Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans (Bsal) is a pathogenicchytrid fungus that infects amphibian species. Although salamanders and newts seem to be the most susceptible, some anuran species are also affected. Bsal has emerged recently and poses a major threat to species in Europe and North America.
Martel A., Blooi M., Bossuyt F., Pasmans F. (2013)[1]
It was described in 2013 based on a strain collected from skin tissue of fire salamandersSalamandra salamandra. The pathogen, unidentified up to then, had devastated fire salamander populations in the Netherlands. Molecular phylogenetics confirmed it as related to the well known chytridB. dendrobatidis. Like this species, it causes chytridiomycosis, which is manifested in skin lesions and is lethal for the salamanders.[1] Damage to the epidermal layer can be extensive and may result in osmoregulatory[2] issues or sepsis.[3]
Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans, clinical signs and pathology
Another study estimated that this species had diverged from B. dendrobatidis in the Late Cretaceous or early Paleogene. While initial susceptibility testing showed frogs and caecilians seemed to be resistant to Bsal infection, it was lethal to many European and some North American salamanders. East Asian salamanders were susceptible but able to tolerate infections. The fungus was also detected in a more-than-150-year-old museum specimen of the Japanese sword-tailed newt. This suggests it had originally emerged and co-evolved with salamanders in East Asia, forming its natural reservoir, and was introduced to Europe rather recently through the trade of species such as the fire belly newts as pets.[4] The asian origin hypothesis for Bsal is supported by additional studies which have found Bsal in wild urodela populations in Asia and in animals of asian origin being transported via the pet trade.[5][6][7] Since the pathogens initial discovery, it has been found in several additional areas across Europe in both wild and captive populations. One study was able to detect Bsal in 7 of 11 captive urodele collections.[8]
The description of this pathogen and its aggressiveness raised concern in the scientific community and the public, fearing that it might be a rising threat to Western hemisphere salamanders.[9][10] On January 12, 2016, the U.S. government issued a directive that prohibited the importation of salamanders in order to reduce the threat posed by B. salamandrivorans.[11]
Batrachochytrium is derived from the Greek words batrachos, "frog", and chytra, "earthen pot" (describing the structure that contains unreleased zoospores); salamandrivorans is from the Greek salamandra, "salamander", and Latin vorans, "eating", which refers to extensive skin destruction and rapid death in infected salamanders.[12]
Confirmed and potential hosts of Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans
Populations of the fire salamander (left) have been severely decimated in the Netherlands.[1] The North American rough-skinned newt (centre) was killed by the fungus in laboratory tests.[4] The Japanese fire-belly newt (right) is somewhat resistant and could have been a vector for the pathogen's introduction to Europe.[4] The Eastern Newt, which is found across the eastern United States and parts of Canada is a susceptible Bsal host species.[4]
Susceptible speciesedit
The most comprehensive Bsal species susceptibility performed to date has been by Martel et al 2014.[4] Their experiments demonstrated Bsal susceptibility followed a phylogenetic trend with many Salamandridae species being lethally susceptible. Recent work has demonstrated that some lungless species, specifically those in the Spelerpini tribe might also be clinically susceptible to Bsal[13]
Threats to salamandersedit
Bsal is a serious threat to salamander species, while it has not yet been confirmed in North America,[14]Bsal has had catastrophic effects on certain European salamander populations, believed to be the cause of a 96% decline in populations with in the Netherlands.[15] More than a third of the worlds salamanders live in the United States,[16] and 40% of those salamanders are already threatened.[17] While regulations on the most likely avenue of introduction into North America, amphibian trade,[18] are in place in both Canada and the United States, regulations are seriously lacking in Mexico. Furthermore, Bsal has the potential to infect an estimated 80 to 140 North American salamander species.[19]
More information on Bsal and other diseases impacting amphibian populations, including Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis and Ranavirus can be found at the Southeast Partners in Amphibian and Reptile Conservation disease task team web-page. [1]
Referencesedit
^ abcMartel, A.; Spitzen-van der Sluijs, A.; Blooi, M.; Bert, W.; Ducatelle, R.; Fisher, M. C.; Woeltjes, A.; Bosman, W.; Chiers, K.; Bossuyt, F.; Pasmans, F. (2013). "Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans sp. nov. causes lethal chytridiomycosis in amphibians". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 110 (38): 15325–15329. Bibcode:2013PNAS..11015325M. doi:10.1073/pnas.1307356110. PMC3780879. PMID 24003137.
^Voyles, J.; Young, S.; Berger, L.; Campbell, C.; Voyles, W. F.; Dinudom, A.; Cook, D.; Webb, R.; Alford, R. A.; Skerratt, L. F.; Speare, R. (2009). "Pathogenesis of Chytridiomycosis, a Cause of Catastrophic Amphibian Declines". Science. 326 (5952): 582–585. Bibcode:2009Sci...326..582V. doi:10.1126/science.1176765. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 19900897. S2CID 52850132.
^Bletz, Molly C.; Kelly, Moira; Sabino-Pinto, Joana; Bales, Emma; Van Praet, Sarah; Bert, Wim; Boyen, Filip; Vences, Miguel; Steinfartz, Sebastian; Pasmans, Frank; Martel, An (2018). "Disruption of skin microbiota contributes to salamander disease". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 285 (1885): 20180758. doi:10.1098/rspb.2018.0758. ISSN 0962-8452. PMC6125908. PMID 30135150.
^ abcdeMartel, A.; Blooi, M.; Adriaensen, C.; Van Rooij, P.; Beukema, W.; Fisher, M. C.; Farrer, R. A.; Schmidt, B. R.; Tobler, U.; Goka, K.; Lips, K. R.; Muletz, C.; Zamudio, K. R.; Bosch, J.; Lotters, S.; Wombwell, E.; Garner, T. W. J.; Cunningham, A. A.; Spitzen-van der Sluijs, A.; Salvidio, S.; Ducatelle, R.; Nishikawa, K.; Nguyen, T. T.; Kolby, J. E.; Van Bocxlaer, I.; Bossuyt, F.; Pasmans, F. (2014). "Recent introduction of a chytrid fungus endangers Western Palearctic salamanders". Science. 346 (6209): 630–631. Bibcode:2014Sci...346..630M. doi:10.1126/science.1258268. PMC5769814. PMID 25359973.
^Cunningham, A. A.; Beckmann, K.; Perkins, M.; Fitzpatrick, L.; Cromie, R.; Redbond, J.; O'Brien, M. F.; Ghosh, P.; Shelton, J.; Fisher, M. C. (2015). "Emerging disease in UK amphibians". Veterinary Record. 176 (18): 468. doi:10.1136/vr.h2264. ISSN 0042-4900. PMID 25934745. S2CID 26161581.
^Laking, Alexandra E.; Ngo, Hai Ngoc; Pasmans, Frank; Martel, An; Nguyen, Tao Thien (2017). "Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans is the predominant chytrid fungus in Vietnamese salamanders". Scientific Reports. 7 (1): 44443. Bibcode:2017NatSR...744443L. doi:10.1038/srep44443. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC5347381. PMID 28287614.
^Nguyen, Tao Thien; Nguyen, Thinh Van; Ziegler, Thomas; Pasmans, Frank; Martel, An (2017). "Trade in wild anurans vectors the urodelan pathogen Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans into Europe". Amphibia-Reptilia. 38 (4): 554–556. doi:10.1163/15685381-00003125. hdl:1854/LU-8625943. ISSN 0173-5373.
^Fitzpatrick, Liam D.; Pasmans, Frank; Martel, An; Cunningham, Andrew A. (2018). "Epidemiological tracing of Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans identifies widespread infection and associated mortalities in private amphibian collections" (PDF). Scientific Reports. 8 (1): 13845. Bibcode:2018NatSR...813845F. doi:10.1038/s41598-018-31800-z. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC6138723. PMID 30218076.
^Stokstad, E. (2014). "The coming salamander plague". Science. 346 (6209): 530–531. Bibcode:2014Sci...346..530S. doi:10.1126/science.346.6209.530. PMID 25359941.
^Rhodi, Lee (2014-10-31). "Skin-eating fungus Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans threatens to wipe out salamanders worldwide". Tech Times. Retrieved 2015-06-05.
^"Listing Salamanders as Injurious Due to Risk of Salamander Chytrid Fungus". U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. January 12, 2016.
^"Etymologia: Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans". citing public domain text from the CDC. Emerg Infect Dis. 22 (7): 1282. July 2016. doi:10.3201/eid2207.ET2207. PMC4918143.
^Carter, E. Davis (2020). "Conservation risk of Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans to endemic lungless salamanders". Conservation Letters. 13 (1). Bibcode:2020ConL...13E2675C. doi:10.1111/conl.12675.
^Koo, Michell (October 4, 2021). "Tracking, Synthesizing, and Sharing Global Batrachochytrium Data at AmphibianDisease.org". Frontiers in Veterinary Science. 8. doi:10.3389/fvets.2021.728232. PMC8527349. PMID 34692807.
^Burke, Katie (6 February 2017). "New Disease Emerges as Threat to Salamanders". American Scientist.
^Gray, Matthew J.; Carter, Edward Davis; Piovia-Scott, Jonah; Cusaac, J. Patrick W.; Peterson, Anna C.; Whetstone, Ross D.; et al. (June 5, 2023). "Broad host susceptibility of North American amphibian species to Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans suggests high invasion potential and biodiversity risk". Nature Communications. 14 (1): 3270. Bibcode:2023NatCo..14.3270G. doi:10.1038/s41467-023-38979-4. PMC10241899. PMID 37277333. Art. No. 3270.
batrachochytrium, salamandrivorans, bsal, pathogenic, chytrid, fungus, that, infects, amphibian, species, although, salamanders, newts, seem, most, susceptible, some, anuran, species, also, affected, bsal, emerged, recently, poses, major, threat, species, euro. Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans Bsal is a pathogenic chytrid fungus that infects amphibian species Although salamanders and newts seem to be the most susceptible some anuran species are also affected Bsal has emerged recently and poses a major threat to species in Europe and North America Batrachochytrium salamandrivoransBsal infection in the skin of a fire salamanderScientific classificationDomain EukaryotaKingdom FungiDivision ChytridiomycotaClass ChytridiomycetesOrder RhizophydialesFamily BatrachochytriaceaeGenus BatrachochytriumSpecies B salamandrivoransBinomial nameBatrachochytrium salamandrivoransMartel A Blooi M Bossuyt F Pasmans F 2013 1 It was described in 2013 based on a strain collected from skin tissue of fire salamanders Salamandra salamandra The pathogen unidentified up to then had devastated fire salamander populations in the Netherlands Molecular phylogenetics confirmed it as related to the well known chytrid B dendrobatidis Like this species it causes chytridiomycosis which is manifested in skin lesions and is lethal for the salamanders 1 Damage to the epidermal layer can be extensive and may result in osmoregulatory 2 issues or sepsis 3 Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans clinical signs and pathologyAnother study estimated that this species had diverged from B dendrobatidis in the Late Cretaceous or early Paleogene While initial susceptibility testing showed frogs and caecilians seemed to be resistant to Bsal infection it was lethal to many European and some North American salamanders East Asian salamanders were susceptible but able to tolerate infections The fungus was also detected in a more than 150 year old museum specimen of the Japanese sword tailed newt This suggests it had originally emerged and co evolved with salamanders in East Asia forming its natural reservoir and was introduced to Europe rather recently through the trade of species such as the fire belly newts as pets 4 The asian origin hypothesis for Bsal is supported by additional studies which have found Bsal in wild urodela populations in Asia and in animals of asian origin being transported via the pet trade 5 6 7 Since the pathogens initial discovery it has been found in several additional areas across Europe in both wild and captive populations One study was able to detect Bsal in 7 of 11 captive urodele collections 8 The description of this pathogen and its aggressiveness raised concern in the scientific community and the public fearing that it might be a rising threat to Western hemisphere salamanders 9 10 On January 12 2016 the U S government issued a directive that prohibited the importation of salamanders in order to reduce the threat posed by B salamandrivorans 11 Contents 1 Etymology 2 Susceptible species 3 Threats to salamanders 3 1 Tolerant 3 2 Susceptible 3 3 Lethal 4 Information sources 5 References 6 External linksEtymology editBatrachochytrium is derived from the Greek words batrachos frog and chytra earthen pot describing the structure that contains unreleased zoospores salamandrivorans is from the Greek salamandra salamander and Latin vorans eating which refers to extensive skin destruction and rapid death in infected salamanders 12 Confirmed and potential hosts of Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans nbsp Salamandra salamandra nbsp Taricha granulosa nbsp Cynops pyrrhogaster nbsp Notophthalmus viridescens nbsp Eurycea wilderae nbsp Pseudotriton ruberPopulations of the fire salamander left have been severely decimated in the Netherlands 1 The North American rough skinned newt centre was killed by the fungus in laboratory tests 4 The Japanese fire belly newt right is somewhat resistant and could have been a vector for the pathogen s introduction to Europe 4 The Eastern Newt which is found across the eastern United States and parts of Canada is a susceptible Bsal host species 4 Susceptible species editThe most comprehensive Bsal species susceptibility performed to date has been by Martel et al 2014 4 Their experiments demonstrated Bsal susceptibility followed a phylogenetic trend with many Salamandridae species being lethally susceptible Recent work has demonstrated that some lungless species specifically those in the Spelerpini tribe might also be clinically susceptible to Bsal 13 Threats to salamanders editBsal is a serious threat to salamander species while it has not yet been confirmed in North America 14 Bsal has had catastrophic effects on certain European salamander populations believed to be the cause of a 96 decline in populations with in the Netherlands 15 More than a third of the worlds salamanders live in the United States 16 and 40 of those salamanders are already threatened 17 While regulations on the most likely avenue of introduction into North America amphibian trade 18 are in place in both Canada and the United States regulations are seriously lacking in Mexico Furthermore Bsal has the potential to infect an estimated 80 to 140 North American salamander species 19 Tolerant edit This section includes a list of references related reading or external links but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations Please help to improve this section by introducing more precise citations January 2024 Learn how and when to remove this template message Salamandrella keyserlingii Siren intermediaSusceptible edit This section includes a list of references related reading or external links but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations Please help to improve this section by introducing more precise citations January 2024 Learn how and when to remove this template message Cynops cyanurus Cynops pyrrhogaster Paramesotriton deloustaliLethal edit This section includes a list of references related reading or external links but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations Please help to improve this section by introducing more precise citations January 2024 Learn how and when to remove this template message Hydromantes strinatii Salamandrina perspicillata Salamandra salamandra Pleurodeles waltl Tylototriton wenxianensis Notophthalmus viridescens Taricha granulosa Euproctus platycephalus Lissotriton italicus Ichthyosaura alpestris Triturus cristatus Neurergus crocatus Eurycea wilderae Pseudotriton ruberInformation sources editMore information on Bsal and other diseases impacting amphibian populations including Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis and Ranavirus can be found at the Southeast Partners in Amphibian and Reptile Conservation disease task team web page 1 References edit a b c Martel A Spitzen van der Sluijs A Blooi M Bert W Ducatelle R Fisher M C Woeltjes A Bosman W Chiers K Bossuyt F Pasmans F 2013 Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans sp nov causes lethal chytridiomycosis in amphibians Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 110 38 15325 15329 Bibcode 2013PNAS 11015325M doi 10 1073 pnas 1307356110 PMC 3780879 PMID 24003137 nbsp Voyles J Young S Berger L Campbell C Voyles W F Dinudom A Cook D Webb R Alford R A Skerratt L F Speare R 2009 Pathogenesis of Chytridiomycosis a Cause of Catastrophic Amphibian Declines Science 326 5952 582 585 Bibcode 2009Sci 326 582V doi 10 1126 science 1176765 ISSN 0036 8075 PMID 19900897 S2CID 52850132 Bletz Molly C Kelly Moira Sabino Pinto Joana Bales Emma Van Praet Sarah Bert Wim Boyen Filip Vences Miguel Steinfartz Sebastian Pasmans Frank Martel An 2018 Disruption of skin microbiota contributes to salamander disease Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences 285 1885 20180758 doi 10 1098 rspb 2018 0758 ISSN 0962 8452 PMC 6125908 PMID 30135150 a b c d e Martel A Blooi M Adriaensen C Van Rooij P Beukema W Fisher M C Farrer R A Schmidt B R Tobler U Goka K Lips K R Muletz C Zamudio K R Bosch J Lotters S Wombwell E Garner T W J Cunningham A A Spitzen van der Sluijs A Salvidio S Ducatelle R Nishikawa K Nguyen T T Kolby J E Van Bocxlaer I Bossuyt F Pasmans F 2014 Recent introduction of a chytrid fungus endangers Western Palearctic salamanders Science 346 6209 630 631 Bibcode 2014Sci 346 630M doi 10 1126 science 1258268 PMC 5769814 PMID 25359973 Cunningham A A Beckmann K Perkins M Fitzpatrick L Cromie R Redbond J O Brien M F Ghosh P Shelton J Fisher M C 2015 Emerging disease in UK amphibians Veterinary Record 176 18 468 doi 10 1136 vr h2264 ISSN 0042 4900 PMID 25934745 S2CID 26161581 Laking Alexandra E Ngo Hai Ngoc Pasmans Frank Martel An Nguyen Tao Thien 2017 Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans is the predominant chytrid fungus in Vietnamese salamanders Scientific Reports 7 1 44443 Bibcode 2017NatSR 744443L doi 10 1038 srep44443 ISSN 2045 2322 PMC 5347381 PMID 28287614 Nguyen Tao Thien Nguyen Thinh Van Ziegler Thomas Pasmans Frank Martel An 2017 Trade in wild anurans vectors the urodelan pathogen Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans into Europe Amphibia Reptilia 38 4 554 556 doi 10 1163 15685381 00003125 hdl 1854 LU 8625943 ISSN 0173 5373 Fitzpatrick Liam D Pasmans Frank Martel An Cunningham Andrew A 2018 Epidemiological tracing of Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans identifies widespread infection and associated mortalities in private amphibian collections PDF Scientific Reports 8 1 13845 Bibcode 2018NatSR 813845F doi 10 1038 s41598 018 31800 z ISSN 2045 2322 PMC 6138723 PMID 30218076 Stokstad E 2014 The coming salamander plague Science 346 6209 530 531 Bibcode 2014Sci 346 530S doi 10 1126 science 346 6209 530 PMID 25359941 Rhodi Lee 2014 10 31 Skin eating fungus Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans threatens to wipe out salamanders worldwide Tech Times Retrieved 2015 06 05 Listing Salamanders as Injurious Due to Risk of Salamander Chytrid Fungus U S Fish and Wildlife Service January 12 2016 Etymologia Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans citing public domain text from the CDC Emerg Infect Dis 22 7 1282 July 2016 doi 10 3201 eid2207 ET2207 PMC 4918143 Carter E Davis 2020 Conservation risk of Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans to endemic lungless salamanders Conservation Letters 13 1 Bibcode 2020ConL 13E2675C doi 10 1111 conl 12675 Koo Michell October 4 2021 Tracking Synthesizing and Sharing Global Batrachochytrium Data at AmphibianDisease org Frontiers in Veterinary Science 8 doi 10 3389 fvets 2021 728232 PMC 8527349 PMID 34692807 Burke Katie 6 February 2017 New Disease Emerges as Threat to Salamanders American Scientist Amphibian Species By the Numbers Bishop David Sustaining America s Aquatic Biodiversity Salamnders Biodiversity and Consevation Virginia Cooperative Extension Fisher Mathew Feb 25 2020 Chytrid fungi and global amphibian declines Nature Reviews Microbiology 18 6 332 343 doi 10 1038 s41579 020 0335 x hdl 10044 1 78596 PMID 32099078 S2CID 211266075 Gray Matthew J Carter Edward Davis Piovia Scott Jonah Cusaac J Patrick W Peterson Anna C Whetstone Ross D et al June 5 2023 Broad host susceptibility of North American amphibian species to Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans suggests high invasion potential and biodiversity risk Nature Communications 14 1 3270 Bibcode 2023NatCo 14 3270G doi 10 1038 s41467 023 38979 4 PMC 10241899 PMID 37277333 Art No 3270 External links editBatrachochytrium salamandrivorans in MycoBank Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans in Index Fungorum Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans amp oldid 1199146166, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,
