58 AU year 15 If it does not hit anything Voyager 1 could reach the Oort cloud in about 300 years 16 17 Voyager 2 1977 Edit Voyager 2 crossed the heliopause and entered interstellar space on November 5 2018 18 It had previously passed the termination shock into the heliosheath on August 30 2007 As of 4 February 2023 Voyager 2 is at a distance of 130 98 AU 1 959 1010 km from Earth 19 The probe was moving at a velocity of 3 25 AU year 15 428 km s relative to the Sun on its way to interstellar space in 2013 20 It s moving at a velocity of 15 4 km s 55 000 km h relative to the Sun as of December 2014 21 Voyager 2 is expected to provide the first direct measurements of the density and temperature of the interstellar plasma 22 New Horizons 2006 Edit New Horizons was launched directly into a hyperbolic escape trajectory getting a gravitational assist from Jupiter en route By March 7 2008 New Horizons was 9 37 AU from the Sun and traveling outward at 3 9 AU per year It will however slow to an escape velocity of only 2 5 AU per year as it moves away from the Sun so it will never catch up to either Voyager As of early 2011 it was traveling at 3 356 AU year 15 91 km s relative to the Sun 23 On July 14 2015 it completed a flyby of Pluto at a distance of about 33 AU from the Sun 24 25 New Horizons next encountered 486958 Arrokoth on January 1 2019 at about 43 4 AU from the Sun 26 27 28 The Heliosphere s termination shock was crossed by Voyager 1 at 94 astronomical units AU and Voyager 2 at 84 AU according to the IBEX mission 29 If New Horizons can reach the distance of 100 AU it will be traveling at about 13 km s 29 000 mph around 4 km s 8 900 mph slower than Voyager 1 at that distance 30 Inactive missions Edit Pioneer 10 1972 2003 Edit The last successful reception of telemetry from Pioneer 10 was on April 27 2002 when it was at a distance of 80 22 AU traveling at about 2 54 AU year 12 km s 23 Pioneer 11 1973 1995 Edit Routine mission operations for Pioneer 11 were stopped September 30 1995 when it was 6 5 billion km approx 43 4 AU from Earth traveling at about 2 4 AU year 11 4 km s 23 Probe debris Edit New Horizons third stage a STAR 48 booster is on a similar escape trajectory out of the Solar System as New Horizons but will pass millions of kilometers from Pluto 23 It crossed Pluto s orbit in October 2015 23 The third stage rocket boosters for Pioneer 10 Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 are also on escape trajectories out of the Solar System Proposed missions Edit StarChipIn April 2016 Breakthrough Initiatives announced Breakthrough Starshot a program to develop a proof of concept fleet of small centimeter sized light sail spacecraft named StarChip 31 capable of making the journey to Alpha Centauri the nearest star system at speeds of 20 32 33 and 15 34 of the speed of light taking between 20 and 30 years to reach the star system respectively and about 4 years to notify Earth of a successful arrival Interstellar Express IHP 2019 A CNSA space mission first proposed in 2019 would be launched in 2024 with the intention to research the heliosphere Both probes would use gravity assists at Jupiter and fly by Kuiper belt objects and the second is also planned to fly by Neptune and Triton The other goal is to reach 100 AU from the Sun by 2049 the centennial of the People s Republic of China s foundation 35 Model of the design for Interstellar Probe antennas travel far beyond bounds of picture Interstellar Probe spacecraft ISP 2018 A NASA funded study led by the Applied Physics Laboratory on possible options for an interstellar probe The nominal concept would launch on a SLS in the 2030s It would perform either a fast Jupiter flyby a powered Jupiter flyby or a very close perihelion and propulsive maneuver and reach a distance of 1000 2000 AU within 50 years Possibilities for planetary astrophysical and exoplanet science along the way are also being investigated 36 Interstellar Heliopause Probe IHP 2006 A technology reference study published in 2006 with the ESA proposed an interstellar probe focused on leaving the heliosphere The goal would be 200 AU in 25 years with traditional launch but acceleration by a solar sail The roughly 200 300 kg probe would carry a suite of several instruments including a plasma analyzer plasma radio wave experiment magnetometer neutral and charged atom detector dust analyzer and a UV photometer Electrical power would come from an RTG 37 Innovative Interstellar Explorer 2003 NASA proposal to send a 35 kg science payload out to at least 200 AU It would achieve a top speed of 7 8 AU per year using a combination of a heavy lift rocket Jupiter gravitational assistance and an ion engine powered by standard radioisotope thermal generators The probe suggested a launch in 2014 to take advantage of Jupiter gravitational assist to reach 200 AU around 2044 38 Realistic Interstellar Explorer and Interstellar Explorer 2000 2002 Studies suggest various technologies including americium 241 based RTG optical communication as opposed to radio and low power semi autonomous electronics Trajectory uses a Jupiter gravity assist and Solar Oberth maneuver to achieve 20 AU year allowing 1000 AU within 50 years and a mission extension up to 20 000 AU and 1000 years Needed technology included advanced propulsion and solar shield for perihelion burn around the Sun Solar thermal STP nuclear fission thermal NTP and nuclear fission pulse as well as various RTG isotopes were examined The studies also included recommendations for a solar probe see also Parker Solar Probe nuclear thermal technology solar sail probe 20 AU year probe and a long term vision of a 200 AU year probe to the star Epsilon Eridani 39 The next step interstellar probe in this study suggested a 5 megawatt fission reactor utilizing 16 metric tonnes of H2 propellant 39 Targeting a launch in the mid 21st century it would accelerate to 200 AU year over 4200 AU and reach the star Epsilon Eridani after 3400 years of travel in the year 5500 AD 39 However this was a second generation vision for a probe and the study acknowledged that even 20 AU year might not be possible with then current 2002 technology 39 For comparison the fastest probe at the time of the study was Voyager 1 at about 3 6 AU year 17 km s relative to the Sun 23 Interstellar Probe 1999 Interstellar Probe was a proposed solar sail propulsion spacecraft planned by NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory It was planned to reach as far as 200 AU within 10 years at a speed of 14 AU year about 70 km s and function up to 400 AU 40 A critical technology for the mission is a large 1 g m2 solar sail TAU mission 1987 TAU mission Thousand Astronomical Units was a proposed nuclear electric rocket craft that used a 1 MW fission reactor and an ion drive with a burn time of about 10 years to reach a speed of 106 km s about 20 AU year to achieve a distance of 1000 AU in 50 years 41 The primary goal of the mission was to improve parallax measurements of the distances to stars inside and outside our galaxy with secondary goals being the study of the heliopause measurements of conditions in the interstellar medium and via communications with Earth tests of general relativity 42 Mission concepts Edit Project Orion 1958 1965 Project Orion was a proposed nuclear pulse propulsion craft that would have used fission or fusion bombs to apply motive force The design was studied during the 1950s and 1960s in the United States of America with one variant of the craft capable of interstellar travel Bracewell probe 1960 Interstellar communication via a probe as opposed to sending an electromagnetic signal Sanger Photon Rocket 1950s 1964 Eugene Sanger proposed a spacecraft powered by antimatter in the 1950s 43 Thrust was intended to come from reflected gamma rays produced by electron positron annihilation 43 Enzmann starship 1964 1973 Proposed by 1964 and examined in an October 1973 issue of Analog the Enzmann Starship proposed using a 12 000 ton ball of frozen deuterium to power thermonuclear powered pulse propulsion 44 About twice as long as the Empire State Building and assembled in orbit the spacecraft was part of a larger project preceded by large interstellar probes and telescopic observation of target star systems 44 45 46 Project Daedalus 1973 1978 Project Daedalus was a proposed nuclear pulse propulsion craft that used inertial confinement fusion of small pellets within a magnetic field nozzle to provide motive force The design was studied during the 1970s by the British Interplanetary Society and was meant to flyby Barnard s Star in under a century from launch Plans included mining Helium 3 from Jupiter and a pre launch mass of over 50 thousand metric tonnes from orbit Project Longshot 1987 1988 Project Longshot was a proposed nuclear pulse propulsion craft that used inertial confinement fusion of small pellets within a magnetic field nozzle to provide motive force in a manner similar to that of Project Daedalus The design was studied during the 1990s by NASA and the US Naval Academy The craft was designed to reach and study Alpha Centauri Starwisp 1985 Starwisp is a hypothetical unmanned interstellar probe design proposed by Robert L Forward 47 48 It is propelled by a microwave sail similar to a solar sail in concept but powered by microwaves from an artificial source Medusa 1990s Medusa was a novel spacecraft design proposed by Johndale C Solem using a large lightweight sail spinnaker driven by pressure pulses from a series of nuclear explosions The design published by the British Interplanetary Society was studied during the 1990s as a means of interplanetary travel 49 50 51 52 53 Starseed launcher 1996 Starseed launcher was concept for launching microgram interstellar probes at up to 1 3 light speed 54 AIMStar 1990s 2000s AIMStar was a proposed antimatter catalyzed nuclear pulse propulsion craft that would use clouds of antiprotons to initiate fission and fusion within fuel pellets 55 A magnetic nozzle derived motive force from the resulting explosions The design was studied during the 1990s by Penn State University The craft was designed to reach a distance of 10 000 AU from the Sun in 50 years Project Icarus 2009 Project Icarus is a theoretical study for an interstellar probe and is being run under the guidance of the Tau Zero Foundation TZF and the British Interplanetary Society BIS and was motivated by Project Daedalus a similar study that was conducted between 1973 and 1978 by the BIS 56 The project is planned to take five years and began on September 30 2009 57 Project Dragonfly 2014 The Initiative for Interstellar Studies i4is has initiated a project working on small interstellar spacecraft propelled by a laser sail in 2014 under the name of Project Dragonfly 58 59 Four student teams worked on concepts for such a mission in 2014 and 2015 in the context of a design competition 60 Breakthrough Starshot 2016 In 2016 the Breakthrough Initiatives announced a program to develop a fleet of lightweight light sail probes for interstellar travel aiming to make the journey to Alpha Centauri This research program with an initial funding of US 100 million imagines accelerating the probes to about 15 or 20 of the speed of light resulting in a travel time of between twenty and thirty years Geoffrey A Landis proposed for interstellar travel future technology project interstellar probe with supplying the energy from an external source laser of base station and ion thruster 61 62 Trans Neptunian probes at precursor distances EditIn the early 2000s many new relatively large planetary bodies were found beyond Pluto and with orbits extending hundreds of AU out past the heliosheath 90 1000 AU The NASA probe New Horizons may explore this area now that it has performed its Pluto flyby in 2015 Pluto s orbit ranges from about 29 49 AU Some of these large objects past Pluto include 136199 Eris 136108 Haumea 136472 Makemake and 90377 Sedna Sedna comes as close as 76 AU but travels out as far as 961 AU at aphelion and minor planet 87269 2000 OO67 goes out past 1060 AU at aphelion Bodies like these affect how the Solar System is understood and traverse an area previously only in the domain of interstellar missions or precursor probes After the discoveries the area is also in the domain of interplanetary probes some of the discovered bodies may become targets for exploration missions 63 an example of which is preliminary work on a probe to Haumea and its moons at 35 51 AU 64 Probe mass power source and propulsion systems are key technology areas for this type of mission 63 In addition a probe beyond 550 AU could use the Sun itself as a gravitational lens to observe targets outside the Solar System such as planetary systems around other nearby stars 65 although many challenges to this mission have been noted 66 Interstellar messages EditSee also List of extraterrestrial memorials The Pioneer plaques are a pair of gold anodized aluminium plaques placed on board the 1972 Pioneer 10 and 1973 Pioneer 11 spacecraft featuring a pictorial message in case they are rediscovered The Voyager Golden Record as included aboard the Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 spacecraft features audio recordings and encoded picturesSee also EditInterstellar Boundary Explorer IBEX space observatory that measured energetic neutral atoms from interstellar boundary List of artificial objects leaving the Solar System List of nearest stars and brown dwarfs Local Interstellar Cloud and Local Bubble Interplanetary spaceflight Interstellar travel Intergalactic travelReferences Edit NASA s Eyes NASA s Eyes Retrieved 2021 04 18 dead link Chebotarev G A 1964 Gravitational Spheres of the Major Planets Moon and Sun Soviet Astronomy 7 5 618 622 Bibcode 1964SvA 7 618C NASA Voyager 1 Encounters New Region in Deep Space NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory JPL Lemonick Michael 17 October 2012 An Earthlike World in the Cosmic Neighborhood Time Retrieved 21 October 2012 Matthews R A J Spring 1994 The Close Approach of Stars in the Solar Neighborhood Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society 35 1 1 Bibcode 1994QJRAS 35 1M a b Electric sail solar wind space exploration Space com https www jpl nasa gov voyager mission status Archived 2017 08 15 at the Wayback Machine Voyager Mission Status Peat Chris September 9 2012 Spacecraft escaping the Solar System Heavens Above Retrieved September 9 2012 Voyager 1 leaving solar system matches feats of great human explorers Stuart Clark TheGuardian com 13 September 2013 Voyager crosses termination shock Retrieved August 29 2013 Voyager Timeline NASA JPL February 2013 Retrieved December 2 2013 Spacecraft enters cosmic purgatory CNN December 6 2011 Retrieved December 7 2011 Morin Monte September 12 2013 NASA confirms Voyager 1 has left the Solar System Los Angeles Times Report NASA Voyager Status Update on Voyager 1 Location NASA Retrieved March 20 2013 Voyager Mission Status JPL Archived from the original on August 15 2017 Retrieved August 15 2017 Catalog Page for PIA17046 Photo Journal NASA Retrieved April 27 2014 It s Official Voyager 1 Is Now In Interstellar Space UniverseToday 12 September 2013 Retrieved April 27 2014 Gill Victoria 2018 12 10 Voyager 2 probe leaves Solar System BBC News Retrieved 2018 12 10 Jpl Nasa Gov Voyager Mission Status Voyager jpl nasa gov Archived from the original on 2017 08 15 Retrieved 2017 08 15 Voyager Mission Weekly Reports of 15 July 2013 Retrieved 15 July 2013 Voyager Mission Status voyager jpl nasa gov At last Voyager 1 slips into interstellar space Atom amp Cosmos Science News 2013 09 12 Retrieved 2013 09 17 a b c d e f Spacecraft escaping the Solar System Chris Peat Heavens Above GmbH Archived from the original on April 27 2007 New Horizons Pluto Kuiper Belt Flyby New Horizons conducts flyby of Pluto in historic Kuiper Belt encounter 12 July 2015 Taylor Redd Nola 2014 MU69 New Horizons Snowman in the Kuiper Belt Space com Retrieved 16 August 2019 Talbert Tricia August 28 2015 NASA s New Horizons Team Selects Potential Kuiper Belt Flyby Target NASA Retrieved September 4 2015 Cofield Calla August 28 2015 Beyond Pluto 2nd Target Chosen for New Horizons Probe Space com Retrieved August 30 2015 IBEX Interstellar Boundary Explorer ibex swri edu New Horizons Salutes Voyager Johns Hopkins APL August 17 2006 Archived from the original on November 13 2014 Retrieved November 3 2009 Gilster Paul 12 April 2016 Breakthrough Starshot Mission to Alpha Centauri Centauri Dreams Retrieved 14 April 2016 Overbye Dennis 12 April 2016 A Visionary Project Aims for Alpha Centauri a Star 4 37 Light Years Away New York Times Retrieved 12 April 2016 Stone Maddie 12 April 2016 Stephen Hawking and a Russian Billionaire Want to Build an Interstellar Starship Gizmodo Retrieved 12 April 2016 Staff 12 April 2016 Breakthrough Starshot Breakthrough Initiatives Retrieved 12 April 2016 Jones Andrew 16 April 2021 China to launch a pair of spacecraft towards the edge of the solar system SpaceNews SpaceNews Retrieved 29 April 2021 https www space com interstellar probe science of solar system html NASA s Voyager Missions Were Amazing Now Scientists Want a True Interstellar Probe ESA Science amp Technology The Interstellar Heliopause Probe sci esa int Innovative Interstellar Probe Interstellarexplorer jhuapl edu Retrieved 2010 10 22 a b c d Ralph L McNutt et al Interstellar Explorer 2002 Johns Hopkins University Archived 2021 02 25 at the Wayback Machine Interstellar Probe Interstellar jpl nasa gov 2002 02 05 Archived from the original on 2009 07 31 Retrieved 2010 10 22 Etchegaray M I 1987 Preliminary scientific rationale for a voyage to a thousand astronomical units NASA Sti Recon Technical Report N Jet Propulsion Laboratory 87 28490 Bibcode 1987STIN 8728490E Tau A Mission to a Thousand Astronomical Units PDF Jet Propulsion Laboratory Archived from the original PDF on 2007 09 30 a b New Scientist Reed Business Information June 24 1989 p 68 a b Duncan Enzmann Robert Enzmann Starship archived version from Enzmann Starship blog Gilster Paul April 1 2007 A Note on the Enzmann Starship Centauri Dreams Ian Ridpath January 1 1978 Messages from the Stars Communication and Contact with Extraterrestrial Life Harper amp Row Publishers ISBN 978 0 06 013589 8 As long ago as 1964 Robert D Enzmann of the Raytheon Corporation proposed an interstellar ark driven by eight nuclear pulse rockets The living quarters of the starship habitable by 200 people but with room for growth Forward Robert May June 1985 Starwisp an Ultralight Interstellar Probe Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets 22 3 345 350 Bibcode 1985JSpRo 22 345F doi 10 2514 3 25754 Landis Geoffrey A July 17 19 2000 Microwave Pushed Interstellar Sail Starwisp Revisited paper AIAA 2000 3337 presented at the AIAA 36th Joint Propulsion Conference and Exhibit Huntsville AL abstract Solem J C January 1993 Medusa Nuclear explosive propulsion for interplanetary travel Journal of the British Interplanetary Society 46 1 21 26 Bibcode 1993JBIS 46R 21S ISSN 0007 084X Solem J C June 1994 Nuclear explosive propulsion for interplanetary travel Extension of the MEDUSA concept for higher specific impulse Journal of the British Interplanetary Society 47 6 229 238 Bibcode 1994JBIS 47 229S ISSN 0007 084X Gilster Paul 2004 Centauri Dreams Imagining and Planning Interstellar Exploration Copernicus Books Atlanta Book Company ISBN 978 0387004365 Matloff Gregory L 2005 Deep Space Probes To the Outer Solar System and Beyond Springer Praxis Books ISBN 978 3540247722 Long Kelvin F 2011 Deep Space Propulsion A Roadmap to Interstellar Flight Astronomers Universe Springer ISBN 978 1461406068 Institute of Atomic Scale Engineering Starseed Launcher www iase cc Lewis Raymond A Meyer Kirby Smith Gerald A Howe Steven D AIMStar Antimatter Initiated Microfusion For Pre cursor Interstellar Missions PDF Archived from the original PDF on June 16 2014 Retrieved June 27 2015 Leonard David Futuristic interstellar space probe idea revisited NBC News May 9 2010 Stephen Ashworth FBIS Project Icarus Son of Daedalus Spaceflight 454 455 December 2009 Project Dragonfly i4is org news dragonfly Project Dragonfly The case for small laser propelled distributed probes Project Dragonfly Design Competitions and Crowdfunding www centauri dreams org Google Scholar scholar google com Geoffrey A Landis Laser powered Interstellar Probe Archived 2012 07 22 at the Wayback Machine on the Geoffrey A Landis Science papers available on the web a b Poncy Joel Fontdecaba Baiga Jordi Feresinb Fred Martinota Vincent 2011 A preliminary assessment of an orbiter in the Haumean system How quickly can a planetary orbiter reach such a distant target Acta Astronautica 68 5 6 622 628 Bibcode 2011AcAau 68 622P doi 10 1016 j actaastro 2010 04 011 Paul Gilster Fast Orbiter to Haumea Centauri Dreams The News of the Tau Zero Foundation July 14 2009 retrieved January 15 2011 Paul Gilster The FOCAL Mission To the Sun s Gravity Lens August 18 2006 and Starshot and the Gravitational Lens April 25 2016 Centauri Dreams The News of the Tau Zero Foundation access date 28 April 2016 A Space Mission to the Gravitational Focus of the Sun MIT Technology Review April 2016 access date 28 April 2016 Further reading EditNASA s Interstellar Probe Mission 1999 pdf An Interstellar Probe Mission to the Boundaries of the Heliosphere and Nearby Interstellar Space pdf Leonard David Reaching for interstellar flight 2003 MSNBC MSNBC Webpage Ralph L McNutt et al A Realistic Interstellar Explorer 2000 Johns Hopkins University pdf Ralph L McNutt et al Interstellar Explorer 2002 Johns Hopkins University Archived 2021 02 25 at the Wayback Machine pdf McNutt et al Radioisotope Electric Propulsion 2006 NASA Glenn Research Center includes Centaur orbiter mission Scott W Benson Solar Power for Outer Planets Study 2007 NASA Glenn Research Center with SEP booster External links EditSpacecraft escaping the Solar System List of interstellar spaceships and probes NASA Interstellar Probe 2002 era Study Voyager mission website NASA Portals Spaceflight Astronomy Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Interstellar probe amp oldid 1137299972, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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