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Fusarium ear blight

February 15, 2024

Fusarium ear blight (FEB) (also called Fusarium head blight, FHB, or scab), is a fungal disease of cereals, including wheat, barley, oats, rye and triticale.[1] FEB is caused by a range of Fusarium fungi, which infects the heads of the crop, reducing grain yield. The disease is often associated with contamination by mycotoxins produced by the fungi already when the crop is growing in the field. The disease can cause severe economic losses as mycotoxin-contaminated grain cannot be sold for food or feed.

Symptom on wheat caused by F. graminearum (right: inoculated, left: non-inoculated)

Causal organism edit

Fusarium ear blight is caused by several species of Fusarium fungi, belonging to the Ascomycota. The most common species causing FEB are:[1]

Fusarium graminearum was considered the most important causal organism.[3]

 
Macroconidia of F. graminearum

Fusarium species causing FEB can produce several types of spores. The asexual stage of the fungus produces spores called macroconidia. Some Fusarium fungi have a more complex life cycle including a sexual stage, for example F. graminearum. In the sexual stage the fungus produces spores called ascospores. The sexual stage form fruiting bodies called perithecia, in which ascospores are formed in a sac known as an ascus (plural asci).[3] Some species, including F. culmorum, produce resistant chlamydospores which can survive for a long time in the soil.

Disease cycle and epidemiology edit

Fusarium fungi can overwinter as saprotrophs in the soil or on crop debris that can serve as inoculum for the following crop. The fungus can also spread via infected seed. The presence of Fusarium fungi on crop debris or seed can cause Fusarium seedling blight and foot and root rot.[1] Later, infection of the heads can occur with spores spreading by rain splash from infected crop residues. Another major infection route is airborne inoculum as spores can travel long distances with the wind.[4] The cereal crop is most susceptible at flowering and the probability of infection rises with high moisture and humidity at flowering.[3]

Symptoms edit

In wheat, Fusarium infects the head (hence the name "Fusarium head blight") and causes the kernels to shrivel up and become chalky white. Additionally, the fungus can produce mycotoxins that further reduce the quality of the kernel.

Infected florets (especially the outer glumes) become slightly darkened and oily in appearance. Macroconidia are produced in sporodochia, which gives the spike a bright pink or orange color. Infected kernels may be permeated with mycelia and the surface of the florets totally covered by white, matted mycelia.

Mycotoxins edit

Fusarium species associated with FEB produce a range of mycotoxins—fungal secondary metabolites with toxic effects on animals. One mycotoxin can be produced by several Fusarium species, and one species can produce several mycotoxins. Important Fusarium mycotoxins include:

  • Deoxynivalenol (DON) produced by F. graminearum and F. culmorum
  • Zearalenone (ZEN) produced by F. graminearum and F. culmorum
  • HT-2 and T-2 produced by F. langsethiae

Fusarium toxins have negative effects on the immune, gastrointestinal and reproductive systems of animals.[5] DON is a protein synthesis inhibitor, also called vomitoxin, due to its negative effects on feed intake in pigs. Pigs are the most sensitive to DON, while ruminant animals such as cattle have higher tolerance.[6]

Many countries monitor Fusarium mycotoxins in grain to limit negative health effects. In the U.S. there are advisory levels for DON in human food and livestock feed.[7] The European Union has legislative limits for several Fusarium mycotoxins in grain aimed for human consumption[8] and recommended limits for animal feed.[9]

Control measures edit

Resistant cultivars edit

Resistant cultivars could be the most efficient method to control Fusarium ear blight.[10] Resistance breeding involves screening of plant lines subjected to artificial inoculation with Fusarium. Plant lines having reduced fungal growth and low levels of seed mycotoxin contamination are selected for additional breeding trials. In parallel, genetic markers associated with resistance are screened for, so called marker-assisted selection. Fusarium ear blight resistance is a complex trait, involving several genes, and is dependent of interaction with the environment.[11][12]

Fusarium ear blight resistance has been identified in wheat cultivars from Asia. However, the challenge is to combine resistant material with other desirable traits such as high yield and adaptation to different growing areas.[11]

Agricultural practices edit

Several agricultural practices affect the risk of FEB. One of the major infection routes are infected crop residues from the previous crop where both the quality and quantity are important. Crop residues from susceptible crops such as cereals increase the risk of FEB in the following crop. Maize has been associated with especially high risk.[13] Reduced soil tillage can also increase the risk of FEB.[3] The amount of crop residues can be reduced by ploughing, where residues are incorporated in the soil where they decompose faster.[14] High nitrogen application has also been associated with increased risk of Fusarium infection.[15] Preventive agricultural practices may be less effective if a lot of airborne inoculum is present in the area.[3]

Chemical control edit

Fungicides can provide partial control of FEB but the effects may be variable.[3] The type and timing of fungicide application is important as non-optimal applications may even increase Fusarium infection.[16]

Biological control and integrated management edit

Research has also been put into development on biological control strategies based on bacteria and fungi for example, Bacillus and Cryptococcus species.[17]

For FEB no control measure is completely effective and integrated management involving several control strategies such as preventive measures, disease monitoring and chemical control is necessary.[18][19] Disease forecasting models have been developed to assess the risk of FEB depending on weather conditions.[20]

Economic importance edit

From an economic standpoint, it is one of the major cereal diseases, being responsible for significant grain yield reduction world-wide.

In the U.S. and Canada, Fusarium ear blight emerged in the 1990s as a widespread and powerful threat to cereal production.[21] From 1998 to 2000 the Midwestern United States suffered $2.7 billion in losses following a FEB epidemic.[22] If we include primary and secondary economic losses, FHB cost the entire US$7.67 billion from 1993 to 2001.[23] Since 1990, extensive research has been put into the development of control measures of Fusarium ear blight. An example is the US Wheat and Barley Scab Initiative (USWBSI), a collaborative effort of scientists, growers, food processors and consumer groups aiming to develop effective control measures, including the reduction of mycotoxins.[21]

See also edit

References edit

  1. ^ a b c Parry, D. W.; Jenkinson, P.; McLeod, L. (1995). "Fusarium ear blight (scab) in small grain cereals—a review". Plant Pathology. 44 (2): 207–238. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3059.1995.tb02773.x. ISSN 1365-3059.
  2. ^ Wang, Yun; Wang, Ruoyu; Sha, Yuexia (26 July 2022). "Distribution, pathogenicity and disease control of Fusarium tricinctum". Frontiers in Microbiology. 13: 939927. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2022.939927. PMC 9360978. PMID 35958126.
  3. ^ a b c d e f "Fusarium head blight (FHB) or scab". APSnet Feature Articles. 2003. doi:10.1094/phi-i-2003-0612-01.
  4. ^ Keller, Melissa D.; Bergstrom, Gary C.; Shields, Elson J. (2014-06-01). "The aerobiology of Fusarium graminearum". Aerobiologia. 30 (2): 123–136. doi:10.1007/s10453-013-9321-3. ISSN 0393-5965. S2CID 84048532.
  5. ^ D’Mello, J.P.F.; Placinta, C.M.; Macdonald, A.M.C. (1999). "Fusarium mycotoxins: a review of global implications for animal health, welfare and productivity". Animal Feed Science and Technology. 80 (3–4): 183–205. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.453.2615. doi:10.1016/s0377-8401(99)00059-0.
  6. ^ Miller, J. David (2008-02-01). "Mycotoxins in small grains and maize: Old problems, new challenges". Food Additives & Contaminants: Part A. 25 (2): 219–230. doi:10.1080/02652030701744520. ISSN 1944-0049. PMID 18286412. S2CID 32428433.
  7. ^ Nutrition, Center for Food Safety and Applied. "Chemical Contaminants, Metals, Natural Toxins & Pesticides - Guidance for Industry and FDA: Advisory Levels for Deoxynivalenol (DON) in Finished Wheat Products for Human Consumption and Grains and Grain By-Products used for Animal Feed". www.fda.gov. Retrieved 2017-03-13.
  8. ^ "EUR-Lex - 32006R1881 - EN - EUR-Lex". eur-lex.europa.eu. Retrieved 2017-03-13.
  9. ^ "EUR-Lex - 32006H0576 - EN - EUR-Lex". eur-lex.europa.eu. 2006-08-23. Retrieved 2017-03-13.
  10. ^ Steiner, Barbara; Buerstmayr, Maria; Michel, Sebastian; Schweiger, Wolfgang; Lemmens, Marc; Buerstmayr, Hermann (2017-02-21). "Breeding strategies and advances in line selection for Fusarium head blight resistance in wheat". Tropical Plant Pathology. 42 (3): 165–174. doi:10.1007/s40858-017-0127-7. ISSN 1983-2052.
  11. ^ a b Bai GH, Shaner GE (2004) Management and resistance in wheat Bai GH, Shaner GE (2004) Management and resistance in wheat 42:135–161
  12. ^ Buerstmayr, H.; Ban, T.; Anderson, J. A. (2009-02-01). "QTL mapping and marker-assisted selection for Fusarium head blight resistance in wheat: a review". Plant Breeding. 128 (1): 1–26. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0523.2008.01550.x. ISSN 1439-0523.
  13. ^ Dill-Macky, R.; Jones, R. K. (2000-01-01). "The Effect of Previous Crop Residues and Tillage on Fusarium Head Blight of Wheat". Plant Disease. 84 (1): 71–76. doi:10.1094/PDIS.2000.84.1.71. ISSN 0191-2917. PMID 30841225.
  14. ^ Leplat, Johann; Friberg, Hanna; Abid, Muhammad; Steinberg, Christian (2013-01-01). "Survival of Fusarium graminearum, the causal agent of Fusarium head blight. A review" (PDF). Agronomy for Sustainable Development. 33 (1): 97–111. doi:10.1007/s13593-012-0098-5. ISSN 1774-0746. S2CID 21709401.
  15. ^ Bernhoft, A.; Torp, M.; Clasen, P.-E.; Løes, A.-K.; Kristoffersen, A. B. (2012-07-01). "Influence of agronomic and climatic factors on Fusarium infestation and mycotoxin contamination of cereals in Norway". Food Additives & Contaminants: Part A. 29 (7): 1129–1140. doi:10.1080/19440049.2012.672476. ISSN 1944-0049. PMC 3379782. PMID 22494553.
  16. ^ Henriksen, B.; Elen, O. (2005-04-01). "Natural Fusarium Grain Infection Level in Wheat, Barley and Oat after Early Application of Fungicides and Herbicides". Journal of Phytopathology. 153 (4): 214–220. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0434.2005.00955.x. ISSN 1439-0434.
  17. ^ Gilbert, Jeannie; Haber, Steve (2013-04-01). "Overview of some recent research developments in fusarium head blight of wheat". Canadian Journal of Plant Pathology. 35 (2): 149–174. doi:10.1080/07060661.2013.772921. ISSN 0706-0661. S2CID 83784062.
  18. ^ "ScabSmart | Management". scabsmart.org. Retrieved 2017-03-14.
  19. ^ Food Standards Agency (2007). The UK Code of Good Agricultural Practice to Reduce Fusarium Mycotoxins in Cereals (PDF).
  20. ^ "Risk Map Tool". www.wheatscab.psu.edu. Retrieved 2017-03-14.
  21. ^ a b McMullen, Marcia; Bergstrom, Gary; De Wolf, Erick; Dill-Macky, Ruth; Hershman, Don; Shaner, Greg; Van Sanford, Dave (2012-07-11). "A Unified Effort to Fight an Enemy of Wheat and Barley: Fusarium Head Blight". Plant Disease. 96 (12): 1712–1728. doi:10.1094/PDIS-03-12-0291-FE. ISSN 0191-2917. PMID 30727259.
  22. ^ "Diverse Wheat Tapped for Antifungal Genes : USDA ARS". www.ars.usda.gov. Retrieved 2017-03-05.
  23. ^ Rawat, Nidhi; Pumphrey, Michael O; Liu, Sixin; Zhang, Xiaofei; Tiwari, Vijay K; Ando, Kaori; Trick, Harold N; Bockus, William W; Akhunov, Eduard; Anderson, James A; Gill, Bikram S (2016-10-24). "Wheat Fhb1 encodes a chimeric lectin with agglutinin domains and a pore-forming toxin-like domain conferring resistance to Fusarium head blight". Nature Genetics. Nature Research. 48 (12): 1576–1580. doi:10.1038/ng.3706. ISSN 1061-4036. PMID 27776114. S2CID 4177196.

External links edit

Return of an old problem: Fusarium head blight of small grains

  • http://www.apsnet.org/publications/apsnetfeatures/Pages/headblight.aspx 2017-03-15 at the Wayback Machine

Fusarium head blight in Canada

  • http://www.grainscanada.gc.ca/guides-guides/identification/fusarium/iwbfm-mibof-eng.htm

United States Wheat and Barley Scab Initiative

Fusarium Head Blight Risk Assessment Tool

Scab Smart

February 15, 2024
fusarium, blight, also, called, fusarium, head, blight, scab, fungal, disease, cereals, including, wheat, barley, oats, triticale, caused, range, fusarium, fungi, which, infects, heads, crop, reducing, grain, yield, disease, often, associated, with, contaminat. Fusarium ear blight FEB also called Fusarium head blight FHB or scab is a fungal disease of cereals including wheat barley oats rye and triticale 1 FEB is caused by a range of Fusarium fungi which infects the heads of the crop reducing grain yield The disease is often associated with contamination by mycotoxins produced by the fungi already when the crop is growing in the field The disease can cause severe economic losses as mycotoxin contaminated grain cannot be sold for food or feed Symptom on wheat caused by F graminearum right inoculated left non inoculated Contents 1 Causal organism 2 Disease cycle and epidemiology 3 Symptoms 4 Mycotoxins 5 Control measures 5 1 Resistant cultivars 5 2 Agricultural practices 5 3 Chemical control 5 4 Biological control and integrated management 6 Economic importance 7 See also 8 References 9 External linksCausal organism editFusarium ear blight is caused by several species of Fusarium fungi belonging to the Ascomycota The most common species causing FEB are 1 Fusarium avenaceum teleomorph Gibberella avenacea Fusarium culmorum Fusarium graminearum teleomorph Gibberella zeae Fusarium poae Microdochium nivale teleomorph Monographella nivalis formerly Fusarium nivale Fusarium tricinctum 2 Fusarium graminearum was considered the most important causal organism 3 nbsp Macroconidia of F graminearumFusarium species causing FEB can produce several types of spores The asexual stage of the fungus produces spores called macroconidia Some Fusarium fungi have a more complex life cycle including a sexual stage for example F graminearum In the sexual stage the fungus produces spores called ascospores The sexual stage form fruiting bodies called perithecia in which ascospores are formed in a sac known as an ascus plural asci 3 Some species including F culmorum produce resistant chlamydospores which can survive for a long time in the soil Disease cycle and epidemiology editFusarium fungi can overwinter as saprotrophs in the soil or on crop debris that can serve as inoculum for the following crop The fungus can also spread via infected seed The presence of Fusarium fungi on crop debris or seed can cause Fusarium seedling blight and foot and root rot 1 Later infection of the heads can occur with spores spreading by rain splash from infected crop residues Another major infection route is airborne inoculum as spores can travel long distances with the wind 4 The cereal crop is most susceptible at flowering and the probability of infection rises with high moisture and humidity at flowering 3 Symptoms editIn wheat Fusarium infects the head hence the name Fusarium head blight and causes the kernels to shrivel up and become chalky white Additionally the fungus can produce mycotoxins that further reduce the quality of the kernel Infected florets especially the outer glumes become slightly darkened and oily in appearance Macroconidia are produced in sporodochia which gives the spike a bright pink or orange color Infected kernels may be permeated with mycelia and the surface of the florets totally covered by white matted mycelia Mycotoxins editFusarium species associated with FEB produce a range of mycotoxins fungal secondary metabolites with toxic effects on animals One mycotoxin can be produced by several Fusarium species and one species can produce several mycotoxins Important Fusarium mycotoxins include Deoxynivalenol DON produced by F graminearum and F culmorum Zearalenone ZEN produced by F graminearum and F culmorum HT 2 and T 2 produced by F langsethiaeFusarium toxins have negative effects on the immune gastrointestinal and reproductive systems of animals 5 DON is a protein synthesis inhibitor also called vomitoxin due to its negative effects on feed intake in pigs Pigs are the most sensitive to DON while ruminant animals such as cattle have higher tolerance 6 Many countries monitor Fusarium mycotoxins in grain to limit negative health effects In the U S there are advisory levels for DON in human food and livestock feed 7 The European Union has legislative limits for several Fusarium mycotoxins in grain aimed for human consumption 8 and recommended limits for animal feed 9 Control measures editResistant cultivars edit Resistant cultivars could be the most efficient method to control Fusarium ear blight 10 Resistance breeding involves screening of plant lines subjected to artificial inoculation with Fusarium Plant lines having reduced fungal growth and low levels of seed mycotoxin contamination are selected for additional breeding trials In parallel genetic markers associated with resistance are screened for so called marker assisted selection Fusarium ear blight resistance is a complex trait involving several genes and is dependent of interaction with the environment 11 12 Fusarium ear blight resistance has been identified in wheat cultivars from Asia However the challenge is to combine resistant material with other desirable traits such as high yield and adaptation to different growing areas 11 Agricultural practices edit Several agricultural practices affect the risk of FEB One of the major infection routes are infected crop residues from the previous crop where both the quality and quantity are important Crop residues from susceptible crops such as cereals increase the risk of FEB in the following crop Maize has been associated with especially high risk 13 Reduced soil tillage can also increase the risk of FEB 3 The amount of crop residues can be reduced by ploughing where residues are incorporated in the soil where they decompose faster 14 High nitrogen application has also been associated with increased risk of Fusarium infection 15 Preventive agricultural practices may be less effective if a lot of airborne inoculum is present in the area 3 Chemical control edit Fungicides can provide partial control of FEB but the effects may be variable 3 The type and timing of fungicide application is important as non optimal applications may even increase Fusarium infection 16 Biological control and integrated management edit Research has also been put into development on biological control strategies based on bacteria and fungi for example Bacillus and Cryptococcus species 17 For FEB no control measure is completely effective and integrated management involving several control strategies such as preventive measures disease monitoring and chemical control is necessary 18 19 Disease forecasting models have been developed to assess the risk of FEB depending on weather conditions 20 Economic importance editFrom an economic standpoint it is one of the major cereal diseases being responsible for significant grain yield reduction world wide In the U S and Canada Fusarium ear blight emerged in the 1990s as a widespread and powerful threat to cereal production 21 From 1998 to 2000 the Midwestern United States suffered 2 7 billion in losses following a FEB epidemic 22 If we include primary and secondary economic losses FHB cost the entire US 7 67 billion from 1993 to 2001 23 Since 1990 extensive research has been put into the development of control measures of Fusarium ear blight An example is the US Wheat and Barley Scab Initiative USWBSI a collaborative effort of scientists growers food processors and consumer groups aiming to develop effective control measures including the reduction of mycotoxins 21 See also editPlant disease epidemiology Plant pathologyReferences edit a b c Parry D W Jenkinson P McLeod L 1995 Fusarium ear blight scab in small grain cereals a review Plant Pathology 44 2 207 238 doi 10 1111 j 1365 3059 1995 tb02773 x ISSN 1365 3059 Wang Yun Wang Ruoyu Sha Yuexia 26 July 2022 Distribution pathogenicity and disease control of Fusarium tricinctum Frontiers in Microbiology 13 939927 doi 10 3389 fmicb 2022 939927 PMC 9360978 PMID 35958126 a b c d e f Fusarium head blight FHB or scab APSnet Feature Articles 2003 doi 10 1094 phi i 2003 0612 01 Keller Melissa D Bergstrom Gary C Shields Elson J 2014 06 01 The aerobiology of Fusarium graminearum Aerobiologia 30 2 123 136 doi 10 1007 s10453 013 9321 3 ISSN 0393 5965 S2CID 84048532 D Mello J P F Placinta C M Macdonald A M C 1999 Fusarium mycotoxins a review of global implications for animal health welfare and productivity Animal Feed Science and Technology 80 3 4 183 205 CiteSeerX 10 1 1 453 2615 doi 10 1016 s0377 8401 99 00059 0 Miller J David 2008 02 01 Mycotoxins in small grains and maize Old problems new challenges Food Additives amp Contaminants Part A 25 2 219 230 doi 10 1080 02652030701744520 ISSN 1944 0049 PMID 18286412 S2CID 32428433 Nutrition Center for Food Safety and Applied Chemical Contaminants Metals Natural Toxins amp Pesticides Guidance for Industry and FDA Advisory Levels for Deoxynivalenol DON in Finished Wheat Products for Human Consumption and Grains and Grain By Products used for Animal Feed www fda gov Retrieved 2017 03 13 EUR Lex 32006R1881 EN EUR Lex eur lex europa eu Retrieved 2017 03 13 EUR Lex 32006H0576 EN EUR Lex eur lex europa eu 2006 08 23 Retrieved 2017 03 13 Steiner Barbara Buerstmayr Maria Michel Sebastian Schweiger Wolfgang Lemmens Marc Buerstmayr Hermann 2017 02 21 Breeding strategies and advances in line selection for Fusarium head blight resistance in wheat Tropical Plant Pathology 42 3 165 174 doi 10 1007 s40858 017 0127 7 ISSN 1983 2052 a b Bai GH Shaner GE 2004 Management and resistance in wheat Bai GH Shaner GE 2004 Management and resistance in wheat 42 135 161 Buerstmayr H Ban T Anderson J A 2009 02 01 QTL mapping and marker assisted selection for Fusarium head blight resistance in wheat a review Plant Breeding 128 1 1 26 doi 10 1111 j 1439 0523 2008 01550 x ISSN 1439 0523 Dill Macky R Jones R K 2000 01 01 The Effect of Previous Crop Residues and Tillage on Fusarium Head Blight of Wheat Plant Disease 84 1 71 76 doi 10 1094 PDIS 2000 84 1 71 ISSN 0191 2917 PMID 30841225 Leplat Johann Friberg Hanna Abid Muhammad Steinberg Christian 2013 01 01 Survival of Fusarium graminearum the causal agent of Fusarium head blight A review PDF Agronomy for Sustainable Development 33 1 97 111 doi 10 1007 s13593 012 0098 5 ISSN 1774 0746 S2CID 21709401 Bernhoft A Torp M Clasen P E Loes A K Kristoffersen A B 2012 07 01 Influence of agronomic and climatic factors on Fusarium infestation and mycotoxin contamination of cereals in Norway Food Additives amp Contaminants Part A 29 7 1129 1140 doi 10 1080 19440049 2012 672476 ISSN 1944 0049 PMC 3379782 PMID 22494553 Henriksen B Elen O 2005 04 01 Natural Fusarium Grain Infection Level in Wheat Barley and Oat after Early Application of Fungicides and Herbicides Journal of Phytopathology 153 4 214 220 doi 10 1111 j 1439 0434 2005 00955 x ISSN 1439 0434 Gilbert Jeannie Haber Steve 2013 04 01 Overview of some recent research developments in fusarium head blight of wheat Canadian Journal of Plant Pathology 35 2 149 174 doi 10 1080 07060661 2013 772921 ISSN 0706 0661 S2CID 83784062 ScabSmart Management scabsmart org Retrieved 2017 03 14 Food Standards Agency 2007 The UK Code of Good Agricultural Practice to Reduce Fusarium Mycotoxins in Cereals PDF Risk Map Tool www wheatscab psu edu Retrieved 2017 03 14 a b McMullen Marcia Bergstrom Gary De Wolf Erick Dill Macky Ruth Hershman Don Shaner Greg Van Sanford Dave 2012 07 11 A Unified Effort to Fight an Enemy of Wheat and Barley Fusarium Head Blight Plant Disease 96 12 1712 1728 doi 10 1094 PDIS 03 12 0291 FE ISSN 0191 2917 PMID 30727259 Diverse Wheat Tapped for Antifungal Genes USDA ARS www ars usda gov Retrieved 2017 03 05 Rawat Nidhi Pumphrey Michael O Liu Sixin Zhang Xiaofei Tiwari Vijay K Ando Kaori Trick Harold N Bockus William W Akhunov Eduard Anderson James A Gill Bikram S 2016 10 24 Wheat Fhb1 encodes a chimeric lectin with agglutinin domains and a pore forming toxin like domain conferring resistance to Fusarium head blight Nature Genetics Nature Research 48 12 1576 1580 doi 10 1038 ng 3706 ISSN 1061 4036 PMID 27776114 S2CID 4177196 External links editAmerican Phytopathology FHB site Archived 2012 02 03 at the Wayback MachineReturn of an old problem Fusarium head blight of small grains http www apsnet org publications apsnetfeatures Pages headblight aspx Archived 2017 03 15 at the Wayback MachineFusarium head blight in Canada http www grainscanada gc ca guides guides identification fusarium iwbfm mibof eng htmUnited States Wheat and Barley Scab Initiative http scabusa org Fusarium Head Blight Risk Assessment Tool http www wheatscab psu edu riskTool 2010 htmlScab Smart http www ag ndsu edu scabsmart Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Fusarium ear blight amp oldid 1184118507, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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