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Age disparity in sexual relationships

In sexual relationships, concepts of age disparity, including what defines an age disparity, have developed over time and vary among societies. Differences in age preferences for mates can stem from partner availability, gender roles, and evolutionary mating strategies, and age preferences in sexual partners may vary cross-culturally. There are also social theories for age differences in relationships as well as suggested reasons for 'alternative' age-hypogamous relationships. Age-disparate relationships have been documented for most of recorded history and have been regarded with a wide range of attitudes dependent on sociocultural norms and legal systems.[1]

Statistics

Age difference in heterosexual married couples, 2017 US Current Population Survey[2]
Age difference Percentage of all married couples
Husband 20+ years older than wife
1.0
Husband 15–19 years older than wife
1.6
Husband 10–14 years older than wife
5.0
Husband 6–9 years older than wife
11.2
Husband 4–5 years older than wife
12.8
Husband 2–3 years older than wife
19.6
Husband and wife within 1–2 years
33.9
Wife 2–3 years older than husband
6.9
Wife 4–5 years older than husband
3.4
Wife 6–9 years older than husband
2.8
Wife 10–14 years older than husband
1.0
Wife 15–19 years older than husband
0.3
Wife 20+ years older than husband
0.4

Data in Australia[3] and the United Kingdom[4] show an almost identical pattern.

Relationships with age disparities have been observed with both men and women as the older or younger partner. In various cultures, older men and younger women often seek one another for sexual or marital relationships.[5] Older women sometimes date younger men as well,[6] and in both cases wealth and apparent physical attractiveness are often relevant.[7] Because most men are interested in women in their 20s, adolescent boys are generally sexually interested in women somewhat older than they are.[8] Older men also display an interest in women of their own age.[9] However, research suggests that relationship patterns are more influenced by women's preferences than men's.[8][10][11]

Most men marry women younger than they are; with the difference being between two and three years in Spain,[12] the UK reporting the difference to be on average about three years, and the US, two and a half.[13][14] The pattern was also confirmed for the rest of the world, with the gap being largest in Africa.[15] However, the number of women marrying younger men is rising. A study released in 2003 by the UK's Office for National Statistics concluded that the proportion of women in England and Wales marrying younger men rose from 15% to 26% between 1963 and 1998. Another study also showed a higher divorce rate as the age difference rose for when either the woman was older or the man was older.[16][17] A 2008 study, however, concluded that the difference is not significant.[18][19]

In August 2010, Michael Dunn of the University of Wales Institute, Cardiff, completed and released the results of a study on age disparity in dating. Dunn concluded that "Not once across all ages and countries ... did females show a preference for males significantly younger than male preferences for females" and that there was a "consistent cross-cultural preference by women for at least same-age or significantly older men". A 2003 AARP study reported that 34% of women over 39 years old were dating younger men.[20]

A 2011 study suggested that marriage of younger men by women is positively correlated with decreased longevity, particularly for the woman, though married individuals generally still have longer lifespans than singles.[21]

Reasons for age disparity

There are complex and diverse reasons that people enter into age-disparate relationships, and a recent review in the Journal of Family Theory and Review showed vast differences across contexts.[22] Explanations for age disparity usually focus on either the rational choice model or the analysis of demographic trends in a society.[12] The rational choice model suggests that people look for partners who can provide for them in their life (bread-winners); as men earn more as they get older, women will therefore prefer older men.[12] This factor is diminishing as more women enter the labor force. The demographic trends are concerned with the sex ratio in the society, the marriage squeeze, and migration patterns.[12] Another explanation concerns cultural values: the higher the value placed in having children, the higher the age gap will be.[15] Yet Canadian researchers have found that age-disparate couples are less likely to have children than similarly aged ones.[23] As people have chosen to marry later and remarriage becomes more common, the age differences between couples have increased as well.[12][18]

In a Brown University study, it has been noted that the social structure of a country determines the age difference between spouses more than any other factor.[24] One of the concerns of relationships with age disparities in some cultures is a perceived difference between people of different age ranges. These differences may be sexual, financial or social. Gender roles may complicate this even further. Socially, a society with a difference in wealth distribution between older and younger people may affect the dynamics of the relationship.[25]

Although the "cougar" trend, in which older women date much younger men, is often portrayed in the media as a widespread and established facet of modern Western culture, at least one academic study has found the concept to be a "myth". A British psychological study published in Evolution and Human Behavior in 2010 concluded that men and women, in general, continued to follow traditional gender roles when searching for mates.[26] The study found that, as supported by other academic studies, most men preferred younger, "attractive" women, while most women, of any age, preferred successful, established men their age or older. The study found very few instances of older women pursuing much younger men and vice versa.[27] The study has been criticized, however, for limiting their results to online dating profiles, which are traditionally not used by those seeking older or younger partners, and for excluding the United States from the study.[28][29][30]

Evolutionary perspective

Evolutionary approach

The evolutionary approach, based on the theories of Charles Darwin, attempts to explain age disparity in sexual relationships in terms of natural selection and sexual selection.[31][32] Within sexual selection, Darwin identified a further two mechanisms which are important factors in the evolution of sex differences (sexual dimorphism): intrasexual selection (involves competition with those of the same sex over access to mates) and intersexual choice (discriminative choice of mating partners).[33] Life history theory[34] (that includes Parental Investment Theory)[35] provides an explanation for the above mechanisms and strategies adopted by individuals, leading to age disparity in relationships. Life history theory posits that individuals have to divide energy and resources between activities (as energy and resources devoted to one task cannot be used for another task) and this is shaped by natural selection.[36]

Parental Investment Theory refers to the value that is placed on a potential mate based on reproductive potential and reproductive investment. The theory predicts that preferred mate choices have evolved to focus on reproductive potential and reproductive investment of members of the opposite sex.[35] This theory predicts both intrasexual selection and intersexual choice due to differences in parental investment; typically there is competition among members of the lower investing sex (generally males) over the parental investment of the higher investing sex (generally females) who will be more selective in their mate choice. However, human males tend to have more parental investment compared to mammal males (although females still tend to have more parental investment).[37] Thus, both sexes will have to compete and be selective in mate choices. These two theories explain why natural and sexual selection acts slightly differently on the two sexes so that they display different preferences. For example, different age preferences may be a result of sex differences in mate values assigned to the opposite sex at those ages.[35]

A study conducted by David Buss investigated sex differences in mate preferences in 37 cultures with 10,047 participants. In all 37 cultures it was found that males preferred females younger than themselves and females preferred males older than themselves. These age preferences were confirmed in marriage records with males marrying females younger than them and vice versa.[38] A more recent study has supported these findings, conducted by Schwarz and Hassebrauck.[39] This study used 21,245 participants between 18 and 65 years of age who were not involved in a close relationship. As well as asking participants a number of questions on mate selection criteria, they also had to provide the oldest and youngest partner they would accept. It was found that for all ages males were willing to accept females that are slightly older than they are (on average 4.5 years older), but they accept females considerably younger than their own age (on average 10 years younger). Females demonstrate a complementary pattern, being willing to accept older males (on average 8 years older) and were also willing to accept males younger than themselves (on average 5 years younger). This is somewhat different to our close evolutionary relatives: chimpanzees. Male chimpanzees tend to prefer older females than younger and it is suggested that specific cues of female mate value are very different to humans.[40]

Male preference for younger females

Buss attributed the male preference for younger females to certain youthful cues. In females, relative youth and apparent physical attractiveness (which males valued more compared to females) demonstrated cues for fertility and high reproductive capacity.[38] Buss stated the specific age preference of around 25 years implied that fertility was a stronger ultimate cause of mate preference than reproductive value as data suggested that fertility peaks in females around mid-20s.[38] From a life history theory perspective, females that display these cues are judged to be more capable of reproductive investment.[41] This notion of age preference due to peak fertility is supported by Kenrick, Keefe, Gabrielidis, and Cornelius's study, which found that although teenage males would accept a mate slightly younger than they are, there was a wider range of preference for ages above their own. Teenage males also report that their ideal mates would be several years older than they are.[42]

Buss and Schmitt[43] stress that although long-term mating relationships are common for humans, there are both short-term and long-term mating relationships. Buss and Schmitt provided a Sexual Strategies Theory that describes the two sexes as having evolved distinct psychological mechanisms that underlie the strategies for short- and long-term mating. This theory is directly relevant and compatible with those two already mentioned, Life History and Parental Investment.[44][45] Males tend to appear oriented towards short-term mating (greater desire for short-term mates than women, prefer larger number of sexual partners, and take less time to consent to sexual intercourse[45]) and this appears to solve a number of adaptive problems including using fewer resources to access a mate.[43] Although there are a number of reproductive advantages to short-term mating, males still pursue long-term mates, and this is due to the possibility of monopolizing a female's lifetime reproductive resources.[43] Consistent with findings, for both short-term and long-term mates, males prefer younger females (reproductively valuable).[43][46]

Female preference for older males

Table 1. Regional singulate mean age of marriage (SMAM) difference between males and females[47]
Region SMAM difference
Eastern Africa 4.3
Middle Africa 6.0
Northern Africa 4.5
Western Africa 6.6
Eastern Asia 2.4
South-Central Asia 3.7
South-Eastern Asia 2.4
Western Asia 3.5
Eastern Europe 3.1
Northern Europe 2.3
Southern Europe 3.3
Western Europe 2.7
Caribbean 2.9
Central America 2.5
South America 2.9
Northern America 2.3
Australia/New Zealand 2.2

As they are the higher-investing sex, females tend to be slightly more demanding when picking a mate (as predicted by parental investment theory).[37] They also tend to have a more difficult task of evaluating a male's reproductive value accurately based on physical appearance, as age tends to have fewer constraints on a male's reproductive resources.[41] Buss attributed the older age preference to older males displaying characteristics of high providing-capacity[38] such as status and resources.[39] In terms of short-term and long-term mating, females tend to be oriented towards long-term mating due to the costs incurred from short-term mating.[43] Although some of these costs will be the same for males and females (risk of STIs and impairing long-term mate value), the costs for women will be more severe due to paternity uncertainty (cues of multiple mates will be disfavoured by males).[43]

In contrast to above, in short-term mating, females will tend to favour males that demonstrate physical attractiveness, as this displays cues of "good genes".[43] Cues of good genes tend to be typically associated with older males[48] such as facial masculinity and cheek-bone prominence.[49] Buss and Schmitt found similar female preferences for long-term mating which supports the notion that, for long-term relationships, females prefer cues of high resource capacity, one of which is age.[43]

Dataclysm's study identified that women tend to find men approximately their own age most desirable, e.g. 21-year-old women found 23-year-old men most attractive.[citation needed]

Cross-cultural differences

Cross-culturally, research has consistently supported the trend in which males prefer to mate with younger females, and females with older males.[33] In a cross-cultural study that covered 37 countries,[50] preferences for age differences were measured and research supported the theory that people prefer to marry close to the age when female fertility is at its highest (24–25 years). Analysing the results further, cross culturally, the average age females prefer to marry is 25.4 years old, and they prefer a mate 3.4 years older than themselves, therefore their preferred mate would be aged 28.8 years of age. Males however prefer to marry when they are 27.5 years old, and a female to be 2.7 years younger than themselves, yielding their preferred mate to be 24.8 years old. The results from the study therefore show that the mean preferred marriage age difference (3.04 years averaging male and female preferred age) corresponds very closely with the actual mean marriage age difference (2.99). The preferred age of females is 24.8 years and the actual average age females marry is 25.3 years old (and 28.2 for males) which actually falls directly on the age where females are most fertile, however, this assumes this people are having children immediately after marrying. Moreover, these patterns fit many proposed explanations for age differences: evolutionarily adapted mating preferences, socialisation, and gendered economic differences.[22]

The United Nations Marriage Statistics Department measures the Singulate Mean Age Marriage (SMAM) difference, the difference in average age at first marriage between men and women, across the main regions in the world (refer to Table. 1).[47]

Larger than average age-gaps

Table 2. Countries with largest marital age differences[47]
Country SMAM difference Legal Status of Polygamy
Cameroon a 6.5 Polygamous
Chad 6.1 Polygamous
Rep. of Congo 8.6 Polygamous
Dem. Rep. of Congo 8.2 Polygamous
Zambia 3.1 Polygamous
Sudan 6.4 Polygamous
Burkina Faso a 8.6 Polygamous
Côte d'Ivoire 7.2 No Longer Practiced
Gambia 9.2 Polygamous
Guinea a 7.3 Illegal but practiced
Liberia 6.5 Not Criminalised
Mali 7.5 Polygamous
Mauritania 7.7 Polygamous
Niger 6.3 Polygamous
Nigeria 6.9 Polygamous
Senegal 8.1 Polygamous
Afghanistan 7.5 Polygamous
Bangladesh 6.8 Polygamous
Montserrat b 8.3 Unknown
Nauru 7.3 Prohibited
Mozambique 8.6 Not Criminalised

However, in some regions of the world there is a substantially larger age gap between marriage partners in that males are much older than their wife (or wives) or women are much younger than their husband (or husbands). A theory that can explain this finding from an evolutionary perspective is the parasite-stress theory which explains that an increase of infectious disease can cause humans to evolve selectively according to these pressures. Evidence also shows that as disease risk gets higher, it puts a level of stress on mating selection and increases the use of polygamy.[51]

Table 2 shows that 17 of the 20 countries with the largest age-gaps between spouses practice polygyny, and that males range from 6.1 to 9.2 years older than their partners. In regions such as Sub-Saharan Africa the use of polygyny is commonly practiced as a consequence of high sex-ratios (more males per 100 females) and passing on heterozygous (diverse) genetics from different females to offspring.[52] When disease is prevalent, if a male is producing offspring with a more diverse range of alleles, offspring will be more likely to withstand mortality from disease and continue the family line. Another reason that polygynous communities have larger age-gaps between spouses is that intrasexual competition for females increases as fewer females remain on the marriage market (with males having more than one wife each), therefore the competitive advantage values younger females due to their higher reproductive value.[53] As the competition for younger women becomes more common, the age in females' first marriage lower as older men seek younger and younger females.

Smaller than average age-gaps

In Western societies such as the US and Europe, there is a trend of smaller age-gaps between spouses, reaching its peak average in Southern Europe of 3.3 years. Using the same pathogen-stress model, there is a lower prevalence of disease in these economically developed areas, and therefore a reduced stress on reproduction for survival. Additionally, it is common to see monogamous relationships widely in more modern societies as there are more women in the marriage market and polygamy is illegal throughout most of Europe and the United States.

As access to education increases worldwide, the age of marriage increases with it, with more of the youth staying in education for longer. The mean age of marriage in Europe is well above 25, and averaging at 30 in Nordic countries, however this may also be due to the increase of cohabitation in European countries. In some countries in Europe such as France, Netherlands, United Kingdom, Norway, Estonia, Finland and Denmark, 20–30% of women aged 20–34 are cohabiting as opposed to legally marrying.[54] In addition to this with the gender pay gap decreasing, more women work equal hours (average of 40 hours in Europe and the US) to males and look less for males with financial resources.[54]

In regions such as the Caribbean and Latin America there is a lower SMAM difference than expected; however, there are also a large proportion of partners living in consensual unions; 24% in Brazil, 20% in Nicaragua and 18% in Dominican Republic.[55]

A 2011 study suggested that age disparity in marriage is positively correlated with decreased longevity, particularly for women, though married people still have longer lifespans than singles.[21]

Social perspectives

Social structural origin theory

Social structural origin theory argues that the underlying cause of sex-differentiated behaviour is the concentration of men and women in differing roles in society. It has been argued that a reason gender roles are so prevalent in society is that the expectations of gender roles can become internalised in a person's self-concept and personality.[56] In a Brown University study, it has been noted that the social structure of a country determines the age difference between spouses more than any other factor, challenging evolutionary explanations.[57] In regard to mate selection, social structural theory supports the idea that individuals aim to maximise what they can provide in the relationship in an environment that is limiting their utilities through expected gender roles in society and marriage.[58]

It is thought that a trade-off or equilibrium is reached, in regard to what each gender brings to the mating partnership, and that this equilibrium is most likely to be reached with a trade-off of ages when selecting a mate.[59] Women trade youth and physical attractiveness for economic security in their male partner.[60] This economic approach to choosing a partner ultimately depends on the marital or family system that is adopted by society. Women and men tend to seek a partner that will fit in with their society's sexual division of labour. For example, a marital system based on males being the provider and females the domestic worker, favours an age gap in the relationship. An older male is more likely to have more resources to provide to the family.[58]

The rational choice model

The rational choice model also suggests that people look for partners who can provide for them in their life (bread-winners); as men traditionally earn more as they get older, women will therefore prefer older men.[61] This factor is diminishing as more women enter the labour force and the gender pay gap decreases.[61]

Age-hypogamy in relationships

Age-hypogamy defines a relationship where the woman is the older partner, the opposite of this being age-hypergamy.[62] Marriage between partners of roughly similar age is known as "age homogamy".[63]

Older female–younger male relationships are increasingly researched by social scientists.[62][64][65][66][67] Slang terms such as "cougar" have been used in films, TV shows and the media to depict older females with younger male mates. The picture often displays a stereotypical pairing of a divorced, middle-aged, white, affluent female dating a younger male with the relationship taking the form of a non-commitment arrangement between the partners.[68]

Although age-hypogamous relationships have historically been very infrequent, recent US census data has shown an increase in age-hypogamous relationships from 6.4% in 2000 to 7.7% in 2012.[69]

There may be many reasons why age-hypogamous relationships have been less frequent until recently. Sexual double standards in society, in particular, may account for their rarity.[62] In many contexts, ageing in women is seen to be associated with decreased sex appeal and dating potential.[70]

There is debate in the literature as to what leads to age-hypogamy in sexual relationships. A number of variables have been argued to influence the likelihood of women entering into an age-hypogamous relationship, such as racial or ethnic background, level of education, income, marital status, conservatism, age, and number of sexual partners.[62] For example, US Census data show an exaggerated sex ratio in African American communities, whereby there were 100 African American women for every 89 African American men.[71] It was shown that African American women were more likely to be in age-hypogamous or age-hypergamous marriages in comparison with White American women.[72] However, more recent evidence has found that women belonging to racial categories besides African American or White were more likely to sleep with younger men,[62] showing that it is still unclear which, if any, ethnic groups are more likely to have age-hypogamous relationships.

 
French President Emmanuel Macron and his wife Brigitte. The couple married in 2007; at the time he was 30 years old and she 54, with a 24-year age-hypogamous gap between the pair.

Another example illustrating the varying literature surrounding age-hypogamous relationships is research indicating that a woman's marital status can influence her likelihood of engaging in age-hypogamous relationships. Married women are less likely to be partnered with younger men compared to non-married women.[73] More recent findings suggest that previously married women are more likely to engage in an age-hypogamous sexual relationships compared to women who are married or who have never been married.[62]

Despite social views depicting age-hypogamous relationships as short lived, a 2008 study from Psychology of Women Quarterly has found that women in age-hypogamous relationships are more satisfied and the most committed in their relationships compared to younger women or similarly aged partners.[74][75] It has also been suggested that male partners engaging in age-hypogamous relationships are choosing beauty over age. A recent study found that when shown pictures of women of ages ranging from 20 to 45 with different levels of apparent attractiveness, regardless of age, men chose the more "attractive" individuals as long-term partners.[76]

"Half-your-age-plus-seven" rule

 
Graph of the half-age-plus-seven rule

An often-asserted rule of thumb to determine whether an age difference is socially acceptable holds that a person should never date someone whose age is less than half their own plus seven years.[77][78][79][80] According to this rule, a 28-year-old would date no one younger than 21 (half of 28, plus 7) and a 50-year-old would date no one younger than 32 (half of 50, plus 7).

Although the provenance of the rule is unclear, it is sometimes said to have originated in France.[78] The rule appears in John Fox Jr.'s 1903 novel The Little Shepherd of Kingdom Come,[81] in American newspapers in 1931 attributed to Maurice Chevalier,[82] and in The Autobiography of Malcolm X, attributed to Elijah Muhammad.[83]

In earlier sources, the rule sometimes had a different interpretation than in contemporary times. Not only was it gender-specific, it was presented as a formula to calculate the ideal age of a female partner at the beginning of a relationship, instead of a lower limit. Frederick Locker-Lampson's Patchwork from 1879 states the opinion "A wife should be half the age of her husband with seven years added."[84] Max O'Rell's Her Royal Highness Woman from 1901 gives the rule in the format "A man should marry a woman half his age, plus seven."[85] A similar interpretation is also present in the 1951 play The Moon Is Blue by F. Hugh Herbert: "Haven't you ever heard that the girl is supposed to be half the man's age, plus seven?"[86]

A 2000 study found that the rule was fairly accurate at predicting the minimum age of a woman that a man would marry or date. However, the rule was not found to be predictive of the minimum age of a man that a woman would marry or date, nor (by reversing the formula) of the maximum age that either sex would marry or date.[77]

Slang terms

Partner age disparities are typically met with some disdain in industrialized nations, and there are various derogatory terms for participants in these relationships.

In English-speaking countries, where financial disparity and an exchange of money for companionship is perceived as central to these relationships, the elder (presumably more wealthy) partner is often called a "sugar daddy" or "sugar mama", and the younger may be called a "sugar baby". In extreme cases, a person who marries a wealthy older partner – especially one in poor health – may be called a "gold digger".[87]

An attractive younger woman pursued by a wealthy man who is perceived as wanting her only for her appearance or as a status symbol may be called a trophy wife.[88] The opposite term, "trophy husband", does not have an agreed upon use, but is becoming more common: some use the term to refer to the attractive stay-at-home husband of a much more famous man or woman; others use it to refer to the husband of a trophy wife, as he is her trophy due to his wealth and prestige[citation needed]. In the latter case, the term trophy is broadened to include any substantial difference in power originating from physical appearance, wealth, or status. The trophy label is often perceived as objectifying the partner, with or without the partner's implicit consent.

Where the primary perceived reason for a relationship with a significant age difference is sexual, many gender-specific terms have become popular in English-speaking cultures. A woman of middle to elderly age who pursues younger men is a cougar or puma, and a man in a relationship with an older woman is often called a boytoy, toyboy, himbo, gigolo, or cub. In reverse, the terms rhino, trout and manther (a play on the panther term for women) are generally used to label an older man pursuing younger women, and the younger woman in such a relationship may be called a kitten or panther.[89] If the woman is extremely young, the man may be labelled a cradle-snatcher (UK)[90] or cradle robber (US)[91] In gay slang, the term chickenhawk may be used. If the much-younger target of affections is not of the legal age of consent or appears as such, the term jailbait may be applied to them, cautioning older partners against involvement. An older term for any licentious or lascivious man is a lecher. That term and its shortening, lech, have come to commonly describe an elderly man who makes passes at much younger women.[citation needed]

See also

References

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Further reading

  • Alarie, Milaine; Carmichael, Jason T. (2015). ""The "Cougar phenomenon: An Examination of the Factors That Influence Age-Hypogamous Sexual Relationships Among Middle-Aged Women". Journal of Marriage and Family. 77 (5): 1250–1265. doi:10.1111/jomf.12213.
  • Berardo, F. M., Appel, J., & Berardo, D. H. (1993). Age dissimilar marriages: Review and assessment. Journal of Aging Studies, 7, 93–106. doi:10.1016/0890-4065(93)90026-G
  • Buss, D. M. (2015). The Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology, Foundation. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
  • Buss, D. M. (1989). "Sex differences in human mate preferences: Evolutionary hypotheses tested in 37 cultures". Behavioral and Brain Sciences. 12 (1): 1–14. doi:10.1017/s0140525x00023992.
  • Buss, D. M.; Barnes, M. (1986). "Preferences in human mate selection". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 50 (3): 559. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.50.3.559.
  • McKenzie, Lara (2021). "Age-dissimilar couple relationships: 25 years in review". Journal of Family Theory and Review. 13 (4): 496–514. doi:10.1111/jftr.12427
  • Schwartz, C. R. (2013). "Trends and variation in assortative mating: Causes and consequences". Annual Review of Sociology, 39, 451–470. doi:10.1146/annurev-soc-071312-145544
  • Timeus, I.M.; Reynar, A. (1998). "Polygynists and their wives in sub-Saharan Africa: an analysis of five Demographic and Health Surveys". Population Studies. 52 (2): 145–162. doi:10.1080/0032472031000150346.


disparity, sexual, relationships, sexual, relationships, concepts, disparity, including, what, defines, disparity, have, developed, over, time, vary, among, societies, differences, preferences, mates, stem, from, partner, availability, gender, roles, evolution. In sexual relationships concepts of age disparity including what defines an age disparity have developed over time and vary among societies Differences in age preferences for mates can stem from partner availability gender roles and evolutionary mating strategies and age preferences in sexual partners may vary cross culturally There are also social theories for age differences in relationships as well as suggested reasons for alternative age hypogamous relationships Age disparate relationships have been documented for most of recorded history and have been regarded with a wide range of attitudes dependent on sociocultural norms and legal systems 1 Contents 1 Statistics 2 Reasons for age disparity 3 Evolutionary perspective 3 1 Evolutionary approach 3 2 Male preference for younger females 3 3 Female preference for older males 4 Cross cultural differences 4 1 Larger than average age gaps 4 2 Smaller than average age gaps 5 Social perspectives 5 1 Social structural origin theory 5 2 The rational choice model 6 Age hypogamy in relationships 7 Half your age plus seven rule 8 Slang terms 9 See also 10 References 11 Further readingStatistics EditAge difference in heterosexual married couples 2017 US Current Population Survey 2 Age difference Percentage of all married couplesHusband 20 years older than wife 1 0Husband 15 19 years older than wife 1 6Husband 10 14 years older than wife 5 0Husband 6 9 years older than wife 11 2Husband 4 5 years older than wife 12 8Husband 2 3 years older than wife 19 6Husband and wife within 1 2 years 33 9Wife 2 3 years older than husband 6 9Wife 4 5 years older than husband 3 4Wife 6 9 years older than husband 2 8Wife 10 14 years older than husband 1 0Wife 15 19 years older than husband 0 3Wife 20 years older than husband 0 4Data in Australia 3 and the United Kingdom 4 show an almost identical pattern Relationships with age disparities have been observed with both men and women as the older or younger partner In various cultures older men and younger women often seek one another for sexual or marital relationships 5 Older women sometimes date younger men as well 6 and in both cases wealth and apparent physical attractiveness are often relevant 7 Because most men are interested in women in their 20s adolescent boys are generally sexually interested in women somewhat older than they are 8 Older men also display an interest in women of their own age 9 However research suggests that relationship patterns are more influenced by women s preferences than men s 8 10 11 Most men marry women younger than they are with the difference being between two and three years in Spain 12 the UK reporting the difference to be on average about three years and the US two and a half 13 14 The pattern was also confirmed for the rest of the world with the gap being largest in Africa 15 However the number of women marrying younger men is rising A study released in 2003 by the UK s Office for National Statistics concluded that the proportion of women in England and Wales marrying younger men rose from 15 to 26 between 1963 and 1998 Another study also showed a higher divorce rate as the age difference rose for when either the woman was older or the man was older 16 17 A 2008 study however concluded that the difference is not significant 18 19 In August 2010 Michael Dunn of the University of Wales Institute Cardiff completed and released the results of a study on age disparity in dating Dunn concluded that Not once across all ages and countries did females show a preference for males significantly younger than male preferences for females and that there was a consistent cross cultural preference by women for at least same age or significantly older men A 2003 AARP study reported that 34 of women over 39 years old were dating younger men 20 A 2011 study suggested that marriage of younger men by women is positively correlated with decreased longevity particularly for the woman though married individuals generally still have longer lifespans than singles 21 Reasons for age disparity EditThere are complex and diverse reasons that people enter into age disparate relationships and a recent review in the Journal of Family Theory and Review showed vast differences across contexts 22 Explanations for age disparity usually focus on either the rational choice model or the analysis of demographic trends in a society 12 The rational choice model suggests that people look for partners who can provide for them in their life bread winners as men earn more as they get older women will therefore prefer older men 12 This factor is diminishing as more women enter the labor force The demographic trends are concerned with the sex ratio in the society the marriage squeeze and migration patterns 12 Another explanation concerns cultural values the higher the value placed in having children the higher the age gap will be 15 Yet Canadian researchers have found that age disparate couples are less likely to have children than similarly aged ones 23 As people have chosen to marry later and remarriage becomes more common the age differences between couples have increased as well 12 18 In a Brown University study it has been noted that the social structure of a country determines the age difference between spouses more than any other factor 24 One of the concerns of relationships with age disparities in some cultures is a perceived difference between people of different age ranges These differences may be sexual financial or social Gender roles may complicate this even further Socially a society with a difference in wealth distribution between older and younger people may affect the dynamics of the relationship 25 Although the cougar trend in which older women date much younger men is often portrayed in the media as a widespread and established facet of modern Western culture at least one academic study has found the concept to be a myth A British psychological study published in Evolution and Human Behavior in 2010 concluded that men and women in general continued to follow traditional gender roles when searching for mates 26 The study found that as supported by other academic studies most men preferred younger attractive women while most women of any age preferred successful established men their age or older The study found very few instances of older women pursuing much younger men and vice versa 27 The study has been criticized however for limiting their results to online dating profiles which are traditionally not used by those seeking older or younger partners and for excluding the United States from the study 28 29 30 Evolutionary perspective EditEvolutionary approach Edit The evolutionary approach based on the theories of Charles Darwin attempts to explain age disparity in sexual relationships in terms of natural selection and sexual selection 31 32 Within sexual selection Darwin identified a further two mechanisms which are important factors in the evolution of sex differences sexual dimorphism intrasexual selection involves competition with those of the same sex over access to mates and intersexual choice discriminative choice of mating partners 33 Life history theory 34 that includes Parental Investment Theory 35 provides an explanation for the above mechanisms and strategies adopted by individuals leading to age disparity in relationships Life history theory posits that individuals have to divide energy and resources between activities as energy and resources devoted to one task cannot be used for another task and this is shaped by natural selection 36 Parental Investment Theory refers to the value that is placed on a potential mate based on reproductive potential and reproductive investment The theory predicts that preferred mate choices have evolved to focus on reproductive potential and reproductive investment of members of the opposite sex 35 This theory predicts both intrasexual selection and intersexual choice due to differences in parental investment typically there is competition among members of the lower investing sex generally males over the parental investment of the higher investing sex generally females who will be more selective in their mate choice However human males tend to have more parental investment compared to mammal males although females still tend to have more parental investment 37 Thus both sexes will have to compete and be selective in mate choices These two theories explain why natural and sexual selection acts slightly differently on the two sexes so that they display different preferences For example different age preferences may be a result of sex differences in mate values assigned to the opposite sex at those ages 35 A study conducted by David Buss investigated sex differences in mate preferences in 37 cultures with 10 047 participants In all 37 cultures it was found that males preferred females younger than themselves and females preferred males older than themselves These age preferences were confirmed in marriage records with males marrying females younger than them and vice versa 38 A more recent study has supported these findings conducted by Schwarz and Hassebrauck 39 This study used 21 245 participants between 18 and 65 years of age who were not involved in a close relationship As well as asking participants a number of questions on mate selection criteria they also had to provide the oldest and youngest partner they would accept It was found that for all ages males were willing to accept females that are slightly older than they are on average 4 5 years older but they accept females considerably younger than their own age on average 10 years younger Females demonstrate a complementary pattern being willing to accept older males on average 8 years older and were also willing to accept males younger than themselves on average 5 years younger This is somewhat different to our close evolutionary relatives chimpanzees Male chimpanzees tend to prefer older females than younger and it is suggested that specific cues of female mate value are very different to humans 40 Male preference for younger females Edit Buss attributed the male preference for younger females to certain youthful cues In females relative youth and apparent physical attractiveness which males valued more compared to females demonstrated cues for fertility and high reproductive capacity 38 Buss stated the specific age preference of around 25 years implied that fertility was a stronger ultimate cause of mate preference than reproductive value as data suggested that fertility peaks in females around mid 20s 38 From a life history theory perspective females that display these cues are judged to be more capable of reproductive investment 41 This notion of age preference due to peak fertility is supported by Kenrick Keefe Gabrielidis and Cornelius s study which found that although teenage males would accept a mate slightly younger than they are there was a wider range of preference for ages above their own Teenage males also report that their ideal mates would be several years older than they are 42 Buss and Schmitt 43 stress that although long term mating relationships are common for humans there are both short term and long term mating relationships Buss and Schmitt provided a Sexual Strategies Theory that describes the two sexes as having evolved distinct psychological mechanisms that underlie the strategies for short and long term mating This theory is directly relevant and compatible with those two already mentioned Life History and Parental Investment 44 45 Males tend to appear oriented towards short term mating greater desire for short term mates than women prefer larger number of sexual partners and take less time to consent to sexual intercourse 45 and this appears to solve a number of adaptive problems including using fewer resources to access a mate 43 Although there are a number of reproductive advantages to short term mating males still pursue long term mates and this is due to the possibility of monopolizing a female s lifetime reproductive resources 43 Consistent with findings for both short term and long term mates males prefer younger females reproductively valuable 43 46 Female preference for older males Edit Table 1 Regional singulate mean age of marriage SMAM difference between males and females 47 Region SMAM differenceEastern Africa 4 3Middle Africa 6 0Northern Africa 4 5Western Africa 6 6Eastern Asia 2 4South Central Asia 3 7South Eastern Asia 2 4Western Asia 3 5Eastern Europe 3 1Northern Europe 2 3Southern Europe 3 3Western Europe 2 7Caribbean 2 9Central America 2 5South America 2 9Northern America 2 3Australia New Zealand 2 2As they are the higher investing sex females tend to be slightly more demanding when picking a mate as predicted by parental investment theory 37 They also tend to have a more difficult task of evaluating a male s reproductive value accurately based on physical appearance as age tends to have fewer constraints on a male s reproductive resources 41 Buss attributed the older age preference to older males displaying characteristics of high providing capacity 38 such as status and resources 39 In terms of short term and long term mating females tend to be oriented towards long term mating due to the costs incurred from short term mating 43 Although some of these costs will be the same for males and females risk of STIs and impairing long term mate value the costs for women will be more severe due to paternity uncertainty cues of multiple mates will be disfavoured by males 43 In contrast to above in short term mating females will tend to favour males that demonstrate physical attractiveness as this displays cues of good genes 43 Cues of good genes tend to be typically associated with older males 48 such as facial masculinity and cheek bone prominence 49 Buss and Schmitt found similar female preferences for long term mating which supports the notion that for long term relationships females prefer cues of high resource capacity one of which is age 43 Dataclysm s study identified that women tend to find men approximately their own age most desirable e g 21 year old women found 23 year old men most attractive citation needed Cross cultural differences EditCross culturally research has consistently supported the trend in which males prefer to mate with younger females and females with older males 33 In a cross cultural study that covered 37 countries 50 preferences for age differences were measured and research supported the theory that people prefer to marry close to the age when female fertility is at its highest 24 25 years Analysing the results further cross culturally the average age females prefer to marry is 25 4 years old and they prefer a mate 3 4 years older than themselves therefore their preferred mate would be aged 28 8 years of age Males however prefer to marry when they are 27 5 years old and a female to be 2 7 years younger than themselves yielding their preferred mate to be 24 8 years old The results from the study therefore show that the mean preferred marriage age difference 3 04 years averaging male and female preferred age corresponds very closely with the actual mean marriage age difference 2 99 The preferred age of females is 24 8 years and the actual average age females marry is 25 3 years old and 28 2 for males which actually falls directly on the age where females are most fertile however this assumes this people are having children immediately after marrying Moreover these patterns fit many proposed explanations for age differences evolutionarily adapted mating preferences socialisation and gendered economic differences 22 The United Nations Marriage Statistics Department measures the Singulate Mean Age Marriage SMAM difference the difference in average age at first marriage between men and women across the main regions in the world refer to Table 1 47 Larger than average age gaps Edit Table 2 Countries with largest marital age differences 47 Country SMAM difference Legal Status of PolygamyCameroon a 6 5 PolygamousChad 6 1 PolygamousRep of Congo 8 6 PolygamousDem Rep of Congo 8 2 PolygamousZambia 3 1 PolygamousSudan 6 4 PolygamousBurkina Faso a 8 6 PolygamousCote d Ivoire 7 2 No Longer PracticedGambia 9 2 PolygamousGuinea a 7 3 Illegal but practicedLiberia 6 5 Not CriminalisedMali 7 5 PolygamousMauritania 7 7 PolygamousNiger 6 3 PolygamousNigeria 6 9 PolygamousSenegal 8 1 PolygamousAfghanistan 7 5 PolygamousBangladesh 6 8 PolygamousMontserrat b 8 3 UnknownNauru 7 3 ProhibitedMozambique 8 6 Not CriminalisedHowever in some regions of the world there is a substantially larger age gap between marriage partners in that males are much older than their wife or wives or women are much younger than their husband or husbands A theory that can explain this finding from an evolutionary perspective is the parasite stress theory which explains that an increase of infectious disease can cause humans to evolve selectively according to these pressures Evidence also shows that as disease risk gets higher it puts a level of stress on mating selection and increases the use of polygamy 51 Table 2 shows that 17 of the 20 countries with the largest age gaps between spouses practice polygyny and that males range from 6 1 to 9 2 years older than their partners In regions such as Sub Saharan Africa the use of polygyny is commonly practiced as a consequence of high sex ratios more males per 100 females and passing on heterozygous diverse genetics from different females to offspring 52 When disease is prevalent if a male is producing offspring with a more diverse range of alleles offspring will be more likely to withstand mortality from disease and continue the family line Another reason that polygynous communities have larger age gaps between spouses is that intrasexual competition for females increases as fewer females remain on the marriage market with males having more than one wife each therefore the competitive advantage values younger females due to their higher reproductive value 53 As the competition for younger women becomes more common the age in females first marriage lower as older men seek younger and younger females Smaller than average age gaps Edit In Western societies such as the US and Europe there is a trend of smaller age gaps between spouses reaching its peak average in Southern Europe of 3 3 years Using the same pathogen stress model there is a lower prevalence of disease in these economically developed areas and therefore a reduced stress on reproduction for survival Additionally it is common to see monogamous relationships widely in more modern societies as there are more women in the marriage market and polygamy is illegal throughout most of Europe and the United States As access to education increases worldwide the age of marriage increases with it with more of the youth staying in education for longer The mean age of marriage in Europe is well above 25 and averaging at 30 in Nordic countries however this may also be due to the increase of cohabitation in European countries In some countries in Europe such as France Netherlands United Kingdom Norway Estonia Finland and Denmark 20 30 of women aged 20 34 are cohabiting as opposed to legally marrying 54 In addition to this with the gender pay gap decreasing more women work equal hours average of 40 hours in Europe and the US to males and look less for males with financial resources 54 In regions such as the Caribbean and Latin America there is a lower SMAM difference than expected however there are also a large proportion of partners living in consensual unions 24 in Brazil 20 in Nicaragua and 18 in Dominican Republic 55 A 2011 study suggested that age disparity in marriage is positively correlated with decreased longevity particularly for women though married people still have longer lifespans than singles 21 Social perspectives EditSocial structural origin theory Edit Social structural origin theory argues that the underlying cause of sex differentiated behaviour is the concentration of men and women in differing roles in society It has been argued that a reason gender roles are so prevalent in society is that the expectations of gender roles can become internalised in a person s self concept and personality 56 In a Brown University study it has been noted that the social structure of a country determines the age difference between spouses more than any other factor challenging evolutionary explanations 57 In regard to mate selection social structural theory supports the idea that individuals aim to maximise what they can provide in the relationship in an environment that is limiting their utilities through expected gender roles in society and marriage 58 It is thought that a trade off or equilibrium is reached in regard to what each gender brings to the mating partnership and that this equilibrium is most likely to be reached with a trade off of ages when selecting a mate 59 Women trade youth and physical attractiveness for economic security in their male partner 60 This economic approach to choosing a partner ultimately depends on the marital or family system that is adopted by society Women and men tend to seek a partner that will fit in with their society s sexual division of labour For example a marital system based on males being the provider and females the domestic worker favours an age gap in the relationship An older male is more likely to have more resources to provide to the family 58 The rational choice model Edit The rational choice model also suggests that people look for partners who can provide for them in their life bread winners as men traditionally earn more as they get older women will therefore prefer older men 61 This factor is diminishing as more women enter the labour force and the gender pay gap decreases 61 Age hypogamy in relationships EditAge hypogamy defines a relationship where the woman is the older partner the opposite of this being age hypergamy 62 Marriage between partners of roughly similar age is known as age homogamy 63 Older female younger male relationships are increasingly researched by social scientists 62 64 65 66 67 Slang terms such as cougar have been used in films TV shows and the media to depict older females with younger male mates The picture often displays a stereotypical pairing of a divorced middle aged white affluent female dating a younger male with the relationship taking the form of a non commitment arrangement between the partners 68 Although age hypogamous relationships have historically been very infrequent recent US census data has shown an increase in age hypogamous relationships from 6 4 in 2000 to 7 7 in 2012 69 There may be many reasons why age hypogamous relationships have been less frequent until recently Sexual double standards in society in particular may account for their rarity 62 In many contexts ageing in women is seen to be associated with decreased sex appeal and dating potential 70 There is debate in the literature as to what leads to age hypogamy in sexual relationships A number of variables have been argued to influence the likelihood of women entering into an age hypogamous relationship such as racial or ethnic background level of education income marital status conservatism age and number of sexual partners 62 For example US Census data show an exaggerated sex ratio in African American communities whereby there were 100 African American women for every 89 African American men 71 It was shown that African American women were more likely to be in age hypogamous or age hypergamous marriages in comparison with White American women 72 However more recent evidence has found that women belonging to racial categories besides African American or White were more likely to sleep with younger men 62 showing that it is still unclear which if any ethnic groups are more likely to have age hypogamous relationships French President Emmanuel Macron and his wife Brigitte The couple married in 2007 at the time he was 30 years old and she 54 with a 24 year age hypogamous gap between the pair Another example illustrating the varying literature surrounding age hypogamous relationships is research indicating that a woman s marital status can influence her likelihood of engaging in age hypogamous relationships Married women are less likely to be partnered with younger men compared to non married women 73 More recent findings suggest that previously married women are more likely to engage in an age hypogamous sexual relationships compared to women who are married or who have never been married 62 Despite social views depicting age hypogamous relationships as short lived a 2008 study from Psychology of Women Quarterly has found that women in age hypogamous relationships are more satisfied and the most committed in their relationships compared to younger women or similarly aged partners 74 75 It has also been suggested that male partners engaging in age hypogamous relationships are choosing beauty over age A recent study found that when shown pictures of women of ages ranging from 20 to 45 with different levels of apparent attractiveness regardless of age men chose the more attractive individuals as long term partners 76 Half your age plus seven rule Edit Graph of the half age plus seven rule An often asserted rule of thumb to determine whether an age difference is socially acceptable holds that a person should never date someone whose age is less than half their own plus seven years 77 78 79 80 According to this rule a 28 year old would date no one younger than 21 half of 28 plus 7 and a 50 year old would date no one younger than 32 half of 50 plus 7 Although the provenance of the rule is unclear it is sometimes said to have originated in France 78 The rule appears in John Fox Jr s 1903 novel The Little Shepherd of Kingdom Come 81 in American newspapers in 1931 attributed to Maurice Chevalier 82 and in The Autobiography of Malcolm X attributed to Elijah Muhammad 83 In earlier sources the rule sometimes had a different interpretation than in contemporary times Not only was it gender specific it was presented as a formula to calculate the ideal age of a female partner at the beginning of a relationship instead of a lower limit Frederick Locker Lampson s Patchwork from 1879 states the opinion A wife should be half the age of her husband with seven years added 84 Max O Rell s Her Royal Highness Woman from 1901 gives the rule in the format A man should marry a woman half his age plus seven 85 A similar interpretation is also present in the 1951 play The Moon Is Blue by F Hugh Herbert Haven t you ever heard that the girl is supposed to be half the man s age plus seven 86 A 2000 study found that the rule was fairly accurate at predicting the minimum age of a woman that a man would marry or date However the rule was not found to be predictive of the minimum age of a man that a woman would marry or date nor by reversing the formula of the maximum age that either sex would marry or date 77 Slang terms EditThis section possibly contains original research Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations Statements consisting only of original research should be removed March 2020 Learn how and when to remove this template message Partner age disparities are typically met with some disdain in industrialized nations and there are various derogatory terms for participants in these relationships In English speaking countries where financial disparity and an exchange of money for companionship is perceived as central to these relationships the elder presumably more wealthy partner is often called a sugar daddy or sugar mama and the younger may be called a sugar baby In extreme cases a person who marries a wealthy older partner especially one in poor health may be called a gold digger 87 An attractive younger woman pursued by a wealthy man who is perceived as wanting her only for her appearance or as a status symbol may be called a trophy wife 88 The opposite term trophy husband does not have an agreed upon use but is becoming more common some use the term to refer to the attractive stay at home husband of a much more famous man or woman others use it to refer to the husband of a trophy wife as he is her trophy due to his wealth and prestige citation needed In the latter case the term trophy is broadened to include any substantial difference in power originating from physical appearance wealth or status The trophy label is often perceived as objectifying the partner with or without the partner s implicit consent Where the primary perceived reason for a relationship with a significant age difference is sexual many gender specific terms have become popular in English speaking cultures A woman of middle to elderly age who pursues younger men is a cougar or puma and a man in a relationship with an older woman is often called a boytoy toyboy himbo gigolo or cub In reverse the terms rhino trout and manther a play on the panther term for women are generally used to label an older man pursuing younger women and the younger woman in such a relationship may be called a kitten or panther 89 If the woman is extremely young the man may be labelled a cradle snatcher UK 90 or cradle robber US 91 In gay slang the term chickenhawk may be used If the much younger target of affections is not of the legal age of consent or appears as such the term jailbait may be applied to them cautioning older partners against involvement An older term for any licentious or lascivious man is a lecher That term and its shortening lech have come to commonly describe an elderly man who makes passes at much younger women citation needed See also Edit Human sexuality portalChronophilia Ephebophilia Homogamy sociology Hypergamy Mate choice Parental investment Polygamy Age and pregnancy Sexual selection in humansReferences Edit Engle Gigi 21 May 2021 Why Are 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December 2013 Retrieved 25 November 2013 Jurva Raisa 2018 Independence and vulnerability Affective Inequalities in Intimate Relationships Routledge pp 127 140 doi 10 4324 9781315107318 9 ISBN 978 1 315 10731 8 S2CID 158896340 retrieved 5 August 2021 McKenzie Lara 2015 Age Dissimilar Couples and Romantic Relationships Ageless Love London Palgrave Macmillan UK ISBN 978 1 349 49609 9 retrieved 5 August 2021 Alarie Milaine 2019 They re the Ones Chasing the Cougar Relationship Formation in the Context of Age Hypogamous Intimate Relationships Gender amp Society 33 3 463 485 doi 10 1177 0891243219839670 ISSN 0891 2432 S2CID 151245151 Alarie Milaine 2019 Sleeping With Younger Men Women s Accounts of Sexual Interplay in Age Hypogamous Intimate Relationships The Journal of Sex Research 57 3 322 334 doi 10 1080 00224499 2019 1574704 ISSN 0022 4499 PMID 30793951 S2CID 73505682 Kaklamanidou N 2012 Pride and prejudice Celebrity versus fictional cougars Celebrity Studies 3 78 89 doi 10 1080 19392397 2012 644722 S2CID 191619191 Bureau of the Census 2012 Current Population Survey Annual social and economic supplement Washington DC US Government Printing Office Friedman A Weinberg H Pines A M 1998 Sexuality and motherhood Mutually exclusive in perception of women Sex Roles 38 9 10 781 800 doi 10 1023 a 1018873114523 S2CID 141151257 Bureau of the Census U S 2002 Race and Hispanic or Latino origin by age and sex for the United States 2000 Washington DC US Government Printing Office Atkinson M P Glass B L 1985 Marital age heterogamy and homogamy 1900 to 1980 Journal of Marriage and the Family 47 3 685 691 doi 10 2307 352269 JSTOR 352269 Darroch J E Landry D J Oslak S 1999 Age differences between sexual partners in the United States Family Planning Perspectives 31 4 160 167 doi 10 2307 2991588 JSTOR 2991588 PMID 10435214 The Science Behind The Cougar Chasing 20 Something Medical Daily 30 January 2015 Archived from the original on 25 November 2016 Retrieved 24 November 2016 Lehmiller Justin J Agnew Christopher R 2008 Commitment in Age Gap Heterosexual Romantic Relationships A Test of Evolutionary and Socio Cultural Predictions Psychology of Women Quarterly 32 1 74 82 doi 10 1111 j 1471 6402 2007 00408 x ISSN 1471 6402 S2CID 144407006 The lure of the older woman BBC News Archived from the original on 13 September 2017 Retrieved 24 November 2016 a b The Half Your Age Plus Seven Rule Does It Really Work Psychology Today 2014 Retrieved 5 July 2014 a b Rodale Inc April 2007 Best Life Best Life Rodale Inc 21 ISSN 1548 212X Archived from the original on 8 January 2017 Retrieved 8 May 2017 Hans Erikson 1964 The Rhythm of the Shoe Jacaranda Press p 87 Archived from the original on 8 January 2017 Retrieved 8 May 2017 Belisa Vranich amp Laura Grashow 2008 Dating the Older Man Adams Media p 16 ISBN 9781440515958 Archived from the original on 5 April 2016 Retrieved 24 December 2014 John Fox 1903 The little shepherd of Kingdom Come Charles Scribner s Sons p 222 Retrieved 8 May 2017 Maurice Chevalier says plus seven years Detroit News item reprinted in Oakland CA News 27 August 1931 Malcolm X amp Alex Haley 1965 The Autobiography of Malcolm X New York Grove Press p 229 Frederick Locker Lampson Patchwork p 88 Max O Rell Chapter IV Advice to the Man Who Wants to Marry Her Royal Highness Woman Retrieved 18 January 2015 Moon Is blue A play Herbert Frederick Hugh Archived 25 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine at Internet Archive Jimenez Daniel 10 December 1998 Meet and marry the rich BankRate com Archived from the original on 15 December 2015 Retrieved 8 December 2016 Berman Phyllis 17 November 1997 Honey am I a trophy wife Forbes Archived from the original on 13 September 2017 Retrieved 23 August 2017 What does PANTHER mean PANTHER Definition internetslang com Archived from the original on 5 December 2016 Retrieved 8 December 2016 cradle snatcher Cambridge English Dictionary Archived from the original on 14 April 2018 Retrieved 14 April 2018 cradle robber Oxford English Dictionary Archived from the original on 3 May 2018 Retrieved 3 May 2018 Further reading EditAlarie Milaine Carmichael Jason T 2015 The Cougar phenomenon An Examination of the Factors That Influence Age Hypogamous Sexual Relationships Among Middle Aged Women Journal of Marriage and Family 77 5 1250 1265 doi 10 1111 jomf 12213 Berardo F M Appel J amp Berardo D H 1993 Age dissimilar marriages Review and assessment Journal of Aging Studies 7 93 106 doi 10 1016 0890 4065 93 90026 G Buss D M 2015 The Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology Foundation New York John Wiley amp Sons Buss D M 1989 Sex differences in human mate preferences Evolutionary hypotheses tested in 37 cultures Behavioral and Brain Sciences 12 1 1 14 doi 10 1017 s0140525x00023992 Buss D M Barnes M 1986 Preferences in human mate selection Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 50 3 559 doi 10 1037 0022 3514 50 3 559 McKenzie Lara 2021 Age dissimilar couple relationships 25 years in review Journal of Family Theory and Review 13 4 496 514 doi 10 1111 jftr 12427 Schwartz C R 2013 Trends and variation in assortative mating Causes and consequences Annual Review of Sociology 39 451 470 doi 10 1146 annurev soc 071312 145544 Timeus I M Reynar A 1998 Polygynists and their wives in sub Saharan Africa an analysis of five Demographic and Health Surveys Population Studies 52 2 145 162 doi 10 1080 0032472031000150346 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Age disparity in sexual relationships amp oldid 1139718392 Half your age plus seven rule, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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