The Second Egyptian–Ottoman War lasted from 1839 until 1841 and was fought mainly in Syria. It has sometimes been referred to as the Syrian War[5] or Second Syrian War.[6]
In 1839, the Ottoman Empire moved to reoccupy lands lost to Muhammad Ali in the First Turko-Egyptian War. The Ottoman Empire invaded Syria, but after suffering a defeat at the Battle of Nezib appeared on the verge of collapse. On 1 July, the Ottoman fleet sailed to Alexandria and surrendered to Muhammad Ali. Britain, Austria and other European nations, rushed to intervene and force Egypt into accepting a peace treaty. From September to November 1840, a combined naval fleet, made up of British and Austrian vessels, cut off Ibrahim's sea communications with Egypt, followed by the occupation of Beirut and Acre by the British. On 27 November 1840, the Convention of Alexandria took place. British Admiral Charles Napier reached an agreement with the Egyptian government, where the latter abandoned its claims to Syria and returned the Ottoman fleet in exchange of the recognition of Muhammad Ali and his sons as the only legitimate rulers of Egypt[1][2]
The war was the climax of the long power-struggle between the Ottoman Empire and the Pasha of Egypt, Muhammad Ali, which had reached a point of crisis that threatened to destabilize the whole of the Levant.
On June 24, 1839 an invading Ottoman army (accompanied by Moltke the Elder) was destroyed in Syria by Muhammad Ali's general Ibrahim Pasha at the Battle of Nezib, putting him in possession of the whole of Syria. This threatened to place Constantinople itself and the rule of the entire Eastern Mediterranean within his grasp. A few days after the battle the Ottoman Sultan, Mahmud II, died, leaving his Empire in the hands of his 16-year-old heir Abdülmecid. Meanwhile, the Ottoman fleet had defected to Muhammad Ali. Britain, Russia and Austria were all pledged to support the tottering Ottoman Empire and to force Muhammad Ali (who had the support of France and Spain) to withdraw from Syria.
Although the new Sultan's ministers moved to resolve the crisis by offering to cede the rule of Syria to Muhammad Ali, the British, Austrian and Russian ambassadors forced them to rescind this offer and stand firm against him. There was even a possibility of war with France, who looked to Muhammad Ali's success to increase its sphere of influence in the Near East.
The English Historical Review No. 69 from January, 1903, has a letter Palmerston wrote to defend not notifying France about the date of the intervention.[7]
WarEdit
Naval intervention in SyriaEdit
HMS Powerful and Princess Charlotte at the English Camp at Djouni, near Sidon in 1840. During the Syrian operations, the Princess Charlotte was the flagship of Admiral, Sir Robert Stopford
In June 1840 Admiral Sir Robert Stopford, commanding the British Mediterranean Fleet, sent Commodore Charles Napier with a small squadron to the Syrian (now the Lebanese) coast. He was then ordered to proceed to Beirut to compel the Egyptians to withdraw. The situation on the ground was extremely volatile, and called for quick and decisive action; this Napier provided, acting as if his was an entirely independent command.
On August 11, 1840, Napier's ships appeared off Beirut and he called upon Suleiman Pasha, Muhammad Alis governor, to abandon the town and leave Syria, whose population shortly revolted against Muhammad Ali's occupying army. With such a small force, there was little that Napier could do against 15,000 Egyptian troops until September, when Stopford's ships joined up with him. Open war broke out on September 11, when Napier bombarded Beirut and effected a landing at Jounieh with 1,500 Turks and Marines to operate against Ibrahim, who was prevented by the revolt from doing more than trying to hold the coastal cities.
Sidon, Nahr-el-Kelb and BoharsefEdit
Tortosa, 23rd September 1840, attack by the boats of HMS Benbow, Carysfort and Zebra, under Captain J.F. Ross, R.N.
Due to the illness of the Brigadier-General of the army, Sir Charles Smith, Napier was instructed to command the land force and made a successful sortie against a force of Albanians at Nahr-el-Kelb (Kelbson). He then, with a mixed squadron of British, Turkish and Austrian ships, bombarded Sidon on September 26 and landed with the storming column. Sidon capitulated in two days. While preparing to attack the Egyptian positions on the heights of Boharsef, Napier received an order to retire from the command of the land forces to make way for Brigadier-General Smith, who had recovered from his illness, and also had received command of the Turkish force in the allied army. To do this, Napier would need to retreat from his position; he decided to disobey the order and continued with the attack against Ibrahim's army. The fighting, on October 9 was furious but victory was secured. Napier then left the land forces to Smith. Meanwhile, the Egyptians had abandoned Beirut on October 3.
Bombardment of AcreEdit
The fleet was then instructed to retake Acre, which was the only coastal position left in Egyptian hands. The Mediterranean Fleet, commanded by Stopford, and supported by small Austrian and Turkish squadrons, moved into position against the western and southern sides of Acre on November 3-4 and opened fire at 14:00. The ships anchored closer to the shore than expected, at 450–800 metres, and the Egyptian guns were aimed too high. The fire of the ships was devastatingly accurate thanks to the training associated with the Royal Navy's new gunnery school, HMS Excellent. The Egyptians had no opportunity to correct their error; their guns were disabled by direct hits and by the walls of the fortifications falling on their crews. The sailing ships of the line were in two lines with steamers manoeuvring in between. At 16:20 a shell penetrated the main magazine in the south of the city, which exploded killing 1,100 men. The guns ashore fell silent and that night the city was occupied. British losses were light: 18 men killed and 41 wounded. The ships had fired 48,000 rounds.
AftermathEdit
The rapid collapse of Muhammad Ali's power, with the prospect of bloody chaos in Egypt, was not part of the Allies' plan, and Stopford sent Napier to command the squadron at Alexandria and to observe the situation. Here, acting independently again, he appeared before the city with part of his squadron on November 25 and enforced a blockade. Then without reference to his Admiral or the British government he personally negotiated a peace with Muhammad Ali, guaranteeing him and his heirs the sovereignty of Egypt, and pledging to evacuate Ibrahim's beleaguered army back to Alexandria, if Muhammad Ali in turn renounced all claims to Syria, submitted to the Sultan and returned the Ottoman fleet. Stopford and the British ambassador were furious with this outcome. Stopford repudiated it immediately when he had heard the news and several of the Allied powers declared it void. Despite Napier’s long-standing personal friendship with Lord Palmerston, the arrangement was at first denounced by the British government; but the formal treaty later concluded and confirmed by the Sultan used Napier’s original as the basis for negotiations and differed from it only in minor ways.
Dixon, Jeffrey S; Sarkees, Meredith Reid (2015). A Guide to Intra-state Wars An Examination of Civil, Regional, and Intercommunal Wars, 1816-2014. SAGE Publications. ISBN9780872897755.
Dupuy, R. Ernest; Dupuy, Trevor N. (1993). The Harper Encyclopedia of Military History: From 3500 B.C. to the Present. New York: HarperCollins Publishers. ISBN0-06-270056-1.
Garnett, R. (1903). The English Historical Review. Vol. XVIII. London: Longmans, Green and Co.
Jochmus, August Giacomo (1883). The Syrian War and the Decline of the Ottoman Empire, 1840–1848. Albert Cohn.
Kohn, George Childs (1999). Dictionary of Wars (Revised ed.). New York: Facts On File, Inc. ISBN0-8160-3928-3.
Further readingEdit
Aksan, Virginia (2014). Ottoman Wars, 1700–1870: An Empire Besieged. Routledge.
Anderson, M.S. (1970). The Great Powers and the Near East, 1774–1923. Edward Arnold.
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This article includes a list of general references but it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations August 2012 Learn how and when to remove this template message Second Egyptian Ottoman WarPart of the campaigns of Muhammad Ali of EgyptMap of Syria 1848 Date1839 1841LocationLevant mainly Lebanon ResultConvention of London enforced by allied powers 1 2 Ottoman failure to take Syria by military force 1 2 3 4 Recognition of Muhammad Ali and his descendants as legitimate rulers of EgyptTerritorialchangesEgyptian retrocession of Syria Crete and the Hejaz to the Ottoman EmpireBelligerentsOttoman EmpireAllies United Kingdom Austria Russia PrussiaEgyptAllies France SpainCommanders and leadersMahmud II Abdulmecid Robert Stopford Charles Napier Charles Smith Archduke FriedrichMuhammad Ali Ibrahim Pasha The Second Egyptian Ottoman War lasted from 1839 until 1841 and was fought mainly in Syria It has sometimes been referred to as the Syrian War 5 or Second Syrian War 6 In 1839 the Ottoman Empire moved to reoccupy lands lost to Muhammad Ali in the First Turko Egyptian War The Ottoman Empire invaded Syria but after suffering a defeat at the Battle of Nezib appeared on the verge of collapse On 1 July the Ottoman fleet sailed to Alexandria and surrendered to Muhammad Ali Britain Austria and other European nations rushed to intervene and force Egypt into accepting a peace treaty From September to November 1840 a combined naval fleet made up of British and Austrian vessels cut off Ibrahim s sea communications with Egypt followed by the occupation of Beirut and Acre by the British On 27 November 1840 the Convention of Alexandria took place British Admiral Charles Napier reached an agreement with the Egyptian government where the latter abandoned its claims to Syria and returned the Ottoman fleet in exchange of the recognition of Muhammad Ali and his sons as the only legitimate rulers of Egypt 1 2 Contents 1 Origins 2 War 2 1 Naval intervention in Syria 2 2 Sidon Nahr el Kelb and Boharsef 2 3 Bombardment of Acre 3 Aftermath 4 Citations 5 References 6 Further readingOrigins EditMain articles Convention of London 1840 and Oriental Crisis of 1840 The war was the climax of the long power struggle between the Ottoman Empire and the Pasha of Egypt Muhammad Ali which had reached a point of crisis that threatened to destabilize the whole of the Levant On June 24 1839 an invading Ottoman army accompanied by Moltke the Elder was destroyed in Syria by Muhammad Ali s general Ibrahim Pasha at the Battle of Nezib putting him in possession of the whole of Syria This threatened to place Constantinople itself and the rule of the entire Eastern Mediterranean within his grasp A few days after the battle the Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II died leaving his Empire in the hands of his 16 year old heir Abdulmecid Meanwhile the Ottoman fleet had defected to Muhammad Ali Britain Russia and Austria were all pledged to support the tottering Ottoman Empire and to force Muhammad Ali who had the support of France and Spain to withdraw from Syria Although the new Sultan s ministers moved to resolve the crisis by offering to cede the rule of Syria to Muhammad Ali the British Austrian and Russian ambassadors forced them to rescind this offer and stand firm against him There was even a possibility of war with France who looked to Muhammad Ali s success to increase its sphere of influence in the Near East The English Historical Review No 69 from January 1903 has a letter Palmerston wrote to defend not notifying France about the date of the intervention 7 War EditNaval intervention in Syria Edit nbsp HMS Powerful and Princess Charlotte at the English Camp at Djouni near Sidon in 1840 During the Syrian operations the Princess Charlotte was the flagship of Admiral Sir Robert StopfordIn June 1840 Admiral Sir Robert Stopford commanding the British Mediterranean Fleet sent Commodore Charles Napier with a small squadron to the Syrian now the Lebanese coast He was then ordered to proceed to Beirut to compel the Egyptians to withdraw The situation on the ground was extremely volatile and called for quick and decisive action this Napier provided acting as if his was an entirely independent command On August 11 1840 Napier s ships appeared off Beirut and he called upon Suleiman Pasha Muhammad Alis governor to abandon the town and leave Syria whose population shortly revolted against Muhammad Ali s occupying army With such a small force there was little that Napier could do against 15 000 Egyptian troops until September when Stopford s ships joined up with him Open war broke out on September 11 when Napier bombarded Beirut and effected a landing at Jounieh with 1 500 Turks and Marines to operate against Ibrahim who was prevented by the revolt from doing more than trying to hold the coastal cities Sidon Nahr el Kelb and Boharsef Edit nbsp Tortosa 23rd September 1840 attack by the boats of HMS Benbow Carysfort and Zebra under Captain J F Ross R N Due to the illness of the Brigadier General of the army Sir Charles Smith Napier was instructed to command the land force and made a successful sortie against a force of Albanians at Nahr el Kelb Kelbson He then with a mixed squadron of British Turkish and Austrian ships bombarded Sidon on September 26 and landed with the storming column Sidon capitulated in two days While preparing to attack the Egyptian positions on the heights of Boharsef Napier received an order to retire from the command of the land forces to make way for Brigadier General Smith who had recovered from his illness and also had received command of the Turkish force in the allied army To do this Napier would need to retreat from his position he decided to disobey the order and continued with the attack against Ibrahim s army The fighting on October 9 was furious but victory was secured Napier then left the land forces to Smith Meanwhile the Egyptians had abandoned Beirut on October 3 Bombardment of Acre Edit The fleet was then instructed to retake Acre which was the only coastal position left in Egyptian hands The Mediterranean Fleet commanded by Stopford and supported by small Austrian and Turkish squadrons moved into position against the western and southern sides of Acre on November 3 4 and opened fire at 14 00 The ships anchored closer to the shore than expected at 450 800 metres and the Egyptian guns were aimed too high The fire of the ships was devastatingly accurate thanks to the training associated with the Royal Navy s new gunnery school HMS Excellent The Egyptians had no opportunity to correct their error their guns were disabled by direct hits and by the walls of the fortifications falling on their crews The sailing ships of the line were in two lines with steamers manoeuvring in between At 16 20 a shell penetrated the main magazine in the south of the city which exploded killing 1 100 men The guns ashore fell silent and that night the city was occupied British losses were light 18 men killed and 41 wounded The ships had fired 48 000 rounds Aftermath EditThe rapid collapse of Muhammad Ali s power with the prospect of bloody chaos in Egypt was not part of the Allies plan and Stopford sent Napier to command the squadron at Alexandria and to observe the situation Here acting independently again he appeared before the city with part of his squadron on November 25 and enforced a blockade Then without reference to his Admiral or the British government he personally negotiated a peace with Muhammad Ali guaranteeing him and his heirs the sovereignty of Egypt and pledging to evacuate Ibrahim s beleaguered army back to Alexandria if Muhammad Ali in turn renounced all claims to Syria submitted to the Sultan and returned the Ottoman fleet Stopford and the British ambassador were furious with this outcome Stopford repudiated it immediately when he had heard the news and several of the Allied powers declared it void Despite Napier s long standing personal friendship with Lord Palmerston the arrangement was at first denounced by the British government but the formal treaty later concluded and confirmed by the Sultan used Napier s original as the basis for negotiations and differed from it only in minor ways Citations Edit a b c Dupuy and Dupuy 1993 p 851 a b c Kohn 1999 p 502 Wood Anthony 1984 Europe 1815 1960 Longman p 81 ISBN 978 0 582 35349 7 Phillimore Robert 1854 Commentaries Upon International Law T amp J W Johnson p 332 Retrieved 29 October 2016 Jochmus 1883 Dixon amp Sarkees 2015 p 694 Garnett 1903 p 125 References EditDixon Jeffrey S Sarkees Meredith Reid 2015 A Guide to Intra state Wars An Examination of Civil Regional and Intercommunal Wars 1816 2014 SAGE Publications ISBN 9780872897755 Dupuy R Ernest Dupuy Trevor N 1993 The Harper Encyclopedia of Military History From 3500 B C to the Present New York HarperCollins Publishers ISBN 0 06 270056 1 Garnett R 1903 The English Historical Review Vol XVIII London Longmans Green and Co Jochmus August Giacomo 1883 The Syrian War and the Decline of the Ottoman Empire 1840 1848 Albert Cohn Kohn George Childs 1999 Dictionary of Wars Revised ed New York Facts On File Inc ISBN 0 8160 3928 3 Further reading EditAksan Virginia 2014 Ottoman Wars 1700 1870 An Empire Besieged Routledge Anderson M S 1970 The Great Powers and the Near East 1774 1923 Edward Arnold Napier Charles John 1842 The War in Syria Vol 1 Harrison and Co Napier Charles John 1842 The War in Syria Vol 2 Harrison and Co Carl Michael Runeberg 1962 Finland under orientaliska kriget Carl Michael Runeberg Skrifter utgivna av Svenska litteratursallskapet i Finland in Swedish Helsinki Society of Swedish Literature in Finland ISSN 0039 6842 Wikidata Q113528425 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Egyptian Ottoman War 1839 1841 amp oldid 1176847815, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,
