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Sense of community

January 01, 1970

Sense of community (or psychological sense of community) is a concept in community psychology, social psychology, and community social work, as well as in several other research disciplines, such as urban sociology. It focuses on the experience of community rather than its structure, formation, setting, or other features. The latter is the province of public administration or community services administration which needs to understand how structures influence this feeling and psychological sense of community. Sociologists, social psychologists, anthropologists, and others have theorized about and carried out empirical research on community, but the psychological approach asks questions about the individual's perception, understanding, attitudes, feelings, etc. about community and his or her relationship to it and to others' participation—indeed to the complete, multifaceted community experience.

In his seminal 1974 book, psychologist Seymour B. Sarason proposed that psychological sense of community become the conceptual center for the psychology of community, asserting that it "is one of the major bases for self-definition."[1] By 1986 it was regarded as a central overarching concept for community psychology.[2][3] In addition, the theoretical concept entered the other applied academic disciplines as part of "communities for all" initiatives in the US.[4]

Among theories of sense of community proposed by psychologists, McMillan's & Chavis's[5] is by far the most influential, and is the starting point for most of the recent research in the field. It is discussed in detail below.

Definitions edit

For Sarason, psychological sense of community is "the perception of similarity to others, an acknowledged interdependence with others, a willingness to maintain this interdependence by giving to or doing for others what one expects from them, and the feeling that one is part of a larger dependable and stable structure".[1]: 157 

McMillan & Chavis define a sense of community as "a feeling that members have of belonging, a feeling that members matter to one another and to the group, and a shared faith that members' needs will be met through their commitment to be together."[5]

J.R. Gusfield identified two dimensions of community: territorial and relational.[6] The relational dimension of community has to do with the nature and quality of relationships in that community, and some communities may even have no discernible territorial demarcation, as in the case of a community of scholars working in a particular specialty, who have some kind of contact and quality of relationship, but may live and work in disparate locations, perhaps even throughout the world. Other communities may seem to be defined primarily according to territory, as in the case of neighbourhoods or local communities, but even in such cases, proximity or shared territory cannot by itself constitute a community; the relational dimension is also essential.

Factor analysis of their urban neighbourhoods questionnaire yielded two distinct factors that Riger and Lavrakas characterized as "social bonding" and "physical rootedness", very similar to the two dimensions proposed by Gusfield.[7] Early work on psychological sense of community was based on neighborhoods as the referent, and found a relationship between psychological sense of community and greater participation,[8][full citation needed] perceived safety,[9][full citation needed] ability to function competently in the community,[10] social bonding,[7] social fabric (strengths of interpersonal relationship),[11][full citation needed] greater sense of purpose and perceived control,[12][full citation needed] and greater civic contributions (charitable contributions and civic involvement).[13][full citation needed] These initial studies lacked a clearly articulated conceptual framework, however, and none of the measures developed were based on a theoretical definition of psychological sense of community.

Primary theoretical foundation: McMillan and Chavis edit

McMillan & Chavis's theory (and instrument)[5] are the most broadly validated and widely utilized in this area in the psychological literature. They prefer the abbreviated label "sense of community", and propose that sense of community is composed of four elements:

Membership
Membership includes five attributes:
  1. boundaries
  2. emotional safety
  3. a sense of belonging and identification
  4. personal investment
  5. a common symbol system
Influence
Influence works both ways: members need to feel that they have some influence in the group, and some influence by the group on its members is needed for group cohesion. Recent research[14] on rural and urban communities have found that sense of community is a major factor[clarification needed].
Integration and fulfillment of needs
Members feel rewarded in some way for their participation in the community.
Shared emotional connection
The "definitive element for true community",[5]: 14  it includes shared history and shared participation (or at least identification with the history).

Dynamics within and between the elements edit

McMillan & Chavis give the following example to illustrate the dynamics within and between these four elements:[5]: 16 

Someone puts an announcement on the dormitory bulletin board about the formation of an intramural dormitory basketball team. People attend the organizational meeting as strangers out of their individual needs (integration and fulfillment of needs). The team is bound by place of residence (membership boundaries are set) and spends time together in practice (the contact hypothesis). They play a game and win (successful shared valent event). While playing, members exert energy on behalf of the team (personal investment in the group). As the team continues to win, team members become recognized and congratulated (gaining honor and status for being members). Someone suggests that they all buy matching shirts and shoes (common symbols) and they do so (influence).

Current research edit

In their 2002 study of a community of interest, specifically the science fiction fandom community, Obst, Zinkiewicz, and Smith suggest Conscious Identification as the fifth dimension.[15]

Empirical assessment edit

Chavis et al.'s Sense of Community Index (SCI),[16][17] originally designed primarily in reference to neighborhoods, can be adapted to study other communities as well, including the workplace, schools, religious communities, communities of interest, etc.

See also edit

Notes edit

  1. ^ a b Sarason, S.B. (1974). The psychological sense of community: Prospects for a community psychology. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
  2. ^ Sarason, S.B. (1986). "Commentary: The emergence of a conceptual center". Journal of Community Psychology. 14: 405–407. doi:10.1002/1520-6629(198610)14:4<405::AID-JCOP2290140409>3.0.CO;2-8.
  3. ^ Chavis, D.M.; Pretty, G. (1999). "Sense of community: Advances in measurement and application". Journal of Community Psychology. 27 (6): 635–642. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1520-6629(199911)27:6<635::AID-JCOP1>3.0.CO;2-F.
  4. ^ Magrab, P. (1999). "The meaning of community". In Roberts, R.N.; Magrab, P.R. (eds.). Where Children Live: Solutions for Serving Young Children and their Families. Stamford, Ct.: Ablex Publishing Co. pp. 3–30.
  5. ^ a b c d e McMillan, D.W.; Chavis, D.M. (1986). "Sense of community: A definition and theory". Journal of Community Psychology. 14 (1): 6–23. doi:10.1002/1520-6629(198601)14:1<6::AID-JCOP2290140103>3.0.CO;2-I. S2CID 14729262.
  6. ^ Gusfield, J.R. (1975). The community: A critical response. New York: Harper Colophon.
  7. ^ a b Riger, S.; Lavrakas, P. (1981). "Community ties patterns of attachment and social interaction in urban neighborhoods". American Journal of Community Psychology. 9: 55–66. doi:10.1007/BF00896360. S2CID 144882700.
  8. ^
  9. ^ Doolittle & McDonald, 1978[full citation needed]
  10. ^ Glynn, T.J. (1981). "Psychological sense of community: Measurement and application". Human Relations. 34 (9): 789–818. doi:10.1177/001872678103400904. S2CID 145104960.
  11. ^ Ahlbrandt & Cunningham, 1979[full citation needed]
  12. ^ Bachrach & Zautra, 1985[full citation needed]
  13. ^ Davidson & Cotter, 1986[full citation needed]
  14. ^ Chigbu, U.E. (2013). "Fostering rural sense of place: the missing piece in Uturu, Nigeria". Development in Practice. 23 (2): 264–277. doi:10.1080/09614524.2013.772120. S2CID 154138597.
  15. ^ Obst, P.; Zinkiewicz, L.; Smith, S.G. (2002). "Sense of community in science fiction fandom, Part 1: Understanding sense of community in an international community of interest" (PDF). Journal of Community Psychology. 30 (1): 87–103. doi:10.1002/jcop.1052. S2CID 142898644.
  16. ^ Chipuer, H.M.; Pretty, G.M.H. (1999). "A review of the Sense of Community Index: Current uses, factor structure, reliability, and further development". Journal of Community Psychology. 27 (6): 643–658. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1520-6629(199911)27:6<643::AID-JCOP2>3.0.CO;2-B.
  17. ^ Long, D.A.; Perkins, D.D. (2003). "Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the Sense of Community Index and Development of a Brief SCI". Journal of Community Psychology. 31 (3): 279–296. doi:10.1002/jcop.10046.

References edit

  • Chigbu, U.E. (2013). "Fostering rural sense of place: the missing piece in Uturu, Nigeria". Development in Practice. 23 (2): 264–277. doi:10.1080/09614524.2013.772120. S2CID 154138597.
  • Chavis, D.M., Hogge, J.H., McMillan, D.W., & Wandersman, A. (1986). Sense of community through Brunswick's lens: A first look. Journal of Community Psychology, 14(1), 24-40.
  • Chavis, D.M.; Pretty, G. (1999). "Sense of community: Advances in measurement and application". Journal of Community Psychology. 27 (6): 635–642. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1520-6629(199911)27:6<635::AID-JCOP1>3.0.CO;2-F.
  • Chipuer, H.M.; Pretty, G.M.H. (1999). "A review of the Sense of Community Index: Current uses, factor structure, reliability, and further development". Journal of Community Psychology. 27 (6): 643–658. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1520-6629(199911)27:6<643::AID-JCOP2>3.0.CO;2-B.
  • Glynn, T.J. (1981). "Psychological sense of community: Measurement and application". Human Relations. 34 (9): 789–818. doi:10.1177/001872678103400904. S2CID 145104960.
  • Gusfield, J.R. (1975). The community: A critical response. New York: Harper Colophon.
  • Long, D.A.; Perkins, D.D. (2003). "Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the Sense of Community Index and Development of a Brief SCI". Journal of Community Psychology. 31 (3): 279–296. doi:10.1002/jcop.10046.
  • McMillan, D.W.; Chavis, D.M. (1986). "Sense of community: A definition and theory". Journal of Community Psychology. 14 (1): 6–23. doi:10.1002/1520-6629(198601)14:1<6::AID-JCOP2290140103>3.0.CO;2-I. S2CID 14729262.
  • Obst, P.; Zinkiewicz, L.; Smith, S.G. (2002). "Sense of community in science fiction fandom, Part 1: Understanding sense of community in an international community of interest" (PDF). Journal of Community Psychology. 30 (1): 87–103. doi:10.1002/jcop.1052. S2CID 142898644.
  • Riger, S.; Lavrakas, P. (1981). "Community ties patterns of attachment and social interaction in urban neighborhoods". American Journal of Community Psychology. 9: 55–66. doi:10.1007/BF00896360. S2CID 144882700.
  • Sarason, S.B. (1974). The psychological sense of community: Prospects for a community psychology. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
  • Sarason, S.B. (1986). "Commentary: The emergence of a conceptual center". Journal of Community Psychology. 14: 405–407. doi:10.1002/1520-6629(198610)14:4<405::AID-JCOP2290140409>3.0.CO;2-8.
  • Wright, S. P. 2004. Exploring Psychological Sense of Community in Living-Learning Programs. Doctoral Dissertation. University of Maryland.
  • Farahani, L. M., & Lozanovska, M. (2014). A framework for exploring the sense of community and social life in residential environments. International Journal of Architectural Research: ArchNet-IJAR, 8(3), 223-237.
  • Mahmoudi Farahani, L. (2016). The value of the sense of community and neighbouring. Housing, Theory and Society, 33(3), 357-376.

External links edit

  • Psychological Sense of Community: Theory of McMillan & Chavis (1986)

January 01, 1970
sense, community, psychological, sense, community, concept, community, psychology, social, psychology, community, social, work, well, several, other, research, disciplines, such, urban, sociology, focuses, experience, community, rather, than, structure, format. Sense of community or psychological sense of community is a concept in community psychology social psychology and community social work as well as in several other research disciplines such as urban sociology It focuses on the experience of community rather than its structure formation setting or other features The latter is the province of public administration or community services administration which needs to understand how structures influence this feeling and psychological sense of community Sociologists social psychologists anthropologists and others have theorized about and carried out empirical research on community but the psychological approach asks questions about the individual s perception understanding attitudes feelings etc about community and his or her relationship to it and to others participation indeed to the complete multifaceted community experience In his seminal 1974 book psychologist Seymour B Sarason proposed that psychological sense of community become the conceptual center for the psychology of community asserting that it is one of the major bases for self definition 1 By 1986 it was regarded as a central overarching concept for community psychology 2 3 In addition the theoretical concept entered the other applied academic disciplines as part of communities for all initiatives in the US 4 Among theories of sense of community proposed by psychologists McMillan s amp Chavis s 5 is by far the most influential and is the starting point for most of the recent research in the field It is discussed in detail below Contents 1 Definitions 2 Primary theoretical foundation McMillan and Chavis 2 1 Dynamics within and between the elements 2 1 1 Current research 3 Empirical assessment 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References 7 External linksDefinitions editFor Sarason psychological sense of community is the perception of similarity to others an acknowledged interdependence with others a willingness to maintain this interdependence by giving to or doing for others what one expects from them and the feeling that one is part of a larger dependable and stable structure 1 157 McMillan amp Chavis define a sense of community as a feeling that members have of belonging a feeling that members matter to one another and to the group and a shared faith that members needs will be met through their commitment to be together 5 J R Gusfield identified two dimensions of community territorial and relational 6 The relational dimension of community has to do with the nature and quality of relationships in that community and some communities may even have no discernible territorial demarcation as in the case of a community of scholars working in a particular specialty who have some kind of contact and quality of relationship but may live and work in disparate locations perhaps even throughout the world Other communities may seem to be defined primarily according to territory as in the case of neighbourhoods or local communities but even in such cases proximity or shared territory cannot by itself constitute a community the relational dimension is also essential Factor analysis of their urban neighbourhoods questionnaire yielded two distinct factors that Riger and Lavrakas characterized as social bonding and physical rootedness very similar to the two dimensions proposed by Gusfield 7 Early work on psychological sense of community was based on neighborhoods as the referent and found a relationship between psychological sense of community and greater participation 8 full citation needed perceived safety 9 full citation needed ability to function competently in the community 10 social bonding 7 social fabric strengths of interpersonal relationship 11 full citation needed greater sense of purpose and perceived control 12 full citation needed and greater civic contributions charitable contributions and civic involvement 13 full citation needed These initial studies lacked a clearly articulated conceptual framework however and none of the measures developed were based on a theoretical definition of psychological sense of community Primary theoretical foundation McMillan and Chavis editMcMillan amp Chavis s theory and instrument 5 are the most broadly validated and widely utilized in this area in the psychological literature They prefer the abbreviated label sense of community and propose that sense of community is composed of four elements Membership Membership includes five attributes boundaries emotional safety a sense of belonging and identification personal investment a common symbol system Influence Influence works both ways members need to feel that they have some influence in the group and some influence by the group on its members is needed for group cohesion Recent research 14 on rural and urban communities have found that sense of community is a major factor clarification needed Integration and fulfillment of needs Members feel rewarded in some way for their participation in the community Shared emotional connection The definitive element for true community 5 14 it includes shared history and shared participation or at least identification with the history Dynamics within and between the elements edit McMillan amp Chavis give the following example to illustrate the dynamics within and between these four elements 5 16 Someone puts an announcement on the dormitory bulletin board about the formation of an intramural dormitory basketball team People attend the organizational meeting as strangers out of their individual needs integration and fulfillment of needs The team is bound by place of residence membership boundaries are set and spends time together in practice the contact hypothesis They play a game and win successful shared valent event While playing members exert energy on behalf of the team personal investment in the group As the team continues to win team members become recognized and congratulated gaining honor and status for being members Someone suggests that they all buy matching shirts and shoes common symbols and they do so influence Current research edit In their 2002 study of a community of interest specifically the science fiction fandom community Obst Zinkiewicz and Smith suggest Conscious Identification as the fifth dimension 15 Empirical assessment editChavis et al s Sense of Community Index SCI 16 17 originally designed primarily in reference to neighborhoods can be adapted to study other communities as well including the workplace schools religious communities communities of interest etc See also editAnomie Sociological term for normlessness The Division of Labor in Society Emile Durkheim Communitarianism Political philosophy The Spirit of Community Amitai Etzioni Community practice Social Work Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft Types of social ties by Ferdinand Tonnies Community and Society Ferdinand Tonnies Imagined communities Nation as a socially constructed communityPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Interest network Type of affinity groupPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Online participation Extent to which the web encourages the people to share in organizational decision making Social solidarity Unity of feeling or action on a common interestPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targetsNotes edit a b Sarason S B 1974 The psychological sense of community Prospects for a community psychology San Francisco Jossey Bass Sarason S B 1986 Commentary The emergence of a conceptual center Journal of Community Psychology 14 405 407 doi 10 1002 1520 6629 198610 14 4 lt 405 AID JCOP2290140409 gt 3 0 CO 2 8 Chavis D M Pretty G 1999 Sense of community Advances in measurement and application Journal of Community Psychology 27 6 635 642 doi 10 1002 SICI 1520 6629 199911 27 6 lt 635 AID JCOP1 gt 3 0 CO 2 F Magrab P 1999 The meaning of community In Roberts R N Magrab P R eds Where Children Live Solutions for Serving Young Children and their Families Stamford Ct Ablex Publishing Co pp 3 30 a b c d e McMillan D W Chavis D M 1986 Sense of community A definition and theory Journal of Community Psychology 14 1 6 23 doi 10 1002 1520 6629 198601 14 1 lt 6 AID JCOP2290140103 gt 3 0 CO 2 I S2CID 14729262 Gusfield J R 1975 The community A critical response New York Harper Colophon a b Riger S Lavrakas P 1981 Community ties patterns of attachment and social interaction in urban neighborhoods American Journal of Community Psychology 9 55 66 doi 10 1007 BF00896360 S2CID 144882700 Hunter 1975 full citation needed Wandersman amp Giamartino 1980 full citation needed Doolittle amp McDonald 1978 full citation needed Glynn T J 1981 Psychological sense of community Measurement and application Human Relations 34 9 789 818 doi 10 1177 001872678103400904 S2CID 145104960 Ahlbrandt amp Cunningham 1979 full citation needed Bachrach amp Zautra 1985 full citation needed Davidson amp Cotter 1986 full citation needed Chigbu U E 2013 Fostering rural sense of place the missing piece in Uturu Nigeria Development in Practice 23 2 264 277 doi 10 1080 09614524 2013 772120 S2CID 154138597 Obst P Zinkiewicz L Smith S G 2002 Sense of community in science fiction fandom Part 1 Understanding sense of community in an international community of interest PDF Journal of Community Psychology 30 1 87 103 doi 10 1002 jcop 1052 S2CID 142898644 Chipuer H M Pretty G M H 1999 A review of the Sense of Community Index Current uses factor structure reliability and further development Journal of Community Psychology 27 6 643 658 doi 10 1002 SICI 1520 6629 199911 27 6 lt 643 AID JCOP2 gt 3 0 CO 2 B Long D A Perkins D D 2003 Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the Sense of Community Index and Development of a Brief SCI Journal of Community Psychology 31 3 279 296 doi 10 1002 jcop 10046 References editChigbu U E 2013 Fostering rural sense of place the missing piece in Uturu Nigeria Development in Practice 23 2 264 277 doi 10 1080 09614524 2013 772120 S2CID 154138597 Chavis D M Hogge J H McMillan D W amp Wandersman A 1986 Sense of community through Brunswick s lens A first look Journal of Community Psychology 14 1 24 40 Chavis D M Pretty G 1999 Sense of community Advances in measurement and application Journal of Community Psychology 27 6 635 642 doi 10 1002 SICI 1520 6629 199911 27 6 lt 635 AID JCOP1 gt 3 0 CO 2 F Chipuer H M Pretty G M H 1999 A review of the Sense of Community Index Current uses factor structure reliability and further development Journal of Community Psychology 27 6 643 658 doi 10 1002 SICI 1520 6629 199911 27 6 lt 643 AID JCOP2 gt 3 0 CO 2 B Glynn T J 1981 Psychological sense of community Measurement and application Human Relations 34 9 789 818 doi 10 1177 001872678103400904 S2CID 145104960 Gusfield J R 1975 The community A critical response New York Harper Colophon Long D A Perkins D D 2003 Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the Sense of Community Index and Development of a Brief SCI Journal of Community Psychology 31 3 279 296 doi 10 1002 jcop 10046 McMillan D W Chavis D M 1986 Sense of community A definition and theory Journal of Community Psychology 14 1 6 23 doi 10 1002 1520 6629 198601 14 1 lt 6 AID JCOP2290140103 gt 3 0 CO 2 I S2CID 14729262 Obst P Zinkiewicz L Smith S G 2002 Sense of community in science fiction fandom Part 1 Understanding sense of community in an international community of interest PDF Journal of Community Psychology 30 1 87 103 doi 10 1002 jcop 1052 S2CID 142898644 Riger S Lavrakas P 1981 Community ties patterns of attachment and social interaction in urban neighborhoods American Journal of Community Psychology 9 55 66 doi 10 1007 BF00896360 S2CID 144882700 Sarason S B 1974 The psychological sense of community Prospects for a community psychology San Francisco Jossey Bass Sarason S B 1986 Commentary The emergence of a conceptual center Journal of Community Psychology 14 405 407 doi 10 1002 1520 6629 198610 14 4 lt 405 AID JCOP2290140409 gt 3 0 CO 2 8 Wright S P 2004 Exploring Psychological Sense of Community in Living Learning Programs Doctoral Dissertation University of Maryland Farahani L M amp Lozanovska M 2014 A framework for exploring the sense of community and social life in residential environments International Journal of Architectural Research ArchNet IJAR 8 3 223 237 Mahmoudi Farahani L 2016 The value of the sense of community and neighbouring Housing Theory and Society 33 3 357 376 External links editPsychological Sense of Community Theory of McMillan amp Chavis 1986 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Sense of community amp oldid 1193946178, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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