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Mandrake

March 09, 2023

For other uses, see Mandrake (disambiguation).

A mandrake is the root of a plant, historically derived either from plants of the genus Mandragora found in the Mediterranean region, or from other species, such as Bryonia alba, the English mandrake, which have similar properties. The plants from which the root is obtained are also called "mandrakes". Mediterranean mandrakes are perennial herbaceous plants with ovate leaves arranged in a rosette, a thick upright root, often branched, and bell-shaped flowers followed by yellow or orange berries. They have been placed in different species by different authors. They are highly variable perennial herbaceous plants with long thick roots (often branched) and almost no stem. The leaves are borne in a basal rosette, and are variable in size and shape, with a maximum length of 45 cm (18 in). They are usually either elliptical in shape or wider towards the end (obovate), with varying degrees of hairiness.[1]

The so-called "female" and "male" mandrakes, from a 1583 illustration
A mandrake root, resembling a human form (Science Museum, London)

Because mandrakes contain deliriant hallucinogenic tropane alkaloids and the shape of their roots often resembles human figures, they have been associated with magic rituals throughout history, including present-day contemporary pagan traditions such as Wicca and Odinism.[2]

The English name of the plant derives from Latin mandragora through French main-de-gloire.[3] In German, it is known as alraune believed to mean 'all-rune' or 'elf-rune', referring to the plants folkloric ability to impart wisdom.[4]

Toxicity

All species of Mandragora contain highly biologically active alkaloids, tropane alkaloids in particular. The alkaloids make the plant, in particular the root and leaves, poisonous, via anticholinergic, hallucinogenic, and hypnotic effects. Anticholinergic properties can lead to asphyxiation. Accidental poisoning is not uncommon. Ingesting mandrake root is likely to have other adverse effects such as vomiting and diarrhea. The alkaloid concentration varies between plant samples. Clinical reports of the effects of consumption of Mediterranean mandrake include severe symptoms similar to those of atropine poisoning, including blurred vision, dilation of the pupils (mydriasis), dryness of the mouth, difficulty in urinating, dizziness, headache, vomiting, blushing and a rapid heart rate (tachycardia). Hyperactivity and hallucinations occurred in the majority of patients.[5][6]

Folklore

The root is hallucinogenic and narcotic. In sufficient quantities, it induces a state of unconsciousness and was used as an anaesthetic for surgery in ancient times.[7] In the past, juice from the finely grated root was applied externally to relieve rheumatic pains.[7] It was used internally to treat melancholy, convulsions, and mania.[7] When taken internally in large doses it was said to excite delirium and madness.[7]

 
fol. 16r from University of Pennsylvania LJS 46: Herbal ... etc., from Italy and England, dated to ca. 1520

In the past, mandrake was often made into amulets which were believed to bring good fortune, cure sterility, etc. In one superstition, people who pull up this root will be condemned to hell, and the mandrake root would scream and cry as it was pulled from the ground, killing anyone who heard it.[2] Therefore, in the past, people have tied the roots to the bodies of animals and then used these animals to pull the roots from the soil.[2] This folklore reference is integrated into part of the portrayal of the fictional mandrake described in Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets (J. K. Rowling, 1998).

The ancient Greeks burned mandrake as incense.[8]

In the Bible

Two references to דודאים (duda'im, plural; singular דודא duda)—literally meaning "love plants"—occur in the Jewish scriptures. The Septuagint translates דודאים as μανδραγόρας (mandragóras), and the Vulgate follows the Septuagint. A number of later translations into different languages follow Septuagint (and Vulgate) and use mandrake as the plant as the proper meaning in both the Book of Genesis 30:14–16 and Song of Songs 7:12-13. Others follow the example of the Luther Bible and provide a more literal translation.

In Genesis 30:14, Reuben, the eldest son of Jacob and Leah, finds mandrakes in a field. Rachel, Jacob's infertile second wife and Leah's sister, is desirous of the דודאים and barters with Leah for them. The trade offered by Rachel is for Leah to spend that night in Jacob's bed in exchange for Leah's דודאים. Leah gives away the plants to her barren sister, but soon after this (Genesis 30:14–22), Leah, who had previously had four sons but had been infertile for a long while, became pregnant once more and in time gave birth to two more sons, Issachar and Zebulun, and a daughter, Dinah. Only years after this episode of her asking for the mandrakes did Rachel manage to become pregnant.

14 And Reuben went in the days of wheat harvest, and found mandrakes in the field, and brought them unto his mother Leah. Then Rachel said to Leah, Give me, I pray thee, of thy son's mandrakes.

15 And she said unto her, Is it a small matter that thou hast taken my husband? and wouldest thou take away my son's mandrakes also? And Rachel said, Therefore he shall lie with thee to night for thy son's mandrakes.

16 And Jacob came out of the field in the evening, and Leah went out to meet him, and said, Thou must come in unto me; for surely I have hired thee with my son's mandrakes. And he lay with her that night.

— the Bible, King James Version, Genesis 30:14–16[9]

Sir Thomas Browne, in Pseudodoxia Epidemica, ch. VII, suggested the duda'im of Genesis 30:14 is the opium poppy, because the word duda'im may be a reference to a woman's breasts.

The final verses of Chapter 7 of Song of Songs (Song of Songs 7:12–13), are:

נַשְׁכִּ֙ימָה֙ לַכְּרָמִ֔ים נִרְאֶ֞ה אִם פָּֽרְחָ֤ה הַגֶּ֙פֶן֙ פִּתַּ֣ח הַסְּמָדַ֔ר הֵנֵ֖צוּ הָרִמֹּונִ֑ים שָׁ֛ם אֶתֵּ֥ן אֶת־דֹּדַ֖י לָֽךְ׃ הַֽדּוּדָאִ֣ים נָֽתְנוּ-רֵ֗יחַ וְעַל-פְּתָחֵ֙ינוּ֙ כָּל-מְגָדִ֔ים חֲדָשִׁ֖ים גַּם-יְשָׁנִ֑ים דּוֹדִ֖י צָפַ֥נְתִּי לָֽךְ:

12 Let us get up early to the vineyards; let us see if the vine flourish, whether the tender grape appear, and the pomegranates bud forth: there will I give thee my loves.

13 The mandrakes give a smell, and at our gates are all manner of pleasant fruits, new and old, which I have laid up for thee, O my beloved.

— the Bible, King James Version, Song of Songs 7:12–13[10]

Magic and witchcraft

 
Mandragora, from Tacuinum Sanitatis (1474).

According to the legend, when the root is dug up, it screams and kills all who hear it. Literature includes complex directions for harvesting a mandrake root in relative safety. For example, Josephus (circa 37–100 AD) of Jerusalem gives the following directions for pulling it up:

A furrow must be dug around the root until its lower part is exposed, then a dog is tied to it, after which the person tying the dog must get away. The dog then endeavours to follow him, and so easily pulls up the root, but dies suddenly instead of his master. After this, the root can be handled without fear.[11]

Excerpt from Chapter XVI, "Witchcraft and Spells", of Transcendental Magic: Its Doctrine and Ritual by nineteenth-century occultist and ceremonial magician Eliphas Levi:

The natural mandragore is a filamentous root which, more or less, presents as a whole either the figure of a man, or that of the virile members. It is slightly narcotic, and an aphrodisiacal virtue was ascribed to it by the ancients, who represented it as being sought by Thessalian sorcerers for the composition of philtres. Is this root the umbilical vestige of our terrestrial origin? We dare not seriously affirm it, but all the same it is certain that man came out of the slime of the earth, and his first appearance must have been in the form of a rough sketch. The analogies of nature make this notion necessarily admissible, at least as a possibility. The first men were, in this case, a family of gigantic, sensitive mandragores, animated by the sun, who rooted themselves up from the earth; this assumption not only does not exclude, but, on the contrary, positively supposes, creative will and the providential co-operation of a first cause, which we have REASON to call GOD. Some alchemists, impressed by this idea, speculated on the culture of the mandragore, and experimented in the artificial reproduction of a soil sufficiently fruitful and a sun sufficiently active to humanise the said root, and thus create men without the concurrence of the female. Others, who regarded humanity as the synthesis of animals, despaired about vitalising the mandragore, but they crossed monstrous pairs and projected human seed into animal earth, only for the production of shameful crimes and barren deformities.[12]

The following is taken from Jean-Baptiste Pitois' The History and Practice of Magic:

Would you like to make a Mandragora, as powerful as the homunculus (little man in a bottle) so praised by Paracelsus? Then find a root of the plant called bryony. Take it out of the ground on a Monday (the day of the moon), a little time after the vernal equinox. Cut off the ends of the root and bury it at night in some country churchyard in a dead man's grave. For 30 days, water it with cow's milk in which three bats have been drowned. When the 31st day arrives, take out the root in the middle of the night and dry it in an oven heated with branches of verbena; then wrap it up in a piece of a dead man's winding-sheet and carry it with you everywhere.[13]

In Medieval times, mandrake was considered a key ingredient in a multitude of witches' flying ointment recipes as well as a primary component of magical potions and brews.[14] These were entheogenic preparations used in European witchcraft for their mind-altering and hallucinogenic effects.[15] Starting in the Late Middle Ages and thereafter, some believed that witches applied these ointments or ingested these potions to help them fly to gatherings with other witches, meet with the Devil, or to experience bacchanalian carousal.[16][17]

References

  1. ^ Ungricht, Stefan; Knapp, Sandra & Press, John R. (1998). "A revision of the genus Mandragora (Solanaceae)". Bulletin of the Natural History Museum, Botany Series. 28 (1): 17–40. Retrieved 2015-03-31.
  2. ^ a b c John Gerard (1597). . Claude Moore Health Sciences Library. Archived from the original on 2012-09-01. Retrieved 2015-08-03.
  3. ^ Wedgwood, Hensleigh (1855). "On False Etymologies". Transactions of the Philological Society (6): 67.
  4. ^ "Alraune (Kulturgeschichte)", Wikipedia (in German), 2023-03-05, retrieved 2023-03-06
  5. ^ Jiménez-Mejías, M.E.; Montaño-Díaz, M.; López Pardo, F.; Campos Jiménez, E.; Martín Cordero, M.C.; Ayuso González, M.J. & González de la Puente, M.A. (1990-11-24). "Intoxicación atropínica por Mandragora autumnalis: descripción de quince casos [Atropine poisoning by Mandragora autumnalis: a report of 15 cases]". Medicina Clínica. 95 (18): 689–692. PMID 2087109.
  6. ^ Piccillo, Giovita A.; Mondati, Enrico G. M. & Moro, Paola A. (2002). "Six clinical cases of Mandragora autumnalis poisoning: diagnosis and treatment". European Journal of Emergency Medicine. 9 (4): 342–347. doi:10.1097/00063110-200212000-00010. PMID 12501035.
  7. ^ a b c d A Modern Herbal, first published in 1931, by Mrs. M. Grieve, contains Medicinal, Culinary, Cosmetic and Economic Properties, Cultivation and Folk-Lore.
  8. ^ Carod-Artal, F. J. (2013). "Psychoactive plants in ancient Greece". nah.sen.es. Retrieved 2021-02-17.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  9. ^ "Genesis 30:14–16 (King James Version)". Bible Gateway. Retrieved 6 January 2014.
  10. ^ "Song of Songs 7:12–13 (King James Version)". Bible Gateway. Retrieved 6 January 2014.
  11. ^ James Hastings (October 2004). A Dictionary of the Bible: Volume III: (Part I: Kir -- Nympha). University Press of the Pacific. ISBN 978-1-4102-1726-4. Retrieved 28 May 2014.
  12. ^ pp. 312, by Eliphas Levi. 1896
  13. ^ pp. 402-403, by Paul Christian. 1963
  14. ^ Hansen, Harold A. The Witch's Garden pub. Unity Press 1978 ISBN 978-0913300473
  15. ^ Raetsch, Ch. (2005). The encyclopedia of psychoactive plants: ethnopharmacology and its applications. US: Park Street Press. pp. 277–282.
  16. ^ Peters, Edward (2001). "Sorcerer and Witch". In Jolly, Karen Louise; Raudvere, Catharina; et al. (eds.). Witchcraft and Magic in Europe: The Middle Ages. Continuum International Publishing Group. pp. 233–37. ISBN 978-0-485-89003-7.
  17. ^ Hansen, Harold A. The Witch's Garden pub. Unity Press 1978 ISBN 978-0913300473

Further reading

  • Heiser, Charles B. Jr (1969). Nightshades, The Paradoxical Plant, 131-136. W. H. Freeman & Co. SBN 7167 0672-5.
  • Thompson, C. J. S. (reprint 1968). The Mystic Mandrake. University Books.
  • Muraresku, Brian C. (2020). The Immortality Key: The Secret History of the Religion with No Name. Macmillan USA. ISBN 978-1250207142

External links

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mandrake (mythological plant).
 
Wikispecies has information related to Mandragora.
  • Erowid Mandrake Vault
  • Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Mandrake" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
  • Mandragora in Wildflowers of Israel

March 09, 2023
mandrake, other, uses, disambiguation, mandrake, root, plant, historically, derived, either, from, plants, genus, mandragora, found, mediterranean, region, from, other, species, such, bryonia, alba, english, mandrake, which, have, similar, properties, plants, . For other uses see Mandrake disambiguation A mandrake is the root of a plant historically derived either from plants of the genus Mandragora found in the Mediterranean region or from other species such as Bryonia alba the English mandrake which have similar properties The plants from which the root is obtained are also called mandrakes Mediterranean mandrakes are perennial herbaceous plants with ovate leaves arranged in a rosette a thick upright root often branched and bell shaped flowers followed by yellow or orange berries They have been placed in different species by different authors They are highly variable perennial herbaceous plants with long thick roots often branched and almost no stem The leaves are borne in a basal rosette and are variable in size and shape with a maximum length of 45 cm 18 in They are usually either elliptical in shape or wider towards the end obovate with varying degrees of hairiness 1 The so called female and male mandrakes from a 1583 illustration The flowers of Mandragora officinarum A mandrake root resembling a human form Science Museum London Because mandrakes contain deliriant hallucinogenic tropane alkaloids and the shape of their roots often resembles human figures they have been associated with magic rituals throughout history including present day contemporary pagan traditions such as Wicca and Odinism 2 The English name of the plant derives from Latin mandragora through French main de gloire 3 In German it is known as alraune believed to mean all rune or elf rune referring to the plants folkloric ability to impart wisdom 4 Contents 1 Toxicity 2 Folklore 2 1 In the Bible 2 2 Magic and witchcraft 3 References 4 Further reading 5 External linksToxicity EditAll species of Mandragora contain highly biologically active alkaloids tropane alkaloids in particular The alkaloids make the plant in particular the root and leaves poisonous via anticholinergic hallucinogenic and hypnotic effects Anticholinergic properties can lead to asphyxiation Accidental poisoning is not uncommon Ingesting mandrake root is likely to have other adverse effects such as vomiting and diarrhea The alkaloid concentration varies between plant samples Clinical reports of the effects of consumption of Mediterranean mandrake include severe symptoms similar to those of atropine poisoning including blurred vision dilation of the pupils mydriasis dryness of the mouth difficulty in urinating dizziness headache vomiting blushing and a rapid heart rate tachycardia Hyperactivity and hallucinations occurred in the majority of patients 5 6 Folklore EditThe root is hallucinogenic and narcotic In sufficient quantities it induces a state of unconsciousness and was used as an anaesthetic for surgery in ancient times 7 In the past juice from the finely grated root was applied externally to relieve rheumatic pains 7 It was used internally to treat melancholy convulsions and mania 7 When taken internally in large doses it was said to excite delirium and madness 7 fol 16r from University of Pennsylvania LJS 46 Herbal etc from Italy and England dated to ca 1520 In the past mandrake was often made into amulets which were believed to bring good fortune cure sterility etc In one superstition people who pull up this root will be condemned to hell and the mandrake root would scream and cry as it was pulled from the ground killing anyone who heard it 2 Therefore in the past people have tied the roots to the bodies of animals and then used these animals to pull the roots from the soil 2 This folklore reference is integrated into part of the portrayal of the fictional mandrake described in Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets J K Rowling 1998 The ancient Greeks burned mandrake as incense 8 In the Bible Edit Two references to דודאים duda im plural singular דודא duda literally meaning love plants occur in the Jewish scriptures The Septuagint translates דודאים as mandragoras mandragoras and the Vulgate follows the Septuagint A number of later translations into different languages follow Septuagint and Vulgate and use mandrake as the plant as the proper meaning in both the Book of Genesis 30 14 16 and Song of Songs 7 12 13 Others follow the example of the Luther Bible and provide a more literal translation In Genesis 30 14 Reuben the eldest son of Jacob and Leah finds mandrakes in a field Rachel Jacob s infertile second wife and Leah s sister is desirous of the דודאים and barters with Leah for them The trade offered by Rachel is for Leah to spend that night in Jacob s bed in exchange for Leah s דודאים Leah gives away the plants to her barren sister but soon after this Genesis 30 14 22 Leah who had previously had four sons but had been infertile for a long while became pregnant once more and in time gave birth to two more sons Issachar and Zebulun and a daughter Dinah Only years after this episode of her asking for the mandrakes did Rachel manage to become pregnant 14 And Reuben went in the days of wheat harvest and found mandrakes in the field and brought them unto his mother Leah Then Rachel said to Leah Give me I pray thee of thy son s mandrakes 15 And she said unto her Is it a small matter that thou hast taken my husband and wouldest thou take away my son s mandrakes also And Rachel said Therefore he shall lie with thee to night for thy son s mandrakes 16 And Jacob came out of the field in the evening and Leah went out to meet him and said Thou must come in unto me for surely I have hired thee with my son s mandrakes And he lay with her that night the Bible King James Version Genesis 30 14 16 9 Sir Thomas Browne in Pseudodoxia Epidemica ch VII suggested the duda im of Genesis 30 14 is the opium poppy because the word duda im may be a reference to a woman s breasts The final verses of Chapter 7 of Song of Songs Song of Songs 7 12 13 are נ ש כ ימ ה ל כ ר מ ים נ ר א ה א ם פ ר ח ה ה ג פ ן פ ת ח ה ס מ ד ר ה נ צו ה ר מ ונ ים ש ם א ת ן א ת ד ד י ל ך ה ד ו ד א ים נ ת נו ר יח ו ע ל פ ת ח ינו כ ל מ ג ד ים ח ד ש ים ג ם י ש נ ים ד ו ד י צ פ נ ת י ל ך 12 Let us get up early to the vineyards let us see if the vine flourish whether the tender grape appear and the pomegranates bud forth there will I give thee my loves 13 The mandrakes give a smell and at our gates are all manner of pleasant fruits new and old which I have laid up for thee O my beloved the Bible King James Version Song of Songs 7 12 13 10 Magic and witchcraft Edit Mandragora from Tacuinum Sanitatis 1474 According to the legend when the root is dug up it screams and kills all who hear it Literature includes complex directions for harvesting a mandrake root in relative safety For example Josephus circa 37 100 AD of Jerusalem gives the following directions for pulling it up A furrow must be dug around the root until its lower part is exposed then a dog is tied to it after which the person tying the dog must get away The dog then endeavours to follow him and so easily pulls up the root but dies suddenly instead of his master After this the root can be handled without fear 11 Excerpt from Chapter XVI Witchcraft and Spells of Transcendental Magic Its Doctrine and Ritual by nineteenth century occultist and ceremonial magician Eliphas Levi The natural mandragore is a filamentous root which more or less presents as a whole either the figure of a man or that of the virile members It is slightly narcotic and an aphrodisiacal virtue was ascribed to it by the ancients who represented it as being sought by Thessalian sorcerers for the composition of philtres Is this root the umbilical vestige of our terrestrial origin We dare not seriously affirm it but all the same it is certain that man came out of the slime of the earth and his first appearance must have been in the form of a rough sketch The analogies of nature make this notion necessarily admissible at least as a possibility The first men were in this case a family of gigantic sensitive mandragores animated by the sun who rooted themselves up from the earth this assumption not only does not exclude but on the contrary positively supposes creative will and the providential co operation of a first cause which we have REASON to call GOD Some alchemists impressed by this idea speculated on the culture of the mandragore and experimented in the artificial reproduction of a soil sufficiently fruitful and a sun sufficiently active to humanise the said root and thus create men without the concurrence of the female Others who regarded humanity as the synthesis of animals despaired about vitalising the mandragore but they crossed monstrous pairs and projected human seed into animal earth only for the production of shameful crimes and barren deformities 12 The following is taken from Jean Baptiste Pitois The History and Practice of Magic Would you like to make a Mandragora as powerful as the homunculus little man in a bottle so praised by Paracelsus Then find a root of the plant called bryony Take it out of the ground on a Monday the day of the moon a little time after the vernal equinox Cut off the ends of the root and bury it at night in some country churchyard in a dead man s grave For 30 days water it with cow s milk in which three bats have been drowned When the 31st day arrives take out the root in the middle of the night and dry it in an oven heated with branches of verbena then wrap it up in a piece of a dead man s winding sheet and carry it with you everywhere 13 In Medieval times mandrake was considered a key ingredient in a multitude of witches flying ointment recipes as well as a primary component of magical potions and brews 14 These were entheogenic preparations used in European witchcraft for their mind altering and hallucinogenic effects 15 Starting in the Late Middle Ages and thereafter some believed that witches applied these ointments or ingested these potions to help them fly to gatherings with other witches meet with the Devil or to experience bacchanalian carousal 16 17 References Edit Ungricht Stefan Knapp Sandra amp Press John R 1998 A revision of the genus Mandragora Solanaceae Bulletin of the Natural History Museum Botany Series 28 1 17 40 Retrieved 2015 03 31 a b c John Gerard 1597 Herball Generall Historie of Plants Claude Moore Health Sciences Library Archived from the original on 2012 09 01 Retrieved 2015 08 03 Wedgwood Hensleigh 1855 On False Etymologies Transactions of the Philological Society 6 67 Alraune Kulturgeschichte Wikipedia in German 2023 03 05 retrieved 2023 03 06 Jimenez Mejias M E Montano Diaz M Lopez Pardo F Campos Jimenez E Martin Cordero M C Ayuso Gonzalez M J amp Gonzalez de la Puente M A 1990 11 24 Intoxicacion atropinica por Mandragora autumnalis descripcion de quince casos Atropine poisoning by Mandragora autumnalis a report of 15 cases Medicina Clinica 95 18 689 692 PMID 2087109 Piccillo Giovita A Mondati Enrico G M amp Moro Paola A 2002 Six clinical cases of Mandragora autumnalis poisoning diagnosis and treatment European Journal of Emergency Medicine 9 4 342 347 doi 10 1097 00063110 200212000 00010 PMID 12501035 a b c d A Modern Herbal first published in 1931 by Mrs M Grieve contains Medicinal Culinary Cosmetic and Economic Properties Cultivation and Folk Lore Carod Artal F J 2013 Psychoactive plants in ancient Greece nah sen es Retrieved 2021 02 17 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint url status link Genesis 30 14 16 King James Version Bible Gateway Retrieved 6 January 2014 Song of Songs 7 12 13 King James Version Bible Gateway Retrieved 6 January 2014 James Hastings October 2004 A Dictionary of the Bible Volume III Part I Kir Nympha University Press of the Pacific ISBN 978 1 4102 1726 4 Retrieved 28 May 2014 pp 312 by Eliphas Levi 1896 pp 402 403 by Paul Christian 1963 Hansen Harold A The Witch s Garden pub Unity Press 1978 ISBN 978 0913300473 Raetsch Ch 2005 The encyclopedia of psychoactive plants ethnopharmacology and its applications US Park Street Press pp 277 282 Peters Edward 2001 Sorcerer and Witch In Jolly Karen Louise Raudvere Catharina et al eds Witchcraft and Magic in Europe The Middle Ages Continuum International Publishing Group pp 233 37 ISBN 978 0 485 89003 7 Hansen Harold A The Witch s Garden pub Unity Press 1978 ISBN 978 0913300473Further reading EditHeiser Charles B Jr 1969 Nightshades The Paradoxical Plant 131 136 W H Freeman amp Co SBN 7167 0672 5 Thompson C J S reprint 1968 The Mystic Mandrake University Books Muraresku Brian C 2020 The Immortality Key The Secret History of the Religion with No Name Macmillan USA ISBN 978 1250207142External links Edit Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mandrake mythological plant Wikispecies has information related to Mandragora Erowid Mandrake Vault Chisholm Hugh ed 1911 Mandrake Encyclopaedia Britannica 11th ed Cambridge University Press Mandragora in Wildflowers of Israel Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Mandrake amp oldid 1143291546, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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