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History of the Hmong in Minneapolis–Saint Paul

April 14, 2024

The Hmong people are a major ethnic group in the Minneapolis–Saint Paul area. As of 2000, there were 40,707 ethnic Hmong in the Minneapolis-St. Paul area.[1] The 2010 U.S. Census stated there were 66,000 ethnic Hmong in Minneapolis-St. Paul, giving it the largest urban Hmong population in the world.[2] Grit Grigoleit, author of "Coming Home? The Integration of Hmong Refugees from Wat Tham Krabok, Thailand, into American Society," wrote that the Minneapolis-St. Paul area "acted as the cultural and socio-political center of Hmong life in the U.S."[3]

History edit

The Hmong, who were refugees settled in Minnesota due to the actions of voluntary agencies (VOLAGS). Minnesota had many active VOLAGS who helped Hmong people when they arrived.[4]

The University of Minnesota Agricultural Extension Services and the Lao Family Community established farming programs for Hmong in the early 1980s. The programs ended in 1985.[5]

In 2004 Randy Kelly, the mayor of St. Paul, traveled to Thailand with a delegation of professionals and educators, most of them Hmong, to assess a community of Hmong refugees.[6]

As of 2006, the Minneapolis-St. Paul area was expected to receive Hmong refugees from Wat Tham Krabok in Thailand.[3]

Demographics edit

Data has shown a positive trend of Hmong-Americans gradually reducing the number of Hmong-American households that are considered to be living in poverty. In 2015, data from the Pew Research Center stated that 28.3% of all Hmong-American households lived in poverty.[7] This trend is also reflected on Minnesotan Hmong communities. The 2011 American Community Survey report stated that 31% of Hmong in the state of Minnesota were considered to be in poverty. According to the 2000 U.S. Census data, 33% of Hmong people in Minnesota were considered to be in poverty. According to the 1990 U.S. Census data, 65% of Hmong people in Minnesota were considered to be in poverty.[8]

Sometime during 2013, Mai M. Na Lee, the author of an encyclopedia article titled "Hmong of Minnesota and California," wrote that despite a lack of official statistics, “there are reputedly many Hmong millionaires in the Twin Cities.”[9]

As of 2013, over 50% of Hmong in the Minneapolis area owned their own houses.[5]

Commerce edit

As of around 2013, the Hmong businesses in the Minneapolis-St. Paul area had revenues of over $100 million total.[9]

As of 2011, several Hmong-owned businesses are located along West University Avenue in St. Paul.[8]

Hmongtown Marketplace, a complex with more than 200 merchant stalls and a Hmong food court, opened in 2004. Nine businesspeople developed a similar complex named Hmong Village in 2009.[9]

In 2012, McDonald's introduced its first Hmong language advertising in the United States at a restaurant in Minneapolis. However, it was unintelligible to Hmong speakers.[10]

Institutions edit

 
A recycling sign in Minnesota with instructions in Hmong and other languages.

By 2013, there were about ten Hmong nonprofit organizations in St. Paul.[9]

The largest Hmong nonprofit group in the State of Minnesota is the Hmong American Partnership (HAP), headquartered in St. Paul.[8] Founded in 1990, HAP is led by a board of up to 10 members.[11] However, over the past few years, the group has experienced continual problems with financial oversight, which “appears to be both widespread and symptomatic of larger management struggles within HAP.”[11] The problems were uncovered in a 2018 audit, and included issues such as: persistent mismanagement of employee retirement accounts, failures to “provide services laid out in grant descriptions,” undisclosed revenue sources on submitted IRS forms, and “less than forthright financial practices.”[11] Bao Vang, HAP's president and CEO who earned a base salary of $243,000 in 2017, defended her organization's practices—despite the budgetary controversies.[11]

The Lao Family Community, headquartered in St. Paul, is the most established and oldest Hmong organization. Younger leaders began to leave the organization in the 1990s as a result of political disagreements. Mai M. Na Lee wrote that the organization “continues to monopolize festival events like the New Year's Festival and the Fourth of July Soccer Tournament.”[9] She added that it is “not without scandal.”[9]

The Center for Hmong Arts and Talents (CHAT), based in St. Paul, develops Hmong art and literature.[9]

The Hmong Cultural Center is also in St. Paul.[9]

Politics edit

When Choua Lee began serving as a member of the board of education of Saint Paul Public Schools in 1991,[9] she became the first Hmong-American elected to public office in the area.[8] The second official, Neal Thao, took Choua Lee's position in 1995. Neal Thao remained in this seat for seven years.[9]

In 2000, Dr. Aly Xiong, a human rights activist and school principal, was the first Hmong-American to run for a Minnesota State Legislative seat, District 67B. He lost to State Representative Sheldon Johnson, who served the east side of St. Paul for 20 years.

The Hmong Veterans' Naturalization Act of 2000 increased the number of Hmong eligible to vote, giving them more political power. In 2002, Cy Thao was elected to the Minnesota House of Representatives for District 65A and Mee Moua was elected to the Minnesota Senate for District 67.[9]

The third Hmong-American to be elected to the St. Paul school board, Kazoua Kong-Thao, elected in 2003. Mee Moua's sister, Vallay Moua Varro, was elected to the St. Paul school board in 2009. This was the first time that two Hmong officials served concurrently on the St. Paul school board, since Kong-Thao was still in office.[6] In 2013 Dai Thao defeated Kazoua Kong-Thao and six other candidates in a special election to become the first St. Paul City Councilmember of Hmong descent.[citation needed]

Mai M. Na Lee wrote circa 2013 that the Hmong have a significant political influence in St. Paul due to the size of the population.[9] Beginning around 2000 Minnesotans campaigning for office have visited Hmong events to get the Hmong vote.[9]

Media edit

The Hmong Today and Hmong Times, two Hmong newspapers, are headquartered in the Twin Cities area.[5]

Education edit

 
Hmong College Prep Academy's west wing

As of 2000, statistics showed that 24% of Minnesotan Hmong had attained a high school diploma or its equivalent, 8% had a bachelor's degree and/or an associate degree, and 1% had a master's degree or further education. A reported 53% of Hmong in Minnesota had never received an education.[5]

According to recorded enrollment data, the State of Minnesota had 22,000 students of Hmong origins. Minneapolis Public Schools and St. Paul Public Schools have large concentrations of Hmong students.[12]

Minneapolis Public Schools operates the Hmong International Academy, a PreK–8 school catering to the Hmong community.[13] There are additional Hmong-centric schools, such as the Hmong College Prep Academy, a K–12 charter school in Saint Paul.[14] There is also the Hope Community Academy, a K–8 school located in Saint Paul that is open to all students, but has a focus on Hmong language and culture.[15]

By 2011, increasing numbers of Hmong were attending universities and colleges. Many Hmong student associations have been formed within area universities and college campuses.[8]

Culture and recreation edit

The Hmong New Year is celebrated in the metropolitan area. The 38th annual Hmong New Year in St. Paul was held in 2013.[2]

The 41st Annual Minnesota Hmong New Year will be celebrated through the dates of November 30, 2020 to December 1, 2020 at the River Center in Saint Paul, Minnesota.

Due to the farming programs established in the 1980s, many Minnesotan Hmong had gained an interest in farming and agriculture.[5]

Pom Siab Hmoob (Gazing into the Heart of the Hmong) Theatre, which is reportedly the world's first Hmong theater group, was formed in 1990. It is based in the Twin Cities.[16] It is now known as the Center for Hmong Arts and Talent (CHAT).[17]

The film Gran Torino by Clint Eastwood, though filmed in Michigan, stars five Minnesotan Hmong Americans, and the original story was based on a neighborhood in Minneapolis. It was the first mainstream U.S. film to feature Hmong Americans.[18]

Notable people edit

See also edit

Notes edit

Footnotes edit

  1. ^ Pfeifer, p. 259. "Minneapolis-St. Paul claimed 40,707 Hmong residents."
  2. ^ a b Staff report. "St. Paul: Annual Hmong New Year celebration begins today." Twin Cities Pioneer Press. November 27, 2013. Retrieved on January 17, 2014.
  3. ^ a b Grigoleit, p. 2.
  4. ^ "Good Question: Why Did Somalis Locate Here?" ([1]) WCCO-TV CBS Minnesota. January 19, 2011. Retrieved on January 18, 2014. "It's the same reason this is a population center for Hmong refugees. The VOLAGS make the initial wave happen."
  5. ^ a b c d e Lee, Mai M. Na, p. 507.
  6. ^ a b c Lor, Yang, p. 2.
  7. ^ "Hmong in the U.S. Fact Sheet". Pew Research Center. 8 September 2017. Retrieved 15 September 2020.
  8. ^ a b c d e f Shah, Allie. "Settled after 35 years, Hmong must decide: What's next?" Minneapolis StarTribune. April 22, 2011. Retrieved on January 18, 2014.
  9. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Lee, Mai M. Na, p. 508.
  10. ^ Melo, Frederick. "St. Paul: McDonald's Hmong pitch mangles language." Twin Cities Pioneer Press. September 2, 2012. Updated on September 3, 2012. Retrieved on May 10, 2013.
  11. ^ a b c d Melo, Frederik (31 January 2020). "Hmong American Partnership faces questions about grant requirements, delayed 401(k) contributions". Twin Cities Pioneer Press. Retrieved 16 September 2020.
  12. ^ Xiong, Yang Sao. "Education of Hmong Americans." In: Banks, James A. (editor). Encyclopedia of Diversity in Education. SAGE Publications, May 24, 2012. ISBN 1412981530, 9781412981538. p. 1078.
  13. ^ "Home." Hmong International Academy. Retrieved on January 18, 2014.
  14. ^ "District 2014-01-29 at the Wayback Machine." Hmong College Prep Academy. Retrieved on January 18, 2014.
  15. ^ "HOPE Community Academy". HOPE Community Academy. Retrieved 2017-01-29.
  16. ^ Lee, Gary Yia and Nicholas Tapp. Culture and Customs of the Hmong. Greenwood Publishing Group. ABC-CLIO, 2010. 76-77. Retrieved from Google Books on April 14, 2012. ISBN 0-313-34526-0, ISBN 978-0-313-34526-5.
  17. ^ Lee, Gary Yia and Nicholas Tapp. Culture and Customs of the Hmong. Greenwood Publishing Group. ABC-CLIO, 2010. 77. Retrieved from Google Books on April 14, 2012. ISBN 0-313-34526-0, ISBN 978-0-313-34526-5.
  18. ^ Yuen, Laura. "Hmong get a mixed debut in new Eastwood film." Minnesota Public Radio. December 18, 2008. Retrieved on March 18, 2012.
  19. ^ Orrick, Dave. "State Sen. Mee Moua lives darker side of American dream, loses her home." Twin Cities Pioneer Press. September 17, 2010. Retrieved on January 17, 2014.
  20. ^ Vang, Bee (7 April 2011). "Opinion: Why I can't shrug off KDWB's hateful slur against Hmong community". St. Paul Pioneer Press. Retrieved 7 April 2011.
  21. ^ Xamoua. ""Gran Torino" interview with Bee Vang." Hmong Today at Twin Cities Daily Planet. January 27, 2009. Retrieved on March 14, 2012.
  22. ^ Yam, Kimmy (2020-06-01). "Officer who stood by as George Floyd died highlights complex Asian American, black relations". NBC News. Retrieved 2020-06-22.

References edit

  • Grigoleit, Grit, M.A. (Department of American Studies, University of Passau). "Coming Home? The Integration of Hmong Refugees from Wat Tham Krabok, Thailand, into American Society" (). Hmong Studies Journal. Volume 7, 2006. p. 1-22.
  • Lee, Mai M. Na. "Hmong of Minnesota and California." In: Zhao, Xiaojian and Edward J.W. Park, PH.D. Asian Americans: An Encyclopedia of Social, Cultural, Economic, and Political History [3 volumes]: An Encyclopedia of Social, Cultural, Economic, and Political History (Google eBook). ABC-CLIO, November 30, 2013. ISBN 1598842404, 9781598842401.
  • Lor, Yang. "Hmong Political Involvement in St. Paul, Minnesota and Fresno, California" (). Hmong Studies Journal. Volume 10, p. 1-53. Available at EBSCOHost
  • Pfeifer, Mark E. (Hmong Cultural Center, St. Paul, Minnesota). "Hmong and Cambodians." In: R. L. Cayton, Andrew, Richard Sisson, and Chris Zacher (editors). The American Midwest: An Interpretive Encyclopedia. Indiana University Press, November 8, 2006. ISBN 0253003490, 9780253003492.

Further reading edit

  • Ngo, Bic, Martha Bigelow, and Kyla Wahlstrom (all from the University of Minnesota). "The Transition of Wat Tham Krabok Hmong Children to Saint Paul Public Schools: Perspectives of Teachers, Principals, and Hmong Parents" (). Hmong Studies Journal. Volume 8, p. 1-35.

External links edit

  • Hmong and Hmong Americans in Minnesota in MNopedia, the Minnesota Encyclopedia
  • Hmong Cultural Center in St. Paul, Minnesota
  • Hmong American Partnership (HAP)
  • Hmong American Mutual Assistance Association, Inc

April 14, 2024
history, hmong, minneapolis, saint, paul, hmong, people, major, ethnic, group, minneapolis, saint, paul, area, 2000, there, were, ethnic, hmong, minneapolis, paul, area, 2010, census, stated, there, were, ethnic, hmong, minneapolis, paul, giving, largest, urba. The Hmong people are a major ethnic group in the Minneapolis Saint Paul area As of 2000 there were 40 707 ethnic Hmong in the Minneapolis St Paul area 1 The 2010 U S Census stated there were 66 000 ethnic Hmong in Minneapolis St Paul giving it the largest urban Hmong population in the world 2 Grit Grigoleit author of Coming Home The Integration of Hmong Refugees from Wat Tham Krabok Thailand into American Society wrote that the Minneapolis St Paul area acted as the cultural and socio political center of Hmong life in the U S 3 Contents 1 History 2 Demographics 3 Commerce 4 Institutions 5 Politics 6 Media 7 Education 8 Culture and recreation 9 Notable people 10 See also 11 Notes 12 Footnotes 13 References 14 Further reading 15 External linksHistory editThis section needs expansion You can help by adding to it January 2014 The Hmong who were refugees settled in Minnesota due to the actions of voluntary agencies VOLAGS Minnesota had many active VOLAGS who helped Hmong people when they arrived 4 The University of Minnesota Agricultural Extension Services and the Lao Family Community established farming programs for Hmong in the early 1980s The programs ended in 1985 5 In 2004 Randy Kelly the mayor of St Paul traveled to Thailand with a delegation of professionals and educators most of them Hmong to assess a community of Hmong refugees 6 As of 2006 the Minneapolis St Paul area was expected to receive Hmong refugees from Wat Tham Krabok in Thailand 3 Demographics editData has shown a positive trend of Hmong Americans gradually reducing the number of Hmong American households that are considered to be living in poverty In 2015 data from the Pew Research Center stated that 28 3 of all Hmong American households lived in poverty 7 This trend is also reflected on Minnesotan Hmong communities The 2011 American Community Survey report stated that 31 of Hmong in the state of Minnesota were considered to be in poverty According to the 2000 U S Census data 33 of Hmong people in Minnesota were considered to be in poverty According to the 1990 U S Census data 65 of Hmong people in Minnesota were considered to be in poverty 8 Sometime during 2013 Mai M Na Lee the author of an encyclopedia article titled Hmong of Minnesota and California wrote that despite a lack of official statistics there are reputedly many Hmong millionaires in the Twin Cities 9 As of 2013 over 50 of Hmong in the Minneapolis area owned their own houses 5 Commerce editAs of around 2013 the Hmong businesses in the Minneapolis St Paul area had revenues of over 100 million total 9 As of 2011 several Hmong owned businesses are located along West University Avenue in St Paul 8 Hmongtown Marketplace a complex with more than 200 merchant stalls and a Hmong food court opened in 2004 Nine businesspeople developed a similar complex named Hmong Village in 2009 9 In 2012 McDonald s introduced its first Hmong language advertising in the United States at a restaurant in Minneapolis However it was unintelligible to Hmong speakers 10 Institutions edit nbsp A recycling sign in Minnesota with instructions in Hmong and other languages By 2013 there were about ten Hmong nonprofit organizations in St Paul 9 The largest Hmong nonprofit group in the State of Minnesota is the Hmong American Partnership HAP headquartered in St Paul 8 Founded in 1990 HAP is led by a board of up to 10 members 11 However over the past few years the group has experienced continual problems with financial oversight which appears to be both widespread and symptomatic of larger management struggles within HAP 11 The problems were uncovered in a 2018 audit and included issues such as persistent mismanagement of employee retirement accounts failures to provide services laid out in grant descriptions undisclosed revenue sources on submitted IRS forms and less than forthright financial practices 11 Bao Vang HAP s president and CEO who earned a base salary of 243 000 in 2017 defended her organization s practices despite the budgetary controversies 11 The Lao Family Community headquartered in St Paul is the most established and oldest Hmong organization Younger leaders began to leave the organization in the 1990s as a result of political disagreements Mai M Na Lee wrote that the organization continues to monopolize festival events like the New Year s Festival and the Fourth of July Soccer Tournament 9 She added that it is not without scandal 9 The Center for Hmong Arts and Talents CHAT based in St Paul develops Hmong art and literature 9 The Hmong Cultural Center is also in St Paul 9 Politics editWhen Choua Lee began serving as a member of the board of education of Saint Paul Public Schools in 1991 9 she became the first Hmong American elected to public office in the area 8 The second official Neal Thao took Choua Lee s position in 1995 Neal Thao remained in this seat for seven years 9 In 2000 Dr Aly Xiong a human rights activist and school principal was the first Hmong American to run for a Minnesota State Legislative seat District 67B He lost to State Representative Sheldon Johnson who served the east side of St Paul for 20 years The Hmong Veterans Naturalization Act of 2000 increased the number of Hmong eligible to vote giving them more political power In 2002 Cy Thao was elected to the Minnesota House of Representatives for District 65A and Mee Moua was elected to the Minnesota Senate for District 67 9 The third Hmong American to be elected to the St Paul school board Kazoua Kong Thao elected in 2003 Mee Moua s sister Vallay Moua Varro was elected to the St Paul school board in 2009 This was the first time that two Hmong officials served concurrently on the St Paul school board since Kong Thao was still in office 6 In 2013 Dai Thao defeated Kazoua Kong Thao and six other candidates in a special election to become the first St Paul City Councilmember of Hmong descent citation needed Mai M Na Lee wrote circa 2013 that the Hmong have a significant political influence in St Paul due to the size of the population 9 Beginning around 2000 Minnesotans campaigning for office have visited Hmong events to get the Hmong vote 9 Media editThe Hmong Today and Hmong Times two Hmong newspapers are headquartered in the Twin Cities area 5 Education edit nbsp Hmong College Prep Academy s west wingAs of 2000 statistics showed that 24 of Minnesotan Hmong had attained a high school diploma or its equivalent 8 had a bachelor s degree and or an associate degree and 1 had a master s degree or further education A reported 53 of Hmong in Minnesota had never received an education 5 According to recorded enrollment data the State of Minnesota had 22 000 students of Hmong origins Minneapolis Public Schools and St Paul Public Schools have large concentrations of Hmong students 12 Minneapolis Public Schools operates the Hmong International Academy a PreK 8 school catering to the Hmong community 13 There are additional Hmong centric schools such as the Hmong College Prep Academy a K 12 charter school in Saint Paul 14 There is also the Hope Community Academy a K 8 school located in Saint Paul that is open to all students but has a focus on Hmong language and culture 15 By 2011 increasing numbers of Hmong were attending universities and colleges Many Hmong student associations have been formed within area universities and college campuses 8 Culture and recreation editThe Hmong New Year is celebrated in the metropolitan area The 38th annual Hmong New Year in St Paul was held in 2013 2 The 41st Annual Minnesota Hmong New Year will be celebrated through the dates of November 30 2020 to December 1 2020 at the River Center in Saint Paul Minnesota Due to the farming programs established in the 1980s many Minnesotan Hmong had gained an interest in farming and agriculture 5 Pom Siab Hmoob Gazing into the Heart of the Hmong Theatre which is reportedly the world s first Hmong theater group was formed in 1990 It is based in the Twin Cities 16 It is now known as the Center for Hmong Arts and Talent CHAT 17 The film Gran Torino by Clint Eastwood though filmed in Michigan stars five Minnesotan Hmong Americans and the original story was based on a neighborhood in Minneapolis It was the first mainstream U S film to feature Hmong Americans 18 Notable people editMee Moua Minnesota state senator 19 She was elected in 2002 8 Cy Thao Minnesota state representative He was elected in 2002 6 Foung Hawj Minnesota state senator He was elected in 2012 Bee Vang actor in Gran Torino 20 21 Fong Lee fatally shot by a Minneapolis police officer in 2006 Sunisa Lee Gymnast 2020 Olympic Women s All Around champion Tou Thao police officer involved in the murder of George Floyd 22 See also editPortals nbsp Laos nbsp United StatesNotes editSome material originates from this revision of Hmong AmericanFootnotes edit Pfeifer p 259 Minneapolis St Paul claimed 40 707 Hmong residents a b Staff report St Paul Annual Hmong New Year celebration begins today Twin Cities Pioneer Press November 27 2013 Retrieved on January 17 2014 a b Grigoleit p 2 Good Question Why Did Somalis Locate Here 1 WCCO TV CBS Minnesota January 19 2011 Retrieved on January 18 2014 It s the same reason this is a population center for Hmong refugees The VOLAGS make the initial wave happen a b c d e Lee Mai M Na p 507 a b c Lor Yang p 2 Hmong in the U S Fact Sheet Pew Research Center 8 September 2017 Retrieved 15 September 2020 a b c d e f Shah Allie Settled after 35 years Hmong must decide What s next Minneapolis StarTribune April 22 2011 Retrieved on January 18 2014 a b c d e f g h i j k l m Lee Mai M Na p 508 Melo Frederick St Paul McDonald s Hmong pitch mangles language Twin Cities Pioneer Press September 2 2012 Updated on September 3 2012 Retrieved on May 10 2013 a b c d Melo Frederik 31 January 2020 Hmong American Partnership faces questions about grant requirements delayed 401 k contributions Twin Cities Pioneer Press Retrieved 16 September 2020 Xiong Yang Sao Education of Hmong Americans In Banks James A editor Encyclopedia of Diversity in Education SAGE Publications May 24 2012 ISBN 1412981530 9781412981538 p 1078 Home Hmong International Academy Retrieved on January 18 2014 District Archived 2014 01 29 at the Wayback Machine Hmong College Prep Academy Retrieved on January 18 2014 HOPE Community Academy HOPE Community Academy Retrieved 2017 01 29 Lee Gary Yia and Nicholas Tapp Culture and Customs of the Hmong Greenwood Publishing Group ABC CLIO 2010 76 77 Retrieved from Google Books on April 14 2012 ISBN 0 313 34526 0 ISBN 978 0 313 34526 5 Lee Gary Yia and Nicholas Tapp Culture and Customs of the Hmong Greenwood Publishing Group ABC CLIO 2010 77 Retrieved from Google Books on April 14 2012 ISBN 0 313 34526 0 ISBN 978 0 313 34526 5 Yuen Laura Hmong get a mixed debut in new Eastwood film Minnesota Public Radio December 18 2008 Retrieved on March 18 2012 Orrick Dave State Sen Mee Moua lives darker side of American dream loses her home Twin Cities Pioneer Press September 17 2010 Retrieved on January 17 2014 Vang Bee 7 April 2011 Opinion Why I can t shrug off KDWB s hateful slur against Hmong community St Paul Pioneer Press Retrieved 7 April 2011 Xamoua Gran Torino interview with Bee Vang Hmong Today at Twin Cities Daily Planet January 27 2009 Retrieved on March 14 2012 Yam Kimmy 2020 06 01 Officer who stood by as George Floyd died highlights complex Asian American black relations NBC News Retrieved 2020 06 22 References editGrigoleit Grit M A Department of American Studies University of Passau Coming Home The Integration of Hmong Refugees from Wat Tham Krabok Thailand into American Society Archive Hmong Studies Journal Volume 7 2006 p 1 22 Lee Mai M Na Hmong of Minnesota and California In Zhao Xiaojian and Edward J W Park PH D Asian Americans An Encyclopedia of Social Cultural Economic and Political History 3 volumes An Encyclopedia of Social Cultural Economic and Political History Google eBook ABC CLIO November 30 2013 ISBN 1598842404 9781598842401 Lor Yang Hmong Political Involvement in St Paul Minnesota and Fresno California Archive Hmong Studies Journal Volume 10 p 1 53 Available at EBSCOHost Pfeifer Mark E Hmong Cultural Center St Paul Minnesota Hmong and Cambodians In R L Cayton Andrew Richard Sisson and Chris Zacher editors The American Midwest An Interpretive Encyclopedia Indiana University Press November 8 2006 ISBN 0253003490 9780253003492 Further reading editNgo Bic Martha Bigelow and Kyla Wahlstrom all from the University of Minnesota The Transition of Wat Tham Krabok Hmong Children to Saint Paul Public Schools Perspectives of Teachers Principals and Hmong Parents Archive Hmong Studies Journal Volume 8 p 1 35 External links editHmong and Hmong Americans in Minnesota in MNopedia the Minnesota Encyclopedia Hmong Cultural Center in St Paul Minnesota Hmong American Partnership HAP Hmong American Mutual Assistance Association Inc Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title History of the Hmong in Minneapolis Saint Paul amp oldid 1209501828, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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