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COVID-19 drug repurposing research

April 12, 2023

This article is about drugs that may be repurposed for treating COVID-19. For COVID-19 vaccines, see COVID-19 vaccine. For potential therapeutic drugs for COVID-19, see COVID-19 drug development.

Drug repositioning (also known as drug repurposing, re-profiling, re-tasking, or therapeutic switching) is the repurposing of an approved drug for the treatment of a different disease or medical condition than that for which it was originally developed.[1] This is one line of scientific research which is being pursued to develop safe and effective COVID-19 treatments.[2][3][4] Other research directions include the development of a COVID-19 vaccine[5] and convalescent plasma transfusion.[6]

Several existing antiviral medications, previously developed or used as treatments for severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS), HIV/AIDS, and malaria, have been researched as potential COVID-19 treatments, with some moving into clinical trials.[7][8][9]

In a statement to the journal Nature Biotechnology in February 2020, US National Institutes of Health Viral Ecology Unit chief Vincent Munster said, "The general genomic layout and the general replication kinetics and the biology of the MERS, SARS and [SARS-CoV-2] viruses are very similar, so testing drugs which target relatively generic parts of these coronaviruses is a logical step".[2]

Background

Outbreaks of novel emerging infections such as COVID-19 pose unique challenges to discover treatments appropriate for clinical use, given the small amount of time available for drug discovery.[10] Since the process of developing and licensing a new drug for COVID-19 was expected to pose a particularly long delay, researchers have been probing the existing compendium of approved antivirals and other drugs as a cost-effective strategy in the meantime.[3][10] In early 2020 hundreds of hospitals and universities began their own trials of existing safe drugs with repurposing potential against COVID-19.[11]

Drug repurposing usually requires three steps before taking the drug across the development pipeline: recognition of the right drug; systematic evaluation of the drug effect in clinical models; and estimation of usefulness in phase II clinical trials.[12]

One approach used in repositioning is to look for drugs that act through virus-related targets such as the RNA genome (i.e. remdesivir). Another approach concerns drugs acting through polypeptide packing (i.e. lopinavir).[10]

The rush to publish papers about the pandemic resulted in some scandals of inaccurate scientific publications.[13] Some early studies reporting the efficacy of hydroxychloroquine and remdesivir convinced drug agencies such as Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and European Medicines Agency to approve the off-label use by issuing Emergency Use Authorizations which were later revoked as new evidence showed these drugs have no effect on the course of COVID-19.[14] These false-positive results can be explained in terms of the base-rate fallacy and the rapid changes in clinical guidance regarding COVID-19 treatment could have been avoided if mechanistic evidence for and against repurposing candidates were carefully assessed[15] and the standard evidence amalgamation tools such as meta-analysis were routinely applied.[16]

Monoclonal antibodies

Monoclonal antibodies under investigation for repurposing include anti-IL-6 agents (tocilizumab)[17] and anti-IL-8 (BMS-986253).[18] (This is in parallel to novel monoclonal antibody drugs developed specifically for COVID-19.)

Mavrilimumab is a human monoclonal antibody that inhibits human granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor receptor (GM-CSF-R).[19][20] It has been studied to see if it can improve the prognosis for patients with COVID-19 pneumonia and systemic hyperinflammation. One small study indicated some beneficial effects of treatment with mavrilimumab compared with those who were not.[21]

In January 2021, the UK National Health Service issued guidance that the immune modulating drugs tocilizumab and sarilumab were beneficial when given promptly to people with COVID-19 admitted to intensive care, following research which found a reduction in the risk of death by 24%.[22]

Tocilizumab

See also: Tocilizumab § COVID-19 Research
This section is an excerpt from Tocilizumab.[edit]
COVID-19 drug repurposing research
Monoclonal antibody
TypeWhole antibody
SourceHumanized (from mouse)
TargetIL-6 receptor
Clinical data
Trade namesActemra, RoActemra
Other namesAtlizumab
AHFS/Drugs.comMonograph
MedlinePlusa611004
License data
Pregnancy
category
Routes of
administration		Intravenous, subcutaneous
ATC code
Legal status
Legal status
Pharmacokinetic data
Elimination half-life8–14 days during steady state (dependent on concentration)
Identifiers
CAS Number
  • 375823-41-9  N
DrugBank
  • DB06273  Y
ChemSpider
  • none
UNII
  • I031V2H011
KEGG
  • D02596  Y
ChEMBL
  • ChEMBL1237022  N
Chemical and physical data
FormulaC6428H9976N1720O2018S42
Molar mass144987.06 g·mol−1
  N Y (what is this?)  (verify)

Tocilizumab, sold under the brand name Actemra among others, is an immunosuppressive drug, used for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, systemic juvenile idiopathic arthritis, a severe form of arthritis in children, and COVID‑19. It is a humanized monoclonal antibody against the interleukin-6 receptor (IL-6R). Interleukin 6 (IL-6) is a cytokine that plays an important role in immune response and is implicated in the pathogenesis of many diseases, such as autoimmune diseases, multiple myeloma and prostate cancer. Tocilizumab was jointly developed by Osaka University and Chugai, and was licensed in 2003 by Hoffmann-La Roche.[28]

Tocilizumab was granted an emergency use authorization (EUA) for the treatment of COVID‑19 in the United States in June 2021.[26][29][30] It was approved for the treatment of COVID‑19 in the European Union in December 2021,[27][31][32] and in the United States in December 2022.[33]

Anticoagulants

Medications to prevent blood clotting have been suggested for treatment, and anticoagulant therapy with low-molecular-weight heparin appears to be associated with better outcomes in severe COVID‐19 showing signs of coagulopathy (elevated D-dimer).[34] Several anticoagulants have been tested in Italy, with low-molecular-weight heparin being widely used to treat patients, prompting the Italian Medicines Agency to publish guidelines on its use.[35][36]

Scientists have identified an ability of heparin to bind to the spike protein of the SARS-CoV-2 virus, neutralising it, and proposed the drug as a possible antiviral.[37]

A multicenter study on 300 patients researching the use of enoxaparin sodium at prophylaxis and therapeutic dosages was announced in Italy on 14 April.[38]

The anticoagulant dipyridamole is proposed as a treatment for COVID-19,[39] and a clinical trial is underway.[40]

Antidepressants

Many antidepressants have anti-inflammatory properties. An observational study in Paris area hospitals found that COVID-19 patients admitted to the hospital who were already taking an antidepressant had 44% less risk of intubation or death.[41][42] The potential mechanisms how fluvoxamine and fluoxetin are contributing to prevent the development of severe respiratory symptoms of COVID-19 by protecting the type 2 lung alveolar cells have been summarized in a review in March 2022.[43]

Fluvoxamine

Further information: Fluvoxamine § COVID-19 Research

In October 2021, the TOGETHER trial, a large clinical trial in Brazil, reported that treating high-risk outpatients with an early diagnosis of COVID-19 with 100 mg fluvoxamine twice daily for 10 days reduced by up to about 65% the risk of hospitalization. The effect was reduced to about 32% with low adherence, possibly due to intolerance. There was also a reduction in the number of deaths by up to about 90% with high adherence. The drug was studied because of its anti-inflammatory effects, but the mechanism of action against COVID-19 remains uncertain.[44][45][46]

On 16 December, the NIH found that use of fluvoxamine did not impact incidence of covid-related hospitalizations and considered the evidence insufficient to recommend either for or against the drug.[47]

On 23 December, under very low certainty evidence, the Ontario clinical practice guideline suggested considering the drug to treat mildly ill patients within 7 days of symptom onset.[48]

In May 2022, based on a review of available scientific evidence, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) declined a request to issue an Emergency Use Authorization (EUA) for fluvoxamine to treat COVID-19, saying that the data were not sufficient to conclude that it may be effective in treating non-hospitalized people with COVID-19 to prevent serious illness or hospitalization. University of Minnesota professor David Boulware, who filed the EUA application, said that the standard that they were holding for fluvoxamine was a different standard than the other big pharma trials, with Paxlovid and molnupiravir and the monoclonals.[49][50]

Antioxidants

Acetylcysteine (NAC)

Acetylcysteine is being considered as a possible treatment for COVID-19.[51]

Antiparasitics

The idea of repurposing host-directed drugs for antiviral therapy has experienced a renaissance.[52] In some cases the research has highlighted fundamental limitations to their use for the treatment of acute RNA virus infections.[53] Antiparasitics that have been investigated include chloroquine,[54] hydroxychloroquine,[55] mefloquine,[56][57] ivermectin,[58] and atovaquone.[59]

Chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine

This section is an excerpt from Chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine during the COVID-19 pandemic.[edit]
 
A World Health Organization infographic that states that hydroxychloroquine does not prevent illness or death from COVID-19.

Chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine are anti-malarial medications also used against some auto-immune diseases.[60] Chloroquine, along with hydroxychloroquine, was an early experimental treatment for COVID-19.[61] Neither drug prevents SARS-CoV-2 infection.[62][63][64][65][66]

Cleavage of the SARS-CoV-2 S2 spike protein required for viral entry into cells can be accomplished by proteases TMPRSS2 located on the cell membrane, or by cathepsins (primarily cathepsin L) in endolysosomes.[67] Hydroxychloroquine inhibits the action of cathepsin L in endolysosomes, but because cathepsin L cleavage is minor compared to TMPRSS2 cleavage, hydroxychloroquine does little to inhibit SARS-CoV-2 infection.[67]

Several countries initially used chloroquine or hydroxychloroquine for treatment of persons hospitalized with COVID-19 (as of March 2020), though the drug was not formally approved through clinical trials.[68][69] From April to June 2020, there was an emergency use authorization for their use in the United States,[70] and was used off label for potential treatment of the disease.[71] On 24 April 2020, citing the risk of "serious heart rhythm problems", the FDA posted a caution against using the drug for COVID-19 "outside of the hospital setting or a clinical trial".[72]

Their use was withdrawn as a possible treatment for COVID-19 infection when it proved to have no benefit for hospitalized patients with severe COVID-19 illness in the international Solidarity trial and UK RECOVERY Trial.[73][74] On 15 June 2020, the FDA revoked its emergency use authorization, stating that it was "no longer reasonable to believe" that the drug was effective against COVID-19 or that its benefits outweighed "known and potential risks".[75][76][77] In fall of 2020, the National Institutes of Health issued treatment guidelines recommending against the use of hydroxychloroquine for COVID-19 except as part of a clinical trial.[60]

In 2021, hydroxychloroquine was part of the recommended treatment for mild cases in India.[78]

In 2020, the speculative use of hydroxychloroquine for COVID-19 threatened its availability for people with established indications (malaria and auto-immune diseases).[64]

Ivermectin

This section is an excerpt from Ivermectin during the COVID-19 pandemic.[edit]
 
Ball-and-stick model of Ivermectin

Ivermectin is an antiparasitic drug that is well-established for use in animals and people.[79] The WHO, Infectious Diseases Society of America, and European Medicines Agency advise against using the drug in an attempt to treat or prevent COVID-19.[79]

Early in the COVID-19 pandemic, laboratory research suggested ivermectin might have a role in preventing or treating COVID-19.[80] Online misinformation campaigns and advocacy boosted the drug's profile among the public. While scientists and physicians largely remained skeptical, some nations adopted ivermectin as part of their pandemic-control efforts. Some people, desperate to use ivermectin without a prescription, took veterinary preparations, which led to shortages of supplies of ivermectin for animal treatment. The FDA responded to this situation by saying "You are not a horse" in a Tweet to draw attention to the issue.[81]

Subsequent research failed to confirm the utility of ivermectin for COVID-19,[82][83] and in 2021 it emerged that many of the studies demonstrating benefit were faulty, misleading, or fraudulent.[84][85] Nevertheless, misinformation about ivermectin continued to be propagated on social media and the drug remained a cause célèbre for anti-vaccinationists and conspiracy theorists.[86]

Antivirals

Research is focused on repurposing approved antiviral drugs that have been previously developed against other viruses, such as MERS-CoV, SARS-CoV, and West Nile virus.[87] These include favipiravir,[87] remdesivir,[88] ribavirin,[89] triazavirin,[90] and umifenovir.[91]

The combination of artesunate/pyronaridine was found to have an inhibitory effect on SARS-CoV-2 in vitro tests using Hela cells. Artesunate/pyronaridine showed a virus titer inhibition rate of 99% or more after 24 hours, while cytotoxicity was also reduced.[92] A preprint published in July 2020, reported that pyronaridine and artesunate exhibit antiviral activity against SARS-CoV-2 and influenza viruses using human lung epithelial (Calu-3) cells.[93] It is in phase II clinical trial in South Korea[94][95][96] and in South Africa.[97]

Molnupiravir is a drug developed to treat influenza. It is in Phase III trials as a treatment for COVID-19.[98][99][100][101][102] In December 2020, scientists reported that the antiviral drug molnupiravir developed for the treatment of influenza can completely suppress SARS-CoV-2 transmission within 24 hours in ferrets whose COVID-19 transmission they find to closely resemble SARS-CoV-2 spread in human young-adult populations.[103][104] A clinical trial, which has not as of 1 October 2021 been peer reviewed, suggests molnupiravir taken orally can reduce the risk of hospitalization and prevent death in patients diagnosed with COVID-19. The drug needs to be given early to be effective.[105][106] As of 1 January 2022, Molnupiravir has been approved for emergency use against COVID-19 in the United Kingdom, India, and the United States.[107]

Niclosamide was identified as a candidate antiviral in an in vitro drug screening assay done in South Korea.[108]

Protease inhibitors, which specifically target the protease 3CLpro, are being researched and developed in the laboratory such as CLpro-1, GC376, and Rupintrivir.[109][110][111]

Coronaviruses species possess an intrinsic resistance to ribavirin.[112]

Sofosbuvir/daclatasvir is a drug combination developed to treat hepatitis C. In October 2020, a meta-analysis found a significantly lower risk of all-cause mortality with the drug combination when given to hospitalized patients.[113]

Favipiravir

Favipiravir is an antiviral drug approved for the treatment of influenza in Japan.[114][87] There is limited evidence suggesting that, compared to other antiviral drugs, favipiravir might improve outcomes for people with COVID-19, but more rigorous studies are needed before any conclusions can be drawn.[115]

Chinese clinical trials in Wuhan and Shenzhen claimed to show that favipiravir was "clearly effective".[116] Of 35 patients in Shenzhen tested negative in a median of 4 days, while the length of illness was 11 days in the 45 patients who did not receive it.[117] In a study conducted in Wuhan on 240 patients with pneumonia half were given favipiravir and half received umifenovir. The researchers found that patients recovered from coughs and fevers faster when treated with favipiravir, but that there was no change in how many patients in each group progressed to more advanced stages of illness that required treatment with a ventilator.[118]

On 22 March 2020, Italy approved the drug for experimental use against COVID-19 and began conducting trials in the three regions most affected by the disease.[119] The Italian Pharmaceutical Agency reminded the public that the existing evidence in support of the drug is scant and preliminary.[120]

On 30 May 2020, the Russian Health Ministry approved a generic version of favipiravir named Avifavir, which proved highly effective in the first phase of clinical trials.[121][122][123]

In June 2020, India approved the use of a generic version of favipravir called FabiFlu, developed by Glenmark Pharmaceuticals, in the treatment of mild to moderate cases of COVID-19.[124]

On 26 May 2021, a systematic review found a 24% greater chance of clinical improvement when administered in the first seven days of hospitalization, but no statistically significant reduction in mortality for any of the groups, including hospitalized patients and those with mild or moderate symptoms.[125][126]

Lopinavir/ritonavir

 
Genome of SARS-CoV-2: the grey wedges show where 3CLpro the main coronavirus protease cleaves the polyprotein.

In March 2020, the main protease (3CLpro) of the SARS-CoV-2 virus was identified as a target for post-infection drugs. The enzyme is essential for processing the replication-related polyprotein. To find the enzyme, scientists used the genome published by Chinese researchers in January 2020 to isolate the main protease.[127] Protease inhibitors approved for treating human immunodeficiency viruses (HIV) – lopinavir and ritonavir – have preliminary evidence of activity against the coronaviruses, SARS and MERS.[7][128] As a potential combination therapy, they are used together in two Phase III arms of the 2020 global Solidarity project on COVID-19.[128][129] A preliminary study in China of combined lopinavir and ritonavir found no effect in people hospitalized for COVID-19.[130]

One study of lopinavir/ritonavir (Kaletra), a combination of the antivirals lopinavir and ritonavir, concluded that "no benefit was observed".[130][131] The drugs were designed to inhibit HIV from replicating by binding to the protease. A team of researchers at the University of Colorado are trying to modify the drugs to find a compound that will bind with the protease of SARS-CoV-2.[132] There are criticisms within the scientific community about directing resources to repurposing drugs specifically developed for HIV/AIDS because such drugs are unlikely to be effective against a virus lacking the specific HIV-1 protease they target.[2] The WHO included lopinavir/ritonavir in the international Solidarity trial.[133]

On 29 June, the chief investigators of the UK RECOVERY Trial reported that there was no clinical benefit from use of lopinavir-ritonavir in 1,596 people hospitalized with severe COVID-19 infection over 28 days of treatment.[134][135]

A study published in October 2020, screening those drugs approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) which target SARS-CoV-2 spike (S) protein proposed that the current unbalanced combination formula of lopinavir might in fact interfere with the ritonavir's blocking activity on the receptor binding domain-human angiotensin converting enzyme-2 (RBD-hACE2) interaction, thus effectively limiting its therapeutic benefit in COVID-19 cases.[136]

In 2022, the PANORAMIC trial is testing the effectiveness of nirmatrelvir combined with ritonavir, and molnupiravir in preventing hospitalization and helping faster recovery for people aged over 50 and those at higher risk due to underlying health conditions.[137][138] As of March 2022 has over 16,000 people enrolled as participants making it the largest study into COVID-19 antivirals.[139]

Remdesivir

See also: Remdesivir § COVID-19
This section is an excerpt from Remdesivir.[edit]
 


Remdesivir, sold under the brand name Veklury,[140][141] is a broad-spectrum antiviral medication developed by the biopharmaceutical company Gilead Sciences.[142] It is administered via injection into a vein.[143][144] During the COVID‑19 pandemic, remdesivir was approved or authorized for emergency use to treat COVID‑19 in numerous countries.[145]

Remdesivir was originally developed to treat hepatitis C,[146] and was subsequently investigated for Ebola virus disease and Marburg virus infections[147] before being studied as a post-infection treatment for COVID‑19.[148]

Remdesivir is a prodrug that is intended to allow intracellular delivery of GS-441524 monophosphate and subsequent biotransformation into GS-441524 triphosphate, a ribonucleotide analogue inhibitor of viral RNA polymerase.[149]

The most common side effect in healthy volunteers is raised blood levels of liver enzymes.[140] The most common side effect in people with COVID‑19 is nausea.[140] Side effects may include liver inflammation and an infusion-related reaction with nausea, low blood pressure, and sweating.[150]

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) considers it to be a first-in-class medication.[151]

Immunomodulatory treatments

Baricitinib

See also: Baricitinib § COVID-19 research

In May 2022, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved barictinib for the treatment of COVID-19 in hospitalized adults requiring supplemental oxygen, non-invasive or invasive mechanical ventilation, or extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO).[152][153] Barictinib is the first immunomodulatory treatment for COVID-19 to receive FDA approval.[153]

In the United States, barictinib is authorized under an emergency use authorization (EUA) for the treatment of COVID-19 in hospitalized people aged 2 to less than 18 years of age who require supplemental oxygen, non-invasive or invasive mechanical ventilation, or extracorporeal membrane oxygenation.[152]

Immunosuppressants

Anakinra

Further information: Anakinra § COVID-19 research

In December 2021, anakinra (Kineret) was authorized in the European Union for the treatment of COVID-19 in adults with pneumonia requiring supplemental oxygen (low or high flow oxygen) and who are at risk of developing severe respiratory failure, as determined by blood levels of a protein called suPAR (soluble urokinase plasminogen activator receptor) of at least 6 ng per ml."[154][155]

Interferons

Drugs with immune modulating effects that may prove useful in COVID-19 treatment include type I Interferons such as Interferon-β, peginterferon alpha-2a and -2b.[156][157]

IFN-β 1b have been shown in an open label randomised controlled trial in combination with lopinavir/ ritonavir and ribavirin to significantly reduce viral load, alleviate symptoms and reduce cytokine responses when compared to lopinavir/ ritonavir alone.<Lancet 2020;395(10238):1695-1704> IFN-β will be included in the international Solidarity Trial in combination with the HIV drugs Lopinavir and Ritonavir.[156] as well as the REMAP-CAP[157] Finnish biotech firm Faron Pharmaceuticals continues to develop INF-beta for ARDS and is involved in worldwide initiatives[which?] against COVID-19, including the Solidarity trial.[158] UK biotech firm Synairgen started conducting trials on IFN-β, a drug that was originally developed to treat COPD.[133]

Steroids

Systemic corticosteroids have a small but statistically significant beneficial effect in reducing 30-day all-cause mortality in individuals hospitalized with COVID-19.[159]

Budesonide

Administration of this inhaled steroid early in the course of COVID-19 infection has been found to reduce the likelihood of needing urgent medical care and reduced the time to recovery.[160][161] More studies are on-going.[161] In April 2021, budesonide was approved by authorities in the UK for off-label use to treat COVID-19 on a case-by-case basis.[162]

Ciclesonide

Ciclesonide, an inhaled corticosteroid for asthma, was identified as a candidate antiviral in an in vitro drug screening assay done in South Korea.[108] It has been used for treatment of pre-symptomatic COVID-19 patients and is under-going clinical trials.[163]

Dexamethasone

See also: Dexamethasone § COVID-19, and RECOVERY Trial § Dexamethasone
 
A vial of dexamethasone for injection

Dexamethasone is a corticosteroid medication in use for multiple conditions such as rheumatic problems, skin diseases, asthma and chronic obstructive lung disease among others.[164] A multi-center, randomized controlled trial of dexamethasone in treating acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), published in February 2020, showed reduced need for mechanical ventilation and mortality.[165] Dexamethasone is only helpful in people requiring supplemental oxygen. Following an analysis of seven randomized trials,[166] the WHO recommends the use of systemic corticosteroids in guidelines for treatment of people with severe or critical illness, and that they not be used in people that do not meet the criteria for severe illness.[167]

On 16 June, the Oxford University RECOVERY Trial issued a press release announcing preliminary results that the drug could reduce deaths by about a third in participants on ventilators and by about a fifth in participants on oxygen; it did not benefit patients who did not require respiratory support. The researchers estimated that treating 8 patients on ventilators with dexamethasone saved one life, and treating 25 patients on oxygen saved one life.[168] Several experts called for the full dataset to be published quickly to allow wider analysis of the results.[169][170] A preprint was published on 22 June[171] and the peer-reviewed article appeared on 17 July.[172]

Based on those preliminary results, dexamethasone treatment has been recommended by the US National Institutes of Health (NIH) for patients with COVID-19 who are mechanically ventilated or who require supplemental oxygen but are not mechanically ventilated. The NIH recommends against using dexamethasone in patients with COVID-19 who do not require supplemental oxygen.[173] In July 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) stated they are in the process of updating treatment guidelines to include dexamethasone or other steroids.[174]

The Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) guideline panel suggests the use of glucocorticoids for patients with severe COVID-19; where severe is defined as patients with oxygen saturation (SpO2) ≤94% on room air, and those who require supplemental oxygen, mechanical ventilation, or extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO).[175] The IDSA recommends against the use of glucocorticoids for those with COVID-19 without hypoxemia requiring supplemental oxygen.[175]

In July 2020, the European Medicines Agency (EMA) started reviewing results from the RECOVERY study arm that involved the use of dexamethasone in the treatment of patients with COVID-19 admitted to the hospital to provide an opinion on the results. It focused particularly on the potential use of the drug for the treatment of adults with COVID-19.[176]

In September 2020, the WHO released updated guidance on using corticosteroids for COVID-19.[177][178] The WHO recommends systemic corticosteroids rather than no systemic corticosteroids for the treatment of people with severe and critical COVID-19 (strong recommendation, based on moderate certainty evidence).[177] The WHO suggests not to use corticosteroids in the treatment of people with non-severe COVID-19 (conditional recommendation, based on low certainty evidence).[177]

In September 2020, the European Medicines Agency (EMA) endorsed the use of dexamethasone in adults and adolescents (from twelve years of age and weighing at least 40 kilograms (88 lb)) who require supplemental oxygen therapy.[179] Dexamethasone can be taken by mouth or given as an injection or infusion (drip) into a vein.[179]

Hydrocortisone

In September 2020, a meta-analysis published by the WHO Rapid Evidence Appraisal for COVID-19 Therapies (REACT) Working Group found hydrocortisone to be effective in reducing mortality rate of critically ill COVID-19 patients when compared to other usual care or a placebo.[180]

The use of corticosteroids can cause a severe and deadly "hyperinfection" syndrome for people with strongyloidiasis, which may be an underlying condition in populations exposed to the parasite Strongyloides stercoralis. This risk can be mitigated by the presumptive use of ivermectin before steroid treatment.[181]

Vitamins

Vitamin C

Further information: Vitamin C § COVID-19
See also: COVID-19 misinformation § Vitamin C

Supplementation with micronutrients, including vitamin C, has been suggested as part of the supportive management of COVID-19, as levels of vitamin C in serum and leukocytes are depleted in the acute stage of infection owing to increased metabolic demands.[182] The use of high-dose intravenous vitamin C has been studied.[182] According to ClinicalTrials.gov, there are 50 completed or ongoing clinical trials including vitamin C, which have completed or are recruiting people, hospitalized and severely ill with COVID-19.[183]

A meta-analysis of six randomized clinical trials involving vitamin C treatments, using doses ranging from 50 mg/kg/day to 24 g/day given orally or intravenously, reported outcomes on mortality, hospitalization duration, intensive care duration and need for ventilation.[184] This concluded that administration of vitamin C did not have any effect on major health outcomes in COVID-infected patients when compared to placebo or standard therapy. Sub-group analyses based on dosage, route of administration and disease severity, failed to show any observable benefits of vitamin C.[184]

The National Institutes of Health (NIH) COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines states "there is insufficient evidence for the COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel (the Panel) to recommend either for or against the use of vitamin C for the treatment of COVID-19 in either critically ill or non-critically ill patients."[185]

Vitamin D

Further information: Vitamin D § COVID-19
See also: COVID-19 misinformation § Vitamin D
 
Oral vitamin D tablets

During the COVID-19 pandemic, there has been interest in vitamin D status and supplements, given the significant overlap in the risk factors for severe COVID-19 and vitamin D deficiency.[186] These include obesity, older age, and Black or Asian ethnic origin, and it is notable that vitamin D deficiency is particularly common within these groups.[186]

The National Institutes of Health (NIH) COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines states "there is insufficient evidence to recommend either for or against the use of vitamin D for the prevention or treatment of COVID-19."[187]

The general recommendation to consider taking vitamin D supplements, particularly given the levels of vitamin D deficiency in Western populations, has been repeated.[188] As of February 2021, the English National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) continued to recommend small doses of supplementary vitamin D for people with little exposure to sunshine, but recommended that practitioners should not offer a vitamin D supplement solely to prevent or treat COVID-19, except as part of a clinical trial.[188]

Multiple studies have reported links between pre-existing vitamin D deficiency and the severity of the disease. Several systematic reviews and meta-analyses of these show that vitamin D deficiency may be associated with a higher probability of becoming infected with COVID-19, and have clearly demonstrated there are significant associations between deficiency and a greater severity of the disease, including relative increases in hospitalization and mortality rates of about 80%.[189][190][191] The quality of some of the studies included and whether this demonstrates a causal relationship has been questioned.[192]

Many clinical trials are underway or have been completed assessing the use of oral vitamin D and its metabolites such as calcifediol for prevention or treatment of COVID-19 infection, especially in people with vitamin D deficiency.[193][194][186][195]

The effects of oral vitamin D supplementation on the need for intensive care unit (ICU) admission and mortality in hospitalized COVID-19 patients has been the subject of a meta-analysis.[196] A much lower ICU admission rate was found in patients who received vitamin D supplementation, which was only 36% of that seen in patients without supplementation (p<0.0001).[196] No significant effects on mortality were found in this meta-analysis.[196] The certainty of these analyses is limited by the heterogenicity in the studies which include both vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) and calcifediol, but these findings indicate a potential role in improving COVID-19 severity, with more robust data being required to substantiate any effects on mortality.[196][197]

Calcifediol, which is 25-hydroxyvitamin D, is more quickly activated,[198] and has been used in several trials.[194] Review of the published results suggests that calcifediol supplementation may have a protective effect on the risk of ICU admissions in COVID-19 patients.[192]

Minerals

Zinc

The National Institutes of Health (NIH) COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines states "there is insufficient evidence to recommend either for or against the use of zinc for the treatment of COVID-19" and that "the Panel recommends against using zinc supplementation above the recommended dietary allowance for the prevention of COVID-19, except in a clinical trial (BIII)."[199]

Others

  • Antibiotics: Some antibiotics that have been identified as potentially repurposable as COVID-19 treatments,[200][201] including:
  • Bucillamine: On 31 July 2020, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) authorized Revive Therapeutics to proceed with a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled confirmatory Phase III clinical trial protocol to evaluate the safety and efficacy of the antirheumatic agent bucillamine in patients with mild-moderate COVID-19.[209]
  • Colchicine: Researchers from the Montreal Heart Institute in Canada are studying the role of colchicine in reducing inflammation and pulmonary complications in patients with mild symptoms of COVID-19.[210] The study, named COLCORONA, was recruiting 6000 adults 40 and older who were diagnosed with COVID-19 and experienced mild symptoms not requiring hospitalization.[210][211] Women who were pregnant or breastfeeding or who did not have an effective contraceptive method were not eligible. The trial results are favorable, but inconclusive.[211]
  • Fenofibrate and bezafibrate have been suggested for treatment of life-threatening symptoms of COVID-19.[39][212] Fenofibrate also lowered severe progressive inflammation markers in hospitalized COVID-19 patients within 48 hours of treatment in an Israeli study.[213] It showed extremely promising results by interfering with how coronavirus reproduce.[214]
  • nanoFenretinide is nanoparticle sized fenretinide and repurposed oncology drug approved to enter the clinic for a lymphoma indication.[215] It was identified as a candidate antiviral in an in vitro drug screening assay done in South Korea.[108] Fenretinide's clinical safety profile also makes it an ideal candidate in combination regimens.[citation needed]
  • Histamine H2 receptor antagonists are under investigation.
  • Ibuprofen: A trial called "Liberate" has been started in the United Kingdom to determine the effectiveness of ibuprofen in reducing the severity and progression of lung injury which results in breathing difficulties for COVID-19 patients. Subjects are to receive three doses of a special formulation of the drug – lipid ibuprofen – in addition to usual care.[217][218]
  • Influenza vaccine: A clinical cohort study in Brazil found that COVID-19 patients who received a recent influenza vaccine needed less intensive care support, less invasive respiratory support, and were less likely to die.[219]
  • Sildenafil, more commonly known by the brand name Viagra, is proposed as a treatment for COVID-19,[39] and a Phase III clinical trial is underway.[220]

Found ineffective

The use of aspirin, hydroxychloroquine,[221] azithromycin,[222] and colchicine were found ineffective against COVID-19.[223] The use of the combination of lopinavir and ritonavir together was found ineffective against COVID-19.[134][223] The use of the combination of etesevimab and bamlanivimab together was found ineffective against the Omicron variant.[223]

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Further reading

  • Banday AH, Shameem SA, Ajaz SJ (2020). "Potential Repurposed Therapeutics and New Vaccines against COVID-19 and Their Clinical Status". SLAS Discov. 25 (10): 1097–107. doi:10.1177/2472555220945281. PMC 8960149. PMID 32692266. S2CID 220671335.
  • Cantini F, Goletti D, Petrone L, Najafi Fard S, Niccoli L, Foti R (October 2020). "Immune Therapy, or Antiviral Therapy, or Both for COVID-19: A Systematic Review". Drugs. 80 (18): 1929–46. doi:10.1007/s40265-020-01421-w. PMC 7568461. PMID 33068263.
  • Gordon DE, Jang GM, Bouhaddou M, Xu J, Obernier K, White KM, et al. (July 2020). "A SARS-CoV-2 protein interaction map reveals targets for drug repurposing". Nature. 583 (7816): 459–68. Bibcode:2020Natur.583..459G. doi:10.1038/s41586-020-2286-9. PMC 7431030. PMID 32353859.
  • Guy RK, DiPaola RS, Romanelli F, Dutch RE (May 2020). "Rapid repurposing of drugs for COVID-19". Science. 368 (6493): 829–30. Bibcode:2020Sci...368..829G. doi:10.1126/science.abb9332. PMID 32385101.
  • Kotecha P, Light A, Checcucci E, Amparore D, Fiori C, Porpiglia F, et al. (October 2020). "Repurposing of drugs for Covid-19: a systematic review and meta-analysis". Panminerva Med. 64 (1): 96–114. doi:10.23736/S0031-0808.20.04024-0. PMID 33073552.
  • Lamontagne F, Agoritsas T, Siemieniuk R, Rochwerg B, Bartoszko J, Askie L, et al. (2 March 2021). "A living WHO guideline on drugs to prevent covid-19". The BMJ. 372: n526. doi:10.1136/bmj.n526. PMID 33649077. S2CID 232081225.
  • McCreary EK, Pogue JM (April 2020). "Coronavirus Disease 2019 Treatment: A Review of Early and Emerging Options". Open Forum Infectious Diseases. 7 (4): ofaa105. doi:10.1093/ofid/ofaa105. PMC 7144823. PMID 32284951.
  • Siemieniuk RA, Bartoszko JJ, Ge L, Zeraatkar D, Izcovich A, Kum E, et al. (July 2020). "Drug treatments for covid-19: living systematic review and network meta-analysis". BMJ. 370: m2980. doi:10.1136/bmj.m2980. PMC 7390912. PMID 32732190.
  • Tummino TA, Rezelj VV, Fischer B, Fischer A, O'Meara MJ, Monel B, et al. (July 2021). "Drug-induced phospholipidosis confounds drug repurposing for SARS-CoV-2". Science. 373 (6554): 541–7. Bibcode:2021Sci...373..541T. doi:10.1126/science.abi4708. PMC 8501941. PMID 34326236.

External links

  • "COVID-19 therapeutics tracker". Regulatory Affairs Professionals Society.
  • "STAT's Covid-19 Drugs and Vaccines Tracker". Stat. 27 April 2020.
  • Zimmer C, Wu KJ, Corum J, Kristoffersen M (16 July 2020). "Coronavirus Drug and Treatment Tracker". The New York Times.
  • "JHMI Clinical Recommendations for Available Pharmacologic Therapies for COVID-19" (PDF). Johns Hopkins Medicine.
  • World Health Organization (2021). Therapeutics and COVID-19: living guideline, 24 September 2021 (Report). World Health Organization (WHO). hdl:10665/345356. WHO/2019-nCoV/therapeutics/2021.3.
  • Velasquez-Manoff M (11 August 2020). "How Covid Sends Some Bodies to War With Themselves". The New York Times.
  • Zimmer C (30 April 2020). "Old Drugs May Find a New Purpose: Fighting the Coronavirus". The New York Times.
April 12, 2023
covid, drug, repurposing, research, this, article, about, drugs, that, repurposed, treating, covid, covid, vaccines, covid, vaccine, potential, therapeutic, drugs, covid, covid, drug, development, drug, repositioning, also, known, drug, repurposing, profiling,. This article is about drugs that may be repurposed for treating COVID 19 For COVID 19 vaccines see COVID 19 vaccine For potential therapeutic drugs for COVID 19 see COVID 19 drug development Drug repositioning also known as drug repurposing re profiling re tasking or therapeutic switching is the repurposing of an approved drug for the treatment of a different disease or medical condition than that for which it was originally developed 1 This is one line of scientific research which is being pursued to develop safe and effective COVID 19 treatments 2 3 4 Other research directions include the development of a COVID 19 vaccine 5 and convalescent plasma transfusion 6 Several existing antiviral medications previously developed or used as treatments for severe acute respiratory syndrome SARS Middle East respiratory syndrome MERS HIV AIDS and malaria have been researched as potential COVID 19 treatments with some moving into clinical trials 7 8 9 In a statement to the journal Nature Biotechnology in February 2020 US National Institutes of Health Viral Ecology Unit chief Vincent Munster said The general genomic layout and the general replication kinetics and the biology of the MERS SARS and SARS CoV 2 viruses are very similar so testing drugs which target relatively generic parts of these coronaviruses is a logical step 2 Contents 1 Background 2 Monoclonal antibodies 2 1 Tocilizumab 3 Anticoagulants 4 Antidepressants 4 1 Fluvoxamine 5 Antioxidants 5 1 Acetylcysteine NAC 6 Antiparasitics 6 1 Chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine 6 2 Ivermectin 7 Antivirals 7 1 Favipiravir 7 2 Lopinavir ritonavir 7 3 Remdesivir 8 Immunomodulatory treatments 8 1 Baricitinib 9 Immunosuppressants 9 1 Anakinra 10 Interferons 11 Steroids 11 1 Budesonide 11 2 Ciclesonide 11 3 Dexamethasone 11 4 Hydrocortisone 12 Vitamins 12 1 Vitamin C 12 2 Vitamin D 13 Minerals 13 1 Zinc 14 Others 15 Found ineffective 16 References 17 Further reading 18 External linksBackground EditOutbreaks of novel emerging infections such as COVID 19 pose unique challenges to discover treatments appropriate for clinical use given the small amount of time available for drug discovery 10 Since the process of developing and licensing a new drug for COVID 19 was expected to pose a particularly long delay researchers have been probing the existing compendium of approved antivirals and other drugs as a cost effective strategy in the meantime 3 10 In early 2020 hundreds of hospitals and universities began their own trials of existing safe drugs with repurposing potential against COVID 19 11 Drug repurposing usually requires three steps before taking the drug across the development pipeline recognition of the right drug systematic evaluation of the drug effect in clinical models and estimation of usefulness in phase II clinical trials 12 One approach used in repositioning is to look for drugs that act through virus related targets such as the RNA genome i e remdesivir Another approach concerns drugs acting through polypeptide packing i e lopinavir 10 The rush to publish papers about the pandemic resulted in some scandals of inaccurate scientific publications 13 Some early studies reporting the efficacy of hydroxychloroquine and remdesivir convinced drug agencies such as Food and Drug Administration FDA and European Medicines Agency to approve the off label use by issuing Emergency Use Authorizations which were later revoked as new evidence showed these drugs have no effect on the course of COVID 19 14 These false positive results can be explained in terms of the base rate fallacy and the rapid changes in clinical guidance regarding COVID 19 treatment could have been avoided if mechanistic evidence for and against repurposing candidates were carefully assessed 15 and the standard evidence amalgamation tools such as meta analysis were routinely applied 16 Monoclonal antibodies EditMonoclonal antibodies under investigation for repurposing include anti IL 6 agents tocilizumab 17 and anti IL 8 BMS 986253 18 This is in parallel to novel monoclonal antibody drugs developed specifically for COVID 19 Mavrilimumab is a human monoclonal antibody that inhibits human granulocyte macrophage colony stimulating factor receptor GM CSF R 19 20 It has been studied to see if it can improve the prognosis for patients with COVID 19 pneumonia and systemic hyperinflammation One small study indicated some beneficial effects of treatment with mavrilimumab compared with those who were not 21 In January 2021 the UK National Health Service issued guidance that the immune modulating drugs tocilizumab and sarilumab were beneficial when given promptly to people with COVID 19 admitted to intensive care following research which found a reduction in the risk of death by 24 22 Tocilizumab Edit See also Tocilizumab COVID 19 Research This section is an excerpt from Tocilizumab edit COVID 19 drug repurposing researchMonoclonal antibodyTypeWhole antibodySourceHumanized from mouse TargetIL 6 receptorClinical dataTrade namesActemra RoActemraOther namesAtlizumabAHFS Drugs comMonographMedlinePlusa611004License dataEU EMA by INN US DailyMed Tocilizumab US FDA TocilizumabPregnancycategoryAU C 23 Routes ofadministrationIntravenous subcutaneousATC codeL04AC07 WHO Legal statusLegal statusAU S4 Prescription only 23 CA only 24 US only Unapproved Emergency Use Authorization 25 26 EU Rx only 27 In general Prescription only Pharmacokinetic dataElimination half life8 14 days during steady state dependent on concentration IdentifiersCAS Number375823 41 9 NDrugBankDB06273 YChemSpidernoneUNIII031V2H011KEGGD02596 YChEMBLChEMBL1237022 NChemical and physical dataFormulaC 6428H 9976N 1720O 2018S 42Molar mass144987 06 g mol 1 N Y what is this verify Tocilizumab sold under the brand name Actemra among others is an immunosuppressive drug used for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis systemic juvenile idiopathic arthritis a severe form of arthritis in children and COVID 19 It is a humanized monoclonal antibody against the interleukin 6 receptor IL 6R Interleukin 6 IL 6 is a cytokine that plays an important role in immune response and is implicated in the pathogenesis of many diseases such as autoimmune diseases multiple myeloma and prostate cancer Tocilizumab was jointly developed by Osaka University and Chugai and was licensed in 2003 by Hoffmann La Roche 28 Tocilizumab was granted an emergency use authorization EUA for the treatment of COVID 19 in the United States in June 2021 26 29 30 It was approved for the treatment of COVID 19 in the European Union in December 2021 27 31 32 and in the United States in December 2022 33 Anticoagulants EditMedications to prevent blood clotting have been suggested for treatment and anticoagulant therapy with low molecular weight heparin appears to be associated with better outcomes in severe COVID 19 showing signs of coagulopathy elevated D dimer 34 Several anticoagulants have been tested in Italy with low molecular weight heparin being widely used to treat patients prompting the Italian Medicines Agency to publish guidelines on its use 35 36 Scientists have identified an ability of heparin to bind to the spike protein of the SARS CoV 2 virus neutralising it and proposed the drug as a possible antiviral 37 A multicenter study on 300 patients researching the use of enoxaparin sodium at prophylaxis and therapeutic dosages was announced in Italy on 14 April 38 The anticoagulant dipyridamole is proposed as a treatment for COVID 19 39 and a clinical trial is underway 40 Antidepressants EditMany antidepressants have anti inflammatory properties An observational study in Paris area hospitals found that COVID 19 patients admitted to the hospital who were already taking an antidepressant had 44 less risk of intubation or death 41 42 The potential mechanisms how fluvoxamine and fluoxetin are contributing to prevent the development of severe respiratory symptoms of COVID 19 by protecting the type 2 lung alveolar cells have been summarized in a review in March 2022 43 Fluvoxamine Edit Further information Fluvoxamine COVID 19 Research In October 2021 the TOGETHER trial a large clinical trial in Brazil reported that treating high risk outpatients with an early diagnosis of COVID 19 with 100 mg fluvoxamine twice daily for 10 days reduced by up to about 65 the risk of hospitalization The effect was reduced to about 32 with low adherence possibly due to intolerance There was also a reduction in the number of deaths by up to about 90 with high adherence The drug was studied because of its anti inflammatory effects but the mechanism of action against COVID 19 remains uncertain 44 45 46 On 16 December the NIH found that use of fluvoxamine did not impact incidence of covid related hospitalizations and considered the evidence insufficient to recommend either for or against the drug 47 On 23 December under very low certainty evidence the Ontario clinical practice guideline suggested considering the drug to treat mildly ill patients within 7 days of symptom onset 48 In May 2022 based on a review of available scientific evidence the US Food and Drug Administration FDA declined a request to issue an Emergency Use Authorization EUA for fluvoxamine to treat COVID 19 saying that the data were not sufficient to conclude that it may be effective in treating non hospitalized people with COVID 19 to prevent serious illness or hospitalization University of Minnesota professor David Boulware who filed the EUA application said that the standard that they were holding for fluvoxamine was a different standard than the other big pharma trials with Paxlovid and molnupiravir and the monoclonals 49 50 Antioxidants EditAcetylcysteine NAC Edit Acetylcysteine is being considered as a possible treatment for COVID 19 51 Antiparasitics EditThe idea of repurposing host directed drugs for antiviral therapy has experienced a renaissance 52 In some cases the research has highlighted fundamental limitations to their use for the treatment of acute RNA virus infections 53 Antiparasitics that have been investigated include chloroquine 54 hydroxychloroquine 55 mefloquine 56 57 ivermectin 58 and atovaquone 59 Chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine Edit This section is an excerpt from Chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine during the COVID 19 pandemic edit A World Health Organization infographic that states that hydroxychloroquine does not prevent illness or death from COVID 19 Chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine are anti malarial medications also used against some auto immune diseases 60 Chloroquine along with hydroxychloroquine was an early experimental treatment for COVID 19 61 Neither drug prevents SARS CoV 2 infection 62 63 64 65 66 Cleavage of the SARS CoV 2 S2 spike protein required for viral entry into cells can be accomplished by proteases TMPRSS2 located on the cell membrane or by cathepsins primarily cathepsin L in endolysosomes 67 Hydroxychloroquine inhibits the action of cathepsin L in endolysosomes but because cathepsin L cleavage is minor compared to TMPRSS2 cleavage hydroxychloroquine does little to inhibit SARS CoV 2 infection 67 Several countries initially used chloroquine or hydroxychloroquine for treatment of persons hospitalized with COVID 19 as of March 2020 though the drug was not formally approved through clinical trials 68 69 From April to June 2020 there was an emergency use authorization for their use in the United States 70 and was used off label for potential treatment of the disease 71 On 24 April 2020 citing the risk of serious heart rhythm problems the FDA posted a caution against using the drug for COVID 19 outside of the hospital setting or a clinical trial 72 Their use was withdrawn as a possible treatment for COVID 19 infection when it proved to have no benefit for hospitalized patients with severe COVID 19 illness in the international Solidarity trial and UK RECOVERY Trial 73 74 On 15 June 2020 the FDA revoked its emergency use authorization stating that it was no longer reasonable to believe that the drug was effective against COVID 19 or that its benefits outweighed known and potential risks 75 76 77 In fall of 2020 the National Institutes of Health issued treatment guidelines recommending against the use of hydroxychloroquine for COVID 19 except as part of a clinical trial 60 In 2021 hydroxychloroquine was part of the recommended treatment for mild cases in India 78 In 2020 the speculative use of hydroxychloroquine for COVID 19 threatened its availability for people with established indications malaria and auto immune diseases 64 Ivermectin Edit This section is an excerpt from Ivermectin during the COVID 19 pandemic edit Ball and stick model of Ivermectin Ivermectin is an antiparasitic drug that is well established for use in animals and people 79 The WHO Infectious Diseases Society of America and European Medicines Agency advise against using the drug in an attempt to treat or prevent COVID 19 79 Early in the COVID 19 pandemic laboratory research suggested ivermectin might have a role in preventing or treating COVID 19 80 Online misinformation campaigns and advocacy boosted the drug s profile among the public While scientists and physicians largely remained skeptical some nations adopted ivermectin as part of their pandemic control efforts Some people desperate to use ivermectin without a prescription took veterinary preparations which led to shortages of supplies of ivermectin for animal treatment The FDA responded to this situation by saying You are not a horse in a Tweet to draw attention to the issue 81 Subsequent research failed to confirm the utility of ivermectin for COVID 19 82 83 and in 2021 it emerged that many of the studies demonstrating benefit were faulty misleading or fraudulent 84 85 Nevertheless misinformation about ivermectin continued to be propagated on social media and the drug remained a cause celebre for anti vaccinationists and conspiracy theorists 86 Antivirals EditResearch is focused on repurposing approved antiviral drugs that have been previously developed against other viruses such as MERS CoV SARS CoV and West Nile virus 87 These include favipiravir 87 remdesivir 88 ribavirin 89 triazavirin 90 and umifenovir 91 The combination of artesunate pyronaridine was found to have an inhibitory effect on SARS CoV 2 in vitro tests using Hela cells Artesunate pyronaridine showed a virus titer inhibition rate of 99 or more after 24 hours while cytotoxicity was also reduced 92 A preprint published in July 2020 reported that pyronaridine and artesunate exhibit antiviral activity against SARS CoV 2 and influenza viruses using human lung epithelial Calu 3 cells 93 It is in phase II clinical trial in South Korea 94 95 96 and in South Africa 97 Molnupiravir is a drug developed to treat influenza It is in Phase III trials as a treatment for COVID 19 98 99 100 101 102 In December 2020 scientists reported that the antiviral drug molnupiravir developed for the treatment of influenza can completely suppress SARS CoV 2 transmission within 24 hours in ferrets whose COVID 19 transmission they find to closely resemble SARS CoV 2 spread in human young adult populations 103 104 A clinical trial which has not as of 1 October 2021 been peer reviewed suggests molnupiravir taken orally can reduce the risk of hospitalization and prevent death in patients diagnosed with COVID 19 The drug needs to be given early to be effective 105 106 As of 1 January 2022 Molnupiravir has been approved for emergency use against COVID 19 in the United Kingdom India and the United States 107 Niclosamide was identified as a candidate antiviral in an in vitro drug screening assay done in South Korea 108 Protease inhibitors which specifically target the protease 3CLpro are being researched and developed in the laboratory such as CLpro 1 GC376 and Rupintrivir 109 110 111 Coronaviruses species possess an intrinsic resistance to ribavirin 112 Sofosbuvir daclatasvir is a drug combination developed to treat hepatitis C In October 2020 a meta analysis found a significantly lower risk of all cause mortality with the drug combination when given to hospitalized patients 113 Favipiravir Edit Favipiravir is an antiviral drug approved for the treatment of influenza in Japan 114 87 There is limited evidence suggesting that compared to other antiviral drugs favipiravir might improve outcomes for people with COVID 19 but more rigorous studies are needed before any conclusions can be drawn 115 Chinese clinical trials in Wuhan and Shenzhen claimed to show that favipiravir was clearly effective 116 Of 35 patients in Shenzhen tested negative in a median of 4 days while the length of illness was 11 days in the 45 patients who did not receive it 117 In a study conducted in Wuhan on 240 patients with pneumonia half were given favipiravir and half received umifenovir The researchers found that patients recovered from coughs and fevers faster when treated with favipiravir but that there was no change in how many patients in each group progressed to more advanced stages of illness that required treatment with a ventilator 118 On 22 March 2020 Italy approved the drug for experimental use against COVID 19 and began conducting trials in the three regions most affected by the disease 119 The Italian Pharmaceutical Agency reminded the public that the existing evidence in support of the drug is scant and preliminary 120 On 30 May 2020 the Russian Health Ministry approved a generic version of favipiravir named Avifavir which proved highly effective in the first phase of clinical trials 121 122 123 In June 2020 India approved the use of a generic version of favipravir called FabiFlu developed by Glenmark Pharmaceuticals in the treatment of mild to moderate cases of COVID 19 124 On 26 May 2021 a systematic review found a 24 greater chance of clinical improvement when administered in the first seven days of hospitalization but no statistically significant reduction in mortality for any of the groups including hospitalized patients and those with mild or moderate symptoms 125 126 Lopinavir ritonavir Edit Genome of SARS CoV 2 the grey wedges show where 3CLpro the main coronavirus protease cleaves the polyprotein In March 2020 the main protease 3CLpro of the SARS CoV 2 virus was identified as a target for post infection drugs The enzyme is essential for processing the replication related polyprotein To find the enzyme scientists used the genome published by Chinese researchers in January 2020 to isolate the main protease 127 Protease inhibitors approved for treating human immunodeficiency viruses HIV lopinavir and ritonavir have preliminary evidence of activity against the coronaviruses SARS and MERS 7 128 As a potential combination therapy they are used together in two Phase III arms of the 2020 global Solidarity project on COVID 19 128 129 A preliminary study in China of combined lopinavir and ritonavir found no effect in people hospitalized for COVID 19 130 One study of lopinavir ritonavir Kaletra a combination of the antivirals lopinavir and ritonavir concluded that no benefit was observed 130 131 The drugs were designed to inhibit HIV from replicating by binding to the protease A team of researchers at the University of Colorado are trying to modify the drugs to find a compound that will bind with the protease of SARS CoV 2 132 There are criticisms within the scientific community about directing resources to repurposing drugs specifically developed for HIV AIDS because such drugs are unlikely to be effective against a virus lacking the specific HIV 1 protease they target 2 The WHO included lopinavir ritonavir in the international Solidarity trial 133 On 29 June the chief investigators of the UK RECOVERY Trial reported that there was no clinical benefit from use of lopinavir ritonavir in 1 596 people hospitalized with severe COVID 19 infection over 28 days of treatment 134 135 A study published in October 2020 screening those drugs approved by the US Food and Drug Administration FDA which target SARS CoV 2 spike S protein proposed that the current unbalanced combination formula of lopinavir might in fact interfere with the ritonavir s blocking activity on the receptor binding domain human angiotensin converting enzyme 2 RBD hACE2 interaction thus effectively limiting its therapeutic benefit in COVID 19 cases 136 In 2022 the PANORAMIC trial is testing the effectiveness of nirmatrelvir combined with ritonavir and molnupiravir in preventing hospitalization and helping faster recovery for people aged over 50 and those at higher risk due to underlying health conditions 137 138 As of March 2022 has over 16 000 people enrolled as participants making it the largest study into COVID 19 antivirals 139 Remdesivir Edit See also Remdesivir COVID 19 This section is an excerpt from Remdesivir edit Remdesivir sold under the brand name Veklury 140 141 is a broad spectrum antiviral medication developed by the biopharmaceutical company Gilead Sciences 142 It is administered via injection into a vein 143 144 During the COVID 19 pandemic remdesivir was approved or authorized for emergency use to treat COVID 19 in numerous countries 145 Remdesivir was originally developed to treat hepatitis C 146 and was subsequently investigated for Ebola virus disease and Marburg virus infections 147 before being studied as a post infection treatment for COVID 19 148 Remdesivir is a prodrug that is intended to allow intracellular delivery of GS 441524 monophosphate and subsequent biotransformation into GS 441524 triphosphate a ribonucleotide analogue inhibitor of viral RNA polymerase 149 The most common side effect in healthy volunteers is raised blood levels of liver enzymes 140 The most common side effect in people with COVID 19 is nausea 140 Side effects may include liver inflammation and an infusion related reaction with nausea low blood pressure and sweating 150 The U S Food and Drug Administration FDA considers it to be a first in class medication 151 Immunomodulatory treatments EditBaricitinib Edit See also Baricitinib COVID 19 research In May 2022 the US Food and Drug Administration FDA approved barictinib for the treatment of COVID 19 in hospitalized adults requiring supplemental oxygen non invasive or invasive mechanical ventilation or extracorporeal membrane oxygenation ECMO 152 153 Barictinib is the first immunomodulatory treatment for COVID 19 to receive FDA approval 153 In the United States barictinib is authorized under an emergency use authorization EUA for the treatment of COVID 19 in hospitalized people aged 2 to less than 18 years of age who require supplemental oxygen non invasive or invasive mechanical ventilation or extracorporeal membrane oxygenation 152 Immunosuppressants EditAnakinra Edit Further information Anakinra COVID 19 research In December 2021 anakinra Kineret was authorized in the European Union for the treatment of COVID 19 in adults with pneumonia requiring supplemental oxygen low or high flow oxygen and who are at risk of developing severe respiratory failure as determined by blood levels of a protein called suPAR soluble urokinase plasminogen activator receptor of at least 6 ng per ml 154 155 Interferons EditDrugs with immune modulating effects that may prove useful in COVID 19 treatment include type I Interferons such as Interferon b peginterferon alpha 2a and 2b 156 157 IFN b 1b have been shown in an open label randomised controlled trial in combination with lopinavir ritonavir and ribavirin to significantly reduce viral load alleviate symptoms and reduce cytokine responses when compared to lopinavir ritonavir alone lt Lancet 2020 395 10238 1695 1704 gt IFN b will be included in the international Solidarity Trial in combination with the HIV drugs Lopinavir and Ritonavir 156 as well as the REMAP CAP 157 Finnish biotech firm Faron Pharmaceuticals continues to develop INF beta for ARDS and is involved in worldwide initiatives which against COVID 19 including the Solidarity trial 158 UK biotech firm Synairgen started conducting trials on IFN b a drug that was originally developed to treat COPD 133 Steroids EditSystemic corticosteroids have a small but statistically significant beneficial effect in reducing 30 day all cause mortality in individuals hospitalized with COVID 19 159 Budesonide Edit Administration of this inhaled steroid early in the course of COVID 19 infection has been found to reduce the likelihood of needing urgent medical care and reduced the time to recovery 160 161 More studies are on going 161 In April 2021 budesonide was approved by authorities in the UK for off label use to treat COVID 19 on a case by case basis 162 Ciclesonide Edit Ciclesonide an inhaled corticosteroid for asthma was identified as a candidate antiviral in an in vitro drug screening assay done in South Korea 108 It has been used for treatment of pre symptomatic COVID 19 patients and is under going clinical trials 163 Dexamethasone Edit See also Dexamethasone COVID 19 and RECOVERY Trial Dexamethasone A vial of dexamethasone for injection Dexamethasone is a corticosteroid medication in use for multiple conditions such as rheumatic problems skin diseases asthma and chronic obstructive lung disease among others 164 A multi center randomized controlled trial of dexamethasone in treating acute respiratory distress syndrome ARDS published in February 2020 showed reduced need for mechanical ventilation and mortality 165 Dexamethasone is only helpful in people requiring supplemental oxygen Following an analysis of seven randomized trials 166 the WHO recommends the use of systemic corticosteroids in guidelines for treatment of people with severe or critical illness and that they not be used in people that do not meet the criteria for severe illness 167 On 16 June the Oxford University RECOVERY Trial issued a press release announcing preliminary results that the drug could reduce deaths by about a third in participants on ventilators and by about a fifth in participants on oxygen it did not benefit patients who did not require respiratory support The researchers estimated that treating 8 patients on ventilators with dexamethasone saved one life and treating 25 patients on oxygen saved one life 168 Several experts called for the full dataset to be published quickly to allow wider analysis of the results 169 170 A preprint was published on 22 June 171 and the peer reviewed article appeared on 17 July 172 Based on those preliminary results dexamethasone treatment has been recommended by the US National Institutes of Health NIH for patients with COVID 19 who are mechanically ventilated or who require supplemental oxygen but are not mechanically ventilated The NIH recommends against using dexamethasone in patients with COVID 19 who do not require supplemental oxygen 173 In July 2020 the World Health Organization WHO stated they are in the process of updating treatment guidelines to include dexamethasone or other steroids 174 The Infectious Diseases Society of America IDSA guideline panel suggests the use of glucocorticoids for patients with severe COVID 19 where severe is defined as patients with oxygen saturation SpO2 94 on room air and those who require supplemental oxygen mechanical ventilation or extracorporeal membrane oxygenation ECMO 175 The IDSA recommends against the use of glucocorticoids for those with COVID 19 without hypoxemia requiring supplemental oxygen 175 In July 2020 the European Medicines Agency EMA started reviewing results from the RECOVERY study arm that involved the use of dexamethasone in the treatment of patients with COVID 19 admitted to the hospital to provide an opinion on the results It focused particularly on the potential use of the drug for the treatment of adults with COVID 19 176 In September 2020 the WHO released updated guidance on using corticosteroids for COVID 19 177 178 The WHO recommends systemic corticosteroids rather than no systemic corticosteroids for the treatment of people with severe and critical COVID 19 strong recommendation based on moderate certainty evidence 177 The WHO suggests not to use corticosteroids in the treatment of people with non severe COVID 19 conditional recommendation based on low certainty evidence 177 In September 2020 the European Medicines Agency EMA endorsed the use of dexamethasone in adults and adolescents from twelve years of age and weighing at least 40 kilograms 88 lb who require supplemental oxygen therapy 179 Dexamethasone can be taken by mouth or given as an injection or infusion drip into a vein 179 Hydrocortisone Edit In September 2020 a meta analysis published by the WHO Rapid Evidence Appraisal for COVID 19 Therapies REACT Working Group found hydrocortisone to be effective in reducing mortality rate of critically ill COVID 19 patients when compared to other usual care or a placebo 180 The use of corticosteroids can cause a severe and deadly hyperinfection syndrome for people with strongyloidiasis which may be an underlying condition in populations exposed to the parasite Strongyloides stercoralis This risk can be mitigated by the presumptive use of ivermectin before steroid treatment 181 Vitamins EditVitamin C Edit Further information Vitamin C COVID 19 See also COVID 19 misinformation Vitamin C Supplementation with micronutrients including vitamin C has been suggested as part of the supportive management of COVID 19 as levels of vitamin C in serum and leukocytes are depleted in the acute stage of infection owing to increased metabolic demands 182 The use of high dose intravenous vitamin C has been studied 182 According to ClinicalTrials gov there are 50 completed or ongoing clinical trials including vitamin C which have completed or are recruiting people hospitalized and severely ill with COVID 19 183 A meta analysis of six randomized clinical trials involving vitamin C treatments using doses ranging from 50 mg kg day to 24 g day given orally or intravenously reported outcomes on mortality hospitalization duration intensive care duration and need for ventilation 184 This concluded that administration of vitamin C did not have any effect on major health outcomes in COVID infected patients when compared to placebo or standard therapy Sub group analyses based on dosage route of administration and disease severity failed to show any observable benefits of vitamin C 184 The National Institutes of Health NIH COVID 19 Treatment Guidelines states there is insufficient evidence for the COVID 19 Treatment Guidelines Panel the Panel to recommend either for or against the use of vitamin C for the treatment of COVID 19 in either critically ill or non critically ill patients 185 Vitamin D Edit Further information Vitamin D COVID 19 See also COVID 19 misinformation Vitamin D Oral vitamin D tablets During the COVID 19 pandemic there has been interest in vitamin D status and supplements given the significant overlap in the risk factors for severe COVID 19 and vitamin D deficiency 186 These include obesity older age and Black or Asian ethnic origin and it is notable that vitamin D deficiency is particularly common within these groups 186 The National Institutes of Health NIH COVID 19 Treatment Guidelines states there is insufficient evidence to recommend either for or against the use of vitamin D for the prevention or treatment of COVID 19 187 The general recommendation to consider taking vitamin D supplements particularly given the levels of vitamin D deficiency in Western populations has been repeated 188 As of February 2021 update the English National Institute for Health and Care Excellence NICE continued to recommend small doses of supplementary vitamin D for people with little exposure to sunshine but recommended that practitioners should not offer a vitamin D supplement solely to prevent or treat COVID 19 except as part of a clinical trial 188 Multiple studies have reported links between pre existing vitamin D deficiency and the severity of the disease Several systematic reviews and meta analyses of these show that vitamin D deficiency may be associated with a higher probability of becoming infected with COVID 19 and have clearly demonstrated there are significant associations between deficiency and a greater severity of the disease including relative increases in hospitalization and mortality rates of about 80 189 190 191 The quality of some of the studies included and whether this demonstrates a causal relationship has been questioned 192 Many clinical trials are underway or have been completed assessing the use of oral vitamin D and its metabolites such as calcifediol for prevention or treatment of COVID 19 infection especially in people with vitamin D deficiency 193 194 186 195 The effects of oral vitamin D supplementation on the need for intensive care unit ICU admission and mortality in hospitalized COVID 19 patients has been the subject of a meta analysis 196 A much lower ICU admission rate was found in patients who received vitamin D supplementation which was only 36 of that seen in patients without supplementation p lt 0 0001 196 No significant effects on mortality were found in this meta analysis 196 The certainty of these analyses is limited by the heterogenicity in the studies which include both vitamin D3 cholecalciferol and calcifediol but these findings indicate a potential role in improving COVID 19 severity with more robust data being required to substantiate any effects on mortality 196 197 Calcifediol which is 25 hydroxyvitamin D is more quickly activated 198 and has been used in several trials 194 Review of the published results suggests that calcifediol supplementation may have a protective effect on the risk of ICU admissions in COVID 19 patients 192 Minerals EditZinc Edit The National Institutes of Health NIH COVID 19 Treatment Guidelines states there is insufficient evidence to recommend either for or against the use of zinc for the treatment of COVID 19 and that the Panel recommends against using zinc supplementation above the recommended dietary allowance for the prevention of COVID 19 except in a clinical trial BIII 199 Others EditAntibiotics Some antibiotics that have been identified as potentially repurposable as COVID 19 treatments 200 201 including Broad spectrum antibiotics In 2021 the importance of drug repurposing for COVID 19 led to the establishment of broad spectrum antibiotics dubious discuss 202 Broad spectrum therapeutics are effective against multiple types of pathogens 203 Such drugs have been suggested as potential emergency treatments for future pandemics 204 205 Teicoplanin 206 Oritavancin 207 Dalbavancin 207 Monensin 207 Azithromycin 208 Azithromycin 208 Bucillamine On 31 July 2020 the U S Food and Drug Administration FDA authorized Revive Therapeutics to proceed with a randomized double blind placebo controlled confirmatory Phase III clinical trial protocol to evaluate the safety and efficacy of the antirheumatic agent bucillamine in patients with mild moderate COVID 19 209 Colchicine Researchers from the Montreal Heart Institute in Canada are studying the role of colchicine in reducing inflammation and pulmonary complications in patients with mild symptoms of COVID 19 210 The study named COLCORONA was recruiting 6000 adults 40 and older who were diagnosed with COVID 19 and experienced mild symptoms not requiring hospitalization 210 211 Women who were pregnant or breastfeeding or who did not have an effective contraceptive method were not eligible The trial results are favorable but inconclusive 211 Fenofibrate and bezafibrate have been suggested for treatment of life threatening symptoms of COVID 19 39 212 Fenofibrate also lowered severe progressive inflammation markers in hospitalized COVID 19 patients within 48 hours of treatment in an Israeli study 213 It showed extremely promising results by interfering with how coronavirus reproduce 214 nanoFenretinide is nanoparticle sized fenretinide and repurposed oncology drug approved to enter the clinic for a lymphoma indication 215 It was identified as a candidate antiviral in an in vitro drug screening assay done in South Korea 108 Fenretinide s clinical safety profile also makes it an ideal candidate in combination regimens citation needed Histamine H2 receptor antagonists are under investigation Cimetidine has been suggested as a treatment for COVID 19 39 Famotidine has been suggested as a treatment for COVID 19 39 and a clinical study is underway 216 Ibuprofen A trial called Liberate has been started in the United Kingdom to determine the effectiveness of ibuprofen in reducing the severity and progression of lung injury which results in breathing difficulties for COVID 19 patients Subjects are to receive three doses of a special formulation of the drug lipid ibuprofen in addition to usual care 217 218 Influenza vaccine A clinical cohort study in Brazil found that COVID 19 patients who received a recent influenza vaccine needed less intensive care 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1126 science adb1803 Further reading EditBanday AH Shameem SA Ajaz SJ 2020 Potential Repurposed Therapeutics and New Vaccines against COVID 19 and Their Clinical Status SLAS Discov 25 10 1097 107 doi 10 1177 2472555220945281 PMC 8960149 PMID 32692266 S2CID 220671335 Cantini F Goletti D Petrone L Najafi Fard S Niccoli L Foti R October 2020 Immune Therapy or Antiviral Therapy or Both for COVID 19 A Systematic Review Drugs 80 18 1929 46 doi 10 1007 s40265 020 01421 w PMC 7568461 PMID 33068263 Gordon DE Jang GM Bouhaddou M Xu J Obernier K White KM et al July 2020 A SARS CoV 2 protein interaction map reveals targets for drug repurposing Nature 583 7816 459 68 Bibcode 2020Natur 583 459G doi 10 1038 s41586 020 2286 9 PMC 7431030 PMID 32353859 Guy RK DiPaola RS Romanelli F Dutch RE May 2020 Rapid repurposing of drugs for COVID 19 Science 368 6493 829 30 Bibcode 2020Sci 368 829G doi 10 1126 science abb9332 PMID 32385101 Kotecha P Light A Checcucci E Amparore D Fiori C Porpiglia F et al October 2020 Repurposing of drugs for Covid 19 a systematic review and meta analysis Panminerva Med 64 1 96 114 doi 10 23736 S0031 0808 20 04024 0 PMID 33073552 Lamontagne F Agoritsas T Siemieniuk R Rochwerg B Bartoszko J Askie L et al 2 March 2021 A living WHO guideline on drugs to prevent covid 19 The BMJ 372 n526 doi 10 1136 bmj n526 PMID 33649077 S2CID 232081225 McCreary EK Pogue JM April 2020 Coronavirus Disease 2019 Treatment A Review of Early and Emerging Options Open Forum Infectious Diseases 7 4 ofaa105 doi 10 1093 ofid ofaa105 PMC 7144823 PMID 32284951 Siemieniuk RA Bartoszko JJ Ge L Zeraatkar D Izcovich A Kum E et al July 2020 Drug treatments for covid 19 living systematic review and network meta analysis BMJ 370 m2980 doi 10 1136 bmj m2980 PMC 7390912 PMID 32732190 Tummino TA Rezelj VV Fischer B Fischer A O Meara MJ Monel B et al July 2021 Drug induced phospholipidosis confounds drug repurposing for SARS CoV 2 Science 373 6554 541 7 Bibcode 2021Sci 373 541T doi 10 1126 science abi4708 PMC 8501941 PMID 34326236 External links Edit COVID 19 therapeutics tracker Regulatory Affairs Professionals Society STAT s Covid 19 Drugs and Vaccines Tracker Stat 27 April 2020 Zimmer C Wu KJ Corum J Kristoffersen M 16 July 2020 Coronavirus Drug and Treatment Tracker The New York Times JHMI Clinical Recommendations for Available Pharmacologic Therapies for COVID 19 PDF Johns Hopkins Medicine World Health Organization 2021 Therapeutics and COVID 19 living guideline 24 September 2021 Report World Health Organization WHO hdl 10665 345356 WHO 2019 nCoV therapeutics 2021 3 Velasquez Manoff M 11 August 2020 How Covid Sends Some Bodies to War With Themselves The New York Times Zimmer C 30 April 2020 Old Drugs May Find a New Purpose Fighting the Coronavirus The New York Times Portals COVID 19 img, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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