fbpx
Wikipedia

Benin Altar Tusk

January 01, 1970

Benin Altar Tusks (Edo: Aken’ni Elao) are ivory artefacts from the Benin Kingdom in present-day Benin City, Edo State, Nigeria. These tusks date back to the 16th century and measure approximately 61 inches (1,500 mm) in height, 5.2 inches (130 mm) in width, 4.7 inches (120 mm) in depth, and weighing 25 kilograms (55 lb) according to a sample at the British Museum. The tusks feature carved royal figures in traditional regalia, depicting scenes of power, ritual, and at times, conflict.

Benin Altar Tusks
Edo: Aken’ni Elao
Sample of a Benin Altar Tusk at Cleveland Museum of Art.
An altar decorated with Benin Altar Tusks, brass-crafted pedestals resembling a crowned head and other items.
MaterialIvory
Height156 centimetres (61 in)
Width13.3 centimetres (5.2 in)
Depth12 centimetres (4.7 in)
Weight25 kilograms (55 lb)
WritingCarved with registers of relief figures, animals and motifs.
CreatedCirca 16th century
DiscoveredBenin City, Edo State, Nigeria
Present location
Identification1979,01.4554
CultureEdo, Benin Kingdom
Measurements are from the British Museum version; other versions have slightly different dimensions.

In the 16th century, the Benin Kingdom engaged in trade, including with the Dutch Republic. The lower portion of the tusks displays carved depictions of Portuguese figures from that era, later representing European traders. The tusks were maintained over the centuries, including washing, bleaching, and the application of "orhue", a white clay substance. In the late 19th century, the British punitive expedition resulted in the looting of artefacts, including several Benin Altar Tusks. These items were taken to Britain and are now housed in various museums and private collections in Europe. The tusks were created by the Igbesanmwan, a royal ivory carving guild in Benin City. Today, the Benin Altar Tusks are located in museums globally. Their presence has led to debates and calls for repatriation by Nigerian authorities and cultural organisations.

History edit

The exact creation date of the Benin Altar Tusks is not known. They are associated with the 16th century Benin Kingdom.[1][2] The tusks feature carved royal figures and scenes depicting power, ritual, and conflict.[3] The lower portion of the tusk displays carved depictions of royal leopard faces, 16th-century Portuguese figures, and other motifs.[4][5] The Kingdom of Benin engaged in trade with European nations, most notably the Portuguese Empire, which established contact with the region in 1485. This interaction facilitated the exchange of a variety of goods, including ivory.[6] The oba controlled the supply and distribution of ivory, and commissioned the Igbesanmwan, a royal ivory carving guild, to create the tusks.[7] The tusks were placed on the ancestral altars of the oba.[8]

The tusks underwent maintenance and modification over the centuries. They were washed, bleached, and coated with "orhue", a white clay substance.[9] They were sometimes recarved or repaired, adding or removing figures and motifs according to the historical and political context.[10]

In 1897, the British punitive expedition entered Benin City, taking numerous artefacts, including several Benin Altar Tusks.[11][12] The British soldiers and officers involved in the expedition sold the items to museums and private collectors in Europe.[13][14] Several Benin artefacts, including altar tusks, were damaged during World War II in Europe.[15]

The Benin Altar Tusks are now housed in museums and private collections globally, including the British Museum in London, Cleveland Museum of Art in Cleveland, Ohio, Art Institute of Chicago in Chicago, USA, Fowler Museum at UCLA in California, Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City, National Museum of African Art in Washington, D.C., and National Museums Liverpool in Liverpool, England.[16] Their presence has led to debates and calls for repatriation by Nigerian authorities and cultural organisations.[17]

Description edit

 
A carved motif of a notable palace figure, probably a palace warrior.

The tusks are ivory sculptures adorned with intricate carvings that depict aspects of the Benin Kingdom's history, mythology, and rituals.[18] Measuring about 61 inches (1,500 mm) in height, 5.2 inches (130 mm) in width, 4.7 inches (120 mm) in depth and weighing 25 kilograms (55 lb) according to a sample from the British Museum, it is a visually imposing piece of art.[12][19]

The carvings on the tusk chronicle the history of the Benin Kingdom, featuring depictions of monarchs, warriors, cultural ceremonies, and daily life.[1][20] At the core of the tusk's iconography is the portrayal of the oba (king) and his retinue, symbolising the monarchy's authority and its connection to the spiritual realm.[21] The oba is often depicted with distinctive attributes, such as mudfish-like legs, conveying symbolic meanings.[4][5]

Symbolism edit

The Benin Altar Tusk, along with other carved elephant tusks, held cultural and religious significance in the Benin Kingdom, actively participating in various rituals and ceremonies dedicated to deities and ancestral spirits.[1][12]

They symbolised the connection between the ruler and the spiritual realm, emphasising the preservation of Benin traditions.[9] Each tusk was supported by a brass-crafted pedestal resembling a crowned head, serving as a central element of shrines, which featured ritual objects and played a central role in ceremonies that bridged the material realm with the realm of spirits and ancestors in Benin's religious and ritual practices.[18]

Use in ancestral altars edit

Main article: Benin ancestral altars

Like many other altar tusks from the Benin Kingdom, this tusk is adorned with intricate relief figures, animals, and motifs, often featuring depictions of the Oba and his attendants. These elements conveyed symbolic messages, primarily intended for ancestral spirits.[22][23] Based on motif-based analysis, this tusk is tentatively dated to the reign of Oba Adolo, circa 1850, suggesting its use on an altar dedicated to a former oba.[24][25]

Reading and interpreting the Tusk edit

 
View of a damaged (burnt) Benin Altar Tusk in Indianapolis Museum of Art

The altar and its contents are highly revered, leading to limited access for most palace visitors. Aside from the Igbesanmwan carvers and custodians entrusted with safeguarding the Oba's treasures, the Ihogbe priests, who oversee the royal ancestors, possess the specialised knowledge needed to interpret certain carved images on the tusks.[9] Specific details of the iconography remain confidential, but the narratives conveyed through these images are widely recognised, contributing significantly to ethical discussions within Benin.[9][26]

The motifs carved into the altar tusks serve as mnemonic devices, carrying significance that can be elaborated upon to varying depths, depending on the observer's understanding.[9] These motifs transcend ivory and manifest in various other crafts, such as brasswork, ironwork, embroidered fabrics, applique, and leatherwork.[5][9][27]

The motifs on the altar tusks derive inspiration from the history, folklore, and religious beliefs of the Benin Kingdom. Traditionally, each generation of Igbesanmwan artists inherits specific motifs from their predecessors, who were members of the Igbesanmwan guild.[10] Carvers also have the creative latitude to craft new figures and symbols to honour the current reigning Oba, who commissions the work.[10] Since each ruler is associated with a particular deified predecessor, it is customary to incorporate images related to this former monarch. Additionally, specific motifs may be requested by the Oba himself for inclusion on the tusk.[10]

Interpreting a Benin altar tusk is an enduring tradition in the Kingdom of Benin.[10] Contrary to Western reading conventions, where one begins from the top and progresses downward and from left to right, in Benin tradition, the customary method of "reading" a Benin altar tusk involves commencing at the base and moving upward to grasp its intended significance.[10]

Provenance edit

The Benin Altar Tusk was commissioned by Ọba Osemwende, who reigned from 1816 to 1848, and carved by the Igbesanmwan, a royal ivory carving guild.[28] As per Edo tradition, it is mandatory for each newly enthroned Oba to erect an altar within the initial three years of their reign. This altar is dedicated to the deified predecessor of the Oba.[18]

In 1897, the tusk was looted by the British Empire during the Siege of Benin, along with several other Benin Altar Tusks and artefacts.[28] It was sold at Mess. Foster's Auction in July 1931, as part of a collection formerly owned by a member of the Benin expedition, and acquired by Sir Henry Wellcome.[28] In 1965, it was gifted by the Wellcome Trust to the Fowler Museum (then known as the Museum and Laboratories of Ethnic Arts and Technology).[28]

Another Benin Altar Tusk, which was also looted in 1897, was owned by Katherine White Reswick (1929–1980), who resided in Gates Mills, Ohio, US, from at least 1961 to 1968.[29][30] She donated it to the Cleveland Museum of Art in 1968, where it remains part of the collection.[29]

See also edit

References edit

  1. ^ a b c Bankes 1978, pp. 3–8.
  2. ^ Blackmun 1992, p. 193.
  3. ^ Walker 2010, p. 68.
  4. ^ a b Blackmun 1997, p. 156.
  5. ^ Franz, Alyssa (16 June 2009). "Kingdom of Benin •". Welcome to Blackpast •. Retrieved 25 December 2023.
  6. ^ "Tusk for memorial altar to Oba Osemwende". mobile.dmwc.yourcultureconnect.com. 14 December 2023. Retrieved 25 December 2023.
  7. ^ "The Royal Altars". The Art Institute of Chicago. Retrieved 25 December 2023.
  8. ^ a b c d e f Blackmun 1997, p. 152.
  9. ^ a b c d e f Blackmun 1997, p. 153.
  10. ^ "This Art Was Looted 123 Years Ago. Will It Ever Be Returned?". The New York Times. 23 January 2020. from the original on 17 September 2023. Retrieved 21 September 2023.
  11. ^ a b c College Art Association of America 1988, p. 130.
  12. ^ Ezra 1992, p. 25.
  13. ^ Nevadomsky, Půtová & Soukup 2014, p. 75.
  14. ^ Nevadomsky, Půtová & Soukup 2014, p. 84.
  15. ^ Lundén 2016, p. i.
  16. ^ Gbadamosi, Nosmot (12 October 2021). "Stealing Africa: How Britain looted the continent's art — History". Al Jazeera. from the original on 21 September 2023. Retrieved 21 September 2023.
  17. ^ a b c Blackmun 1997, p. 149.
  18. ^ "altar tusk | British Museum". The British Museum. from the original on 2022-06-29. Retrieved 2023-09-21.
  19. ^ Ben-Amos & Rubin 1983, pp. 41, 49.
  20. ^ Blackmun 1997, pp. 149, 161.
  21. ^ Art Institute of Chicago 1997, p. 193.
  22. ^ Maurer 1977, pp. 6–9.
  23. ^ Petridis 2020, p. 97.
  24. ^ Blackmun 1997, p. 150.
  25. ^ Phillips 2021, p. 34.
  26. ^ African Studies Center, University of California, Los Angeles 2003, p. 86.
  27. ^ a b c d "X65.9129 Altar tusk". Fowler Museum at UCLA. 28 May 2021. from the original on 8 June 2023. Retrieved 21 September 2023.
  28. ^ a b "Ancestral Altar Tusk". Cleveland Museum of Art. 24 August 2023. from the original on 15 August 2022. Retrieved 21 September 2023.
  29. ^ Cleveland Museum of Art 1994, p. 92.

Bibliography edit

  • Bankes, George (1978). "Chairman's Address: Witch-doctors and ju-jus: The Popularization of Ethnography". Newsletter (Museum Ethnographers Group) (6). Museum Ethnographers Group: 3–8. ISSN 0260-0366. JSTOR 40838588. Retrieved 21 September 2023.
  • Blackmun, B.W. (1992). The Iconography of Carved Altar Tusks from Benin, Nigeria. University of California, Los Angeles. from the original on 21 September 2023. Retrieved 21 September 2023.
  • Blackmun, Barbara Winston (1997). "Icons and Emblems in Ivory: An Altar Tusk from the Palace of Old Benin". Art Institute of Chicago Museum Studies. 23 (2). The Art Institute of Chicago: 149–198. doi:10.2307/4104381. ISSN 0069-3235. JSTOR 4104381. from the original on 7 March 2023. Retrieved 21 September 2023.
  • Art Institute of Chicago (1997). African Art at the Art Institute of Chicago. Art Institute of Chicago Museum Studies. Art Institute of Chicago. ISBN 978-0-86559-149-3. from the original on 21 September 2023. Retrieved 21 September 2023.
  • Ezra, K. (1992). Royal Art of Benin: The Perls Collection in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 978-0-87099-633-7. from the original on 21 September 2023. Retrieved 21 September 2023.
  • Phillips, B. (2021). Loot: Britain and the Benin Bronzes (Revised and Updated ed.). Oneworld Publications. ISBN 978-1-78607-936-7. from the original on 21 September 2023. Retrieved 21 September 2023.
  • African Arts. African Studies Center, University of California, Los Angeles. 2003. from the original on 21 September 2023. Retrieved 21 September 2023.
  • Cleveland Museum of Art (1994). The Bulletin of the Cleveland Museum of Art. Cleveland Museum of Art. from the original on 21 September 2023. Retrieved 21 September 2023.
  • Walker, J.F. (2010). Ivory's Ghosts: The White Gold of History and the Fate of Elephants. Grove Atlantic. ISBN 978-1-55584-913-9. from the original on 21 September 2023. Retrieved 21 September 2023.
  • Kaplan, F.S.; Shea, M.A.; Grey Art Gallery & Study Center (1981). Images of Power: Art of the Royal Court of Benin : Exhibition Dates at New York University, the Grey Art Gallery, January 23 – February 21, 1981. The University. from the original on September 21, 2023. Retrieved 21 September 2023.
  • Petridis, C. (2020). Speaking of Objects: African Art at the Art Institute of Chicago. Art Institute of Chicago. ISBN 978-0-300-25432-7. from the original on 21 September 2023. Retrieved 21 September 2023.
  • College Art Association of America (1988). Art Journal. College Art Association of America. from the original on 21 September 2023. Retrieved 21 September 2023.
  • Ben-Amos, P.; Rubin, A. (1983). The Art of Power, the Power of Art: Studies in Benin Iconography. Monograph series. Museum of Cultural History, UCLA. from the original on 21 September 2023. Retrieved 21 September 2023.
  • Maurer, Evan (1977). "A Carved Ivory Tusk from Benin". Bulletin of the Art Institute of Chicago (1973–1982). 71 (3). The Art Institute of Chicago: 6–9. doi:10.2307/4103978. ISSN 0094-3312. JSTOR 4103978. Retrieved 21 September 2023.
  • Nevadomsky, Joseph; Půtová, Barbora; Soukup, Václav (2014). "Benin Art and Casting Technologies". West Bohemian Historical Review. 4 (1). University of West Bohemia, Pilsen, Czech Republic: 75–103. ISSN 1804-5480.

Further reading edit

  • Blackmun, Barbara Winston (1997b). "Continuity and Change: The Ivories of Ovonramwen and Eweka II". African Arts. 30 (3). UCLA James S. Coleman African Studies Center: 68–96. doi:10.2307/3337502. ISSN 0001-9933. JSTOR 3337502. from the original on 9 March 2023. Retrieved 21 September 2023.
  • Plankensteiner, Barbara (2007). "Benin: Kings and Rituals: Court Arts from Nigeria". African Arts. 40 (4). [Regents of the University of California, UCLA James S. Coleman African Studies Center]: 74–87. doi:10.1162/afar.2007.40.4.74. ISSN 0001-9933. JSTOR 20447858. S2CID 57571805 – via JSTOR.
  • Ben-Amos, Paula (1976). "Men and Animals in Benin Art". Man. 11 (2). [Wiley, Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland]: 243–252. doi:10.2307/2800208. ISSN 0025-1496. JSTOR 2800208 – via JSTOR.

External links edit

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Benin Altar Tusks.

January 01, 1970
benin, altar, tusk, aken, elao, ivory, artefacts, from, benin, kingdom, present, benin, city, state, nigeria, these, tusks, date, back, 16th, century, measure, approximately, inches, height, inches, width, inches, depth, weighing, kilograms, according, sample,. Benin Altar Tusks Edo Aken ni Elao are ivory artefacts from the Benin Kingdom in present day Benin City Edo State Nigeria These tusks date back to the 16th century and measure approximately 61 inches 1 500 mm in height 5 2 inches 130 mm in width 4 7 inches 120 mm in depth and weighing 25 kilograms 55 lb according to a sample at the British Museum The tusks feature carved royal figures in traditional regalia depicting scenes of power ritual and at times conflict Benin Altar TusksEdo Aken ni ElaoSample of a Benin Altar Tusk at Cleveland Museum of Art An altar decorated with Benin Altar Tusks brass crafted pedestals resembling a crowned head and other items MaterialIvoryHeight156 centimetres 61 in Width13 3 centimetres 5 2 in Depth12 centimetres 4 7 in Weight25 kilograms 55 lb WritingCarved with registers of relief figures animals and motifs CreatedCirca 16th centuryDiscoveredBenin City Edo State NigeriaPresent locationBritish Museum LondonFowler Museum at UCLACleveland Museum of ArtArt Institute of ChicagoMetropolitan Museum of Art New York CityNational Museum of African Art Washington DCNational Museums LiverpoolIdentification1979 01 4554CultureEdo Benin KingdomMeasurements are from the British Museum version other versions have slightly different dimensions In the 16th century the Benin Kingdom engaged in trade including with the Dutch Republic The lower portion of the tusks displays carved depictions of Portuguese figures from that era later representing European traders The tusks were maintained over the centuries including washing bleaching and the application of orhue a white clay substance In the late 19th century the British punitive expedition resulted in the looting of artefacts including several Benin Altar Tusks These items were taken to Britain and are now housed in various museums and private collections in Europe The tusks were created by the Igbesanmwan a royal ivory carving guild in Benin City Today the Benin Altar Tusks are located in museums globally Their presence has led to debates and calls for repatriation by Nigerian authorities and cultural organisations Contents 1 History 2 Description 3 Symbolism 3 1 Use in ancestral altars 3 2 Reading and interpreting the Tusk 4 Provenance 5 See also 6 References 7 Bibliography 8 Further reading 9 External linksHistory editThe exact creation date of the Benin Altar Tusks is not known They are associated with the 16th century Benin Kingdom 1 2 The tusks feature carved royal figures and scenes depicting power ritual and conflict 3 The lower portion of the tusk displays carved depictions of royal leopard faces 16th century Portuguese figures and other motifs 4 5 The Kingdom of Benin engaged in trade with European nations most notably the Portuguese Empire which established contact with the region in 1485 This interaction facilitated the exchange of a variety of goods including ivory 6 The oba controlled the supply and distribution of ivory and commissioned the Igbesanmwan a royal ivory carving guild to create the tusks 7 The tusks were placed on the ancestral altars of the oba 8 The tusks underwent maintenance and modification over the centuries They were washed bleached and coated with orhue a white clay substance 9 They were sometimes recarved or repaired adding or removing figures and motifs according to the historical and political context 10 In 1897 the British punitive expedition entered Benin City taking numerous artefacts including several Benin Altar Tusks 11 12 The British soldiers and officers involved in the expedition sold the items to museums and private collectors in Europe 13 14 Several Benin artefacts including altar tusks were damaged during World War II in Europe 15 The Benin Altar Tusks are now housed in museums and private collections globally including the British Museum in London Cleveland Museum of Art in Cleveland Ohio Art Institute of Chicago in Chicago USA Fowler Museum at UCLA in California Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City National Museum of African Art in Washington D C and National Museums Liverpool in Liverpool England 16 Their presence has led to debates and calls for repatriation by Nigerian authorities and cultural organisations 17 Description edit nbsp A carved motif of a notable palace figure probably a palace warrior The tusks are ivory sculptures adorned with intricate carvings that depict aspects of the Benin Kingdom s history mythology and rituals 18 Measuring about 61 inches 1 500 mm in height 5 2 inches 130 mm in width 4 7 inches 120 mm in depth and weighing 25 kilograms 55 lb according to a sample from the British Museum it is a visually imposing piece of art 12 19 The carvings on the tusk chronicle the history of the Benin Kingdom featuring depictions of monarchs warriors cultural ceremonies and daily life 1 20 At the core of the tusk s iconography is the portrayal of the oba king and his retinue symbolising the monarchy s authority and its connection to the spiritual realm 21 The oba is often depicted with distinctive attributes such as mudfish like legs conveying symbolic meanings 4 5 Symbolism editThe Benin Altar Tusk along with other carved elephant tusks held cultural and religious significance in the Benin Kingdom actively participating in various rituals and ceremonies dedicated to deities and ancestral spirits 1 12 They symbolised the connection between the ruler and the spiritual realm emphasising the preservation of Benin traditions 9 Each tusk was supported by a brass crafted pedestal resembling a crowned head serving as a central element of shrines which featured ritual objects and played a central role in ceremonies that bridged the material realm with the realm of spirits and ancestors in Benin s religious and ritual practices 18 Use in ancestral altars edit Main article Benin ancestral altars Like many other altar tusks from the Benin Kingdom this tusk is adorned with intricate relief figures animals and motifs often featuring depictions of the Oba and his attendants These elements conveyed symbolic messages primarily intended for ancestral spirits 22 23 Based on motif based analysis this tusk is tentatively dated to the reign of Oba Adolo circa 1850 suggesting its use on an altar dedicated to a former oba 24 25 Reading and interpreting the Tusk edit nbsp View of a damaged burnt Benin Altar Tusk in Indianapolis Museum of Art The altar and its contents are highly revered leading to limited access for most palace visitors Aside from the Igbesanmwan carvers and custodians entrusted with safeguarding the Oba s treasures the Ihogbe priests who oversee the royal ancestors possess the specialised knowledge needed to interpret certain carved images on the tusks 9 Specific details of the iconography remain confidential but the narratives conveyed through these images are widely recognised contributing significantly to ethical discussions within Benin 9 26 The motifs carved into the altar tusks serve as mnemonic devices carrying significance that can be elaborated upon to varying depths depending on the observer s understanding 9 These motifs transcend ivory and manifest in various other crafts such as brasswork ironwork embroidered fabrics applique and leatherwork 5 9 27 The motifs on the altar tusks derive inspiration from the history folklore and religious beliefs of the Benin Kingdom Traditionally each generation of Igbesanmwan artists inherits specific motifs from their predecessors who were members of the Igbesanmwan guild 10 Carvers also have the creative latitude to craft new figures and symbols to honour the current reigning Oba who commissions the work 10 Since each ruler is associated with a particular deified predecessor it is customary to incorporate images related to this former monarch Additionally specific motifs may be requested by the Oba himself for inclusion on the tusk 10 Interpreting a Benin altar tusk is an enduring tradition in the Kingdom of Benin 10 Contrary to Western reading conventions where one begins from the top and progresses downward and from left to right in Benin tradition the customary method of reading a Benin altar tusk involves commencing at the base and moving upward to grasp its intended significance 10 Provenance editThe Benin Altar Tusk was commissioned by Ọba Osemwende who reigned from 1816 to 1848 and carved by the Igbesanmwan a royal ivory carving guild 28 As per Edo tradition it is mandatory for each newly enthroned Oba to erect an altar within the initial three years of their reign This altar is dedicated to the deified predecessor of the Oba 18 In 1897 the tusk was looted by the British Empire during the Siege of Benin along with several other Benin Altar Tusks and artefacts 28 It was sold at Mess Foster s Auction in July 1931 as part of a collection formerly owned by a member of the Benin expedition and acquired by Sir Henry Wellcome 28 In 1965 it was gifted by the Wellcome Trust to the Fowler Museum then known as the Museum and Laboratories of Ethnic Arts and Technology 28 Another Benin Altar Tusk which was also looted in 1897 was owned by Katherine White Reswick 1929 1980 who resided in Gates Mills Ohio US from at least 1961 to 1968 29 30 She donated it to the Cleveland Museum of Art in 1968 where it remains part of the collection 29 See also editBenin ivory mask Benin ancestral altars Benin Bronzes Benin MoatReferences edit a b c Bankes 1978 pp 3 8 Blackmun 1992 p 193 Walker 2010 p 68 a b Blackmun 1997 p 156 a b c Kaplan Shea amp Grey Art Gallery amp Study Center 1981 p 366 Franz Alyssa 16 June 2009 Kingdom of Benin Welcome to Blackpast Retrieved 25 December 2023 Tusk for memorial altar to Oba Osemwende mobile dmwc yourcultureconnect com 14 December 2023 Retrieved 25 December 2023 The Royal Altars The Art Institute of Chicago Retrieved 25 December 2023 a b c d e f Blackmun 1997 p 152 a b c d e f Blackmun 1997 p 153 This Art Was Looted 123 Years Ago Will It Ever Be Returned The New York Times 23 January 2020 Archived from the original on 17 September 2023 Retrieved 21 September 2023 a b c College Art Association of America 1988 p 130 Ezra 1992 p 25 Nevadomsky Putova amp Soukup 2014 p 75 Nevadomsky Putova amp Soukup 2014 p 84 Lunden 2016 p i Gbadamosi Nosmot 12 October 2021 Stealing Africa How Britain looted the continent s art History Al Jazeera Archived from the original on 21 September 2023 Retrieved 21 September 2023 a b c Blackmun 1997 p 149 altar tusk British Museum The British Museum Archived from the original on 2022 06 29 Retrieved 2023 09 21 Ben Amos amp Rubin 1983 pp 41 49 Blackmun 1997 pp 149 161 Art Institute of Chicago 1997 p 193 Maurer 1977 pp 6 9 Petridis 2020 p 97 Blackmun 1997 p 150 Phillips 2021 p 34 African Studies Center University of California Los Angeles 2003 p 86 a b c d X65 9129 Altar tusk Fowler Museum at UCLA 28 May 2021 Archived from the original on 8 June 2023 Retrieved 21 September 2023 a b Ancestral Altar Tusk Cleveland Museum of Art 24 August 2023 Archived from the original on 15 August 2022 Retrieved 21 September 2023 Cleveland Museum of Art 1994 p 92 Bibliography editBankes George 1978 Chairman s Address Witch doctors and ju jus The Popularization of Ethnography Newsletter Museum Ethnographers Group 6 Museum Ethnographers Group 3 8 ISSN 0260 0366 JSTOR 40838588 Retrieved 21 September 2023 Blackmun B W 1992 The Iconography of Carved Altar Tusks from Benin Nigeria University of California Los Angeles Archived from the original on 21 September 2023 Retrieved 21 September 2023 Blackmun Barbara Winston 1997 Icons and Emblems in Ivory An Altar Tusk from the Palace of Old Benin Art Institute of Chicago Museum Studies 23 2 The Art Institute of Chicago 149 198 doi 10 2307 4104381 ISSN 0069 3235 JSTOR 4104381 Archived from the original on 7 March 2023 Retrieved 21 September 2023 Art Institute of Chicago 1997 African Art at the Art Institute of Chicago Art Institute of Chicago Museum Studies Art Institute of Chicago ISBN 978 0 86559 149 3 Archived from the original on 21 September 2023 Retrieved 21 September 2023 Ezra K 1992 Royal Art of Benin The Perls Collection in the Metropolitan Museum of Art Metropolitan Museum of Art ISBN 978 0 87099 633 7 Archived from the original on 21 September 2023 Retrieved 21 September 2023 Phillips B 2021 Loot Britain and the Benin Bronzes Revised and Updated ed Oneworld Publications ISBN 978 1 78607 936 7 Archived from the original on 21 September 2023 Retrieved 21 September 2023 African Arts African Studies Center University of California Los Angeles 2003 Archived from the original on 21 September 2023 Retrieved 21 September 2023 Cleveland Museum of Art 1994 The Bulletin of the Cleveland Museum of Art Cleveland Museum of Art Archived from the original on 21 September 2023 Retrieved 21 September 2023 Walker J F 2010 Ivory s Ghosts The White Gold of History and the Fate of Elephants Grove Atlantic ISBN 978 1 55584 913 9 Archived from the original on 21 September 2023 Retrieved 21 September 2023 Kaplan F S Shea M A Grey Art Gallery amp Study Center 1981 Images of Power Art of the Royal Court of Benin Exhibition Dates at New York University the Grey Art Gallery January 23 February 21 1981 The University Archived from the original on September 21 2023 Retrieved 21 September 2023 Petridis C 2020 Speaking of Objects African Art at the Art Institute of Chicago Art Institute of Chicago ISBN 978 0 300 25432 7 Archived from the original on 21 September 2023 Retrieved 21 September 2023 College Art Association of America 1988 Art Journal College Art Association of America Archived from the original on 21 September 2023 Retrieved 21 September 2023 Ben Amos P Rubin A 1983 The Art of Power the Power of Art Studies in Benin Iconography Monograph series Museum of Cultural History UCLA Archived from the original on 21 September 2023 Retrieved 21 September 2023 Maurer Evan 1977 A Carved Ivory Tusk from Benin Bulletin of the Art Institute of Chicago 1973 1982 71 3 The Art Institute of Chicago 6 9 doi 10 2307 4103978 ISSN 0094 3312 JSTOR 4103978 Retrieved 21 September 2023 Nevadomsky Joseph Putova Barbora Soukup Vaclav 2014 Benin Art and Casting Technologies West Bohemian Historical Review 4 1 University of West Bohemia Pilsen Czech Republic 75 103 ISSN 1804 5480 Lunden Staffan 2016 Displaying Loot Goteborg Goteborgs Universitetet ISBN 978 91 85245 67 3 Further reading editEzra K 1984 African Ivories Metropolitan Museum of Art ISBN 978 0 87099 372 5 Blackmun Barbara Winston 1997b Continuity and Change The Ivories of Ovonramwen and Eweka II African Arts 30 3 UCLA James S Coleman African Studies Center 68 96 doi 10 2307 3337502 ISSN 0001 9933 JSTOR 3337502 Archived from the original on 9 March 2023 Retrieved 21 September 2023 Plankensteiner Barbara 2007 Benin Kings and Rituals Court Arts from Nigeria African Arts 40 4 Regents of the University of California UCLA James S Coleman African Studies Center 74 87 doi 10 1162 afar 2007 40 4 74 ISSN 0001 9933 JSTOR 20447858 S2CID 57571805 via JSTOR Ben Amos Paula 1976 Men and Animals in Benin Art Man 11 2 Wiley Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland 243 252 doi 10 2307 2800208 ISSN 0025 1496 JSTOR 2800208 via JSTOR External links edit nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to Benin Altar Tusks Benin Altar Tusk at British Museum Benin Altar Tusk at Fowler Museum at UCLA Benin Altar Tusk at Cleveland Museum of Art Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Benin Altar Tusk amp oldid 1200932744, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

article

, read, download, free, free download, mp3, video, mp4, 3gp, jpg, jpeg, gif, png, picture, music, song, movie, book, game, games.