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Wisconsin Card Sorting Test

January 01, 1970

The Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) is a neuropsychological test of set-shifting, which is the capability to show flexibility when exposed to changes in reinforcement.[1][2] The WCST was written by David A. Grant and Esta A. Berg. The Professional Manual for the WCST was written by Robert K. Heaton, Gordon J. Chelune, Jack L. Talley, Gary G. Kay, and Glenn Curtiss.

Wisconsin Card Sorting Test
Screenshot from the PEBL computerized version of the Wisconsin Card sort
Purposemeasure frontal lobe dysfunction

Method edit

Stimulus cards are shown to the participant and the participant is then instructed to match the cards.[3] They are not given instructions on how to match the cards but are given feedback when the matches they make are right or wrong.[4] When the test was first released the method of showing the cards was done with an evaluator using paper cards with the evaluator on one side of the desk facing the participant on the other.[5] The test takes approximately 12–20 minutes to carry out using manual scoring which is greatly reduced with the aid of computer testing.[6][7] The test results produce a number of useful psychometric scores, including numbers, percentages, and percentiles of: categories achieved, trials, errors, and perseverative errors.[8][9]

The WCST has been shown to be reliable and valid in multiple populations including people with autism,[10] people recovering from a stroke,[11] pediatric populations,[12] and psychiatric populations.[13]

Clinical use edit

Since 1948, the test has been used by neuropsychologists and clinical psychologists in patients with acquired brain injury,[11][14][15] neurodegenerative disease, or mental illness such as schizophrenia.[13][16] It is one of several psychological tests which can be administered to patients to measure frontal lobe dysfunction.[17][18] When administered, the WCST allows the clinician speculate to the following frontal lobe functions: strategic planning, organized searching, utilizing environmental feedback to shift cognitive sets, directing behavior toward achieving a goal, and modulating impulsive responding.[19][20] The test can be administered to those from 6.5 years to 89 years of age.[21][22] The WCST, relies upon a number of cognitive functions including attention, working memory, and visual processing.[23][24][25] The WCST was originally developed to measure abstract reasoning[26] as such it may be used to help measure an individual's competence in abstract reasoning, and the ability to change problem-solving strategies when needed.[27][28] In this test, a number of cards are presented to the participants. The figures on the cards differ with respect to color, quantity, and shape.[29]

Psychological tests such as the WCST, administered alone, cannot be used to measure the effects of a frontal lobe injury, or the aspects of cognitive function it may affect, such as working memory; a variety of tests must be used.[17][30][31] A participant may be good at one task but show dysfunction in executive function overall. Similarly, test results can be made misleading after testing the same individual over a long period of time. The participant may get better at a task, but not because of an improvement in executive cognitive function; they may have simply learned some strategies for doing this particular task that made it no longer a good measurement tool.[32][33]

References edit

  1. ^ Monchi, O., Petrides, M. Petre, V., Worsley, K., & Dagher, A. (2001). Wisconsin card sorting revisited: Distinct neural circuits participating in different stages of the task identified by event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging. The Journal of Neuroscience, 21(19), 7733-7741.
  2. ^ E. A. Berg. (1948). A simple objective technique for measuring flexibility in thinking J. Gen. Psychol. 39: 15-22.
  3. ^ Grant, David A.; Berg, Esta A. (2014-07-07). "Wisconsin Card Sorting Test". doi:10.1037/t31298-000. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  4. ^ Barceló, Francisco (2001). "Does the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test Measure Prefontral Function?". The Spanish Journal of Psychology. 4 (1): 79–100. doi:10.1017/S1138741600005680. ISSN 1138-7416. PMID 11705346. S2CID 10432180.
  5. ^ Jodzio, Krzysztof; Biechowska, Daria (2010-11-30). "Wisconsin Card Sorting Test as a Measure of Executive Function Impairments in Stroke Patients". Applied Neuropsychology. 17 (4): 267–277. doi:10.1080/09084282.2010.525104. ISSN 0908-4282. PMID 21154040. S2CID 205615311.
  6. ^ Feldstein, Simeon N.; Keller, Frederick R.; Portman, Rebecca E.; Durham, Robert L.; Klebe, Kelli J.; Davis, Hasker P. (1999). "A Comparison of Computerized and Standard Versions of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test". The Clinical Neuropsychologist. 13 (3): 303–313. doi:10.1076/clin.13.3.303.1744. ISSN 1385-4046. PMID 10726602.
  7. ^ Heaton, R. K., & Staff, P. A. R. (1993). Wisconsin card sorting test: computer version 2. Odessa: Psychological Assessment Resources, 4, 1-4.
  8. ^ Romine, C (2004). "Wisconsin Card Sorting Test with children: a meta-analytic study of sensitivity and specificity". Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology. 19 (8): 1027–1041. doi:10.1016/j.acn.2003.12.009. PMID 15533695.
  9. ^ Bowden, Stephen C.; Fowler, Kylie S.; Bell, Richard C.; Whelan, Gregory; Clifford, Christine C.; Ritter, Alison J.; Long, Caroline M. (1998). "The Reliability and Internal Validity of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test". Neuropsychological Rehabilitation. 8 (3): 243–254. doi:10.1080/713755573. ISSN 0960-2011.
  10. ^ Ozonoff, Sally (1995). "Reliability and validity of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test in studies of autism". Neuropsychology. 9 (4): 491–500. doi:10.1037/0894-4105.9.4.491. ISSN 1931-1559.
  11. ^ a b Chiu, En-Chi; Wu, Wen-Chi; Hung, Jen-Wen; Tseng, Yu-Hsuan (2018-07-31). "Validity of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test in patients with stroke". Disability and Rehabilitation. 40 (16): 1967–1971. doi:10.1080/09638288.2017.1323020. ISSN 0963-8288. PMID 28494623. S2CID 205662922.
  12. ^ Lichtenstein, Jonathan D.; Erdodi, Laszlo A.; Rai, Jaspreet K.; Mazur-Mosiewicz, Anya; Flaro, Lloyd (2018-02-17). "Wisconsin Card Sorting Test embedded validity indicators developed for adults can be extended to children". Child Neuropsychology. 24 (2): 247–260. doi:10.1080/09297049.2016.1259402. ISSN 0929-7049. PMID 27892806. S2CID 4546591.
  13. ^ a b Bell, Morris D.; Greig, Tamasine Conway; Kaplan, Edward; Bryson, Gary (1997). "Wisconsin card sorting test dimensions in schizophrenia: Factorial, predictive, and divergent validity". Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology. 19 (6): 933–941. doi:10.1080/01688639708403774. ISSN 1380-3395. PMID 9524888.
  14. ^ Greve, Kevin W.; Bianchini, Kevin J.; Mathias, Charles W.; Houston, Rebecca J.; Crouch, John A. (2002). "Detecting Malingered Performance With the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: A Preliminary Investigation in Traumatic Brain Injury". The Clinical Neuropsychologist. 16 (2): 179–191. doi:10.1076/clin.16.2.179.13241. ISSN 1385-4046. PMID 12221480. S2CID 42534630.
  15. ^ Drewe, E.A. (1974). "The Effect of Type and Area of Brain Lesion on Wisconsin Card Sorting Test Performance". Cortex. 10 (2): 159–170. doi:10.1016/S0010-9452(74)80006-7. PMID 4844468.
  16. ^ Banno M, Koide T, Aleksic B, et al. (2012). "Wisconsin Card Sorting Test scores and clinical and sociodemographic correlates in schizophrenia: multiple logistic regression analysis". BMJ Open. 2 (6): e001340. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2012-001340. PMC 3533115. PMID 23135537.
  17. ^ a b Anderson, Steven W.; Damasio, Hanna; Jones, R. Dallas; Tranel, Daniel (1991). "Wisconsin Card Sorting Test Performance as a Measure of Frontal Lobe Damage". Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology. 13 (6): 909–922. doi:10.1080/01688639108405107. ISSN 0168-8634. PMID 1779030.
  18. ^ Robinson, Amy L.; Heaton, Robert K.; Lehman, Ralph A.; Stilson, Donald W. (1980). "The utility of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test in detecting and localizing frontal lobe lesions". Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 48 (5): 605–614. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.48.5.605. ISSN 1939-2117. PMID 7410659.
  19. ^ Weyandt, Lisa L.; Willis, W. Grant (1994). "Executive functions in school‐aged children: Potential efficacy of tasks in discriminating clinical groups". Developmental Neuropsychology. 10 (1): 27–38. doi:10.1080/87565649409540564. ISSN 8756-5641.
  20. ^ Rzezak, Patricia; Fuentes, Daniel; Guimarães, Catarina A.; Thome-Souza, Sigride; Kuczynski, Evelyn; Guerreiro, Marilisa; Valente, Kette D.R. (2009). "Executive dysfunction in children and adolescents with temporal lobe epilepsy: Is the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test enough?". Epilepsy & Behavior. 15 (3): 376–381. doi:10.1016/j.yebeh.2009.04.014. PMID 19379836. S2CID 19431911.
  21. ^ Rhodes, Matthew G. (2004). "Age-Related Differences in Performance on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: A Meta-Analytic Review". Psychology and Aging. 19 (3): 482–494. doi:10.1037/0882-7974.19.3.482. ISSN 1939-1498. PMID 15382998.
  22. ^ Chelune, Gordon J.; Baer, Ruth A. (1986). "Developmental norms for the wisconsin card sorting test". Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology. 8 (3): 219–228. doi:10.1080/01688638608401314. ISSN 0168-8634. PMID 3722348.
  23. ^ Barceló, Francisco; Muñoz-Céspedes, Juan M; Pozo, Miguel A; Rubia, Francisco J (2000). "Attentional set shifting modulates the target P3b Response in the Wisconsin card sorting test". Neuropsychologia. 38 (10): 1342–1355. doi:10.1016/S0028-3932(00)00046-4. PMID 10869577. S2CID 10663176.
  24. ^ Wang, Lihong; Kakigi, Ryusuke; Hoshiyama, Minoru (2001). "Neural activities during Wisconsin Card Sorting Test — MEG observation". Cognitive Brain Research. 12 (1): 19–31. doi:10.1016/S0926-6410(01)00022-2. PMID 11489605.
  25. ^ Berman, K (1995). "Physiological activation of a cortical network during performance of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: A positron emission tomography study". Neuropsychologia. 33 (8): 1027–1046. doi:10.1016/0028-3932(95)00035-2. PMID 8524452. S2CID 21624133.
  26. ^ Eling, Paul; Derckx, Kristianne; Maes, Roald (2008). "On the historical and conceptual background of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test". Brain and Cognition. 67 (3): 247–253. doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2008.01.006. hdl:2066/73651. PMID 18328609. S2CID 205788199.
  27. ^ Biederam J, Faraone S, Monutaeux M, et al. (2000). "Neuropsychological functioning in nonreferred siblings of children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder". Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 109 (2): 252–65. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.109.2.252. PMID 10895563.
  28. ^ Teubner-Rhodes, Susan; Vaden, Kenneth I.; Dubno, Judy R.; Eckert, Mark A. (2017). "Cognitive persistence: Development and validation of a novel measure from the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test". Neuropsychologia. 102: 95–108. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2017.05.027. PMC 5538310. PMID 28552783.
  29. ^ US National Library of Medicine National Institutes of Health, 2009
  30. ^ Mountain, Mary Ann; Snow, William G. (1993). "Wisconsin card sorting test as a measure of frontal pathology: A review". Clinical Neuropsychologist. 7 (1): 108–118. doi:10.1080/13854049308401893. ISSN 0920-1637.
  31. ^ Stuss, D.T.; Levine, B.; Alexander, M.P.; Hong, J.; Palumbo, C.; Hamer, L.; Murphy, K.J.; Izukawa, D. (2000). "Wisconsin Card Sorting Test performance in patients with focal frontal and posterior brain damage: effects of lesion location and test structure on separable cognitive processes". Neuropsychologia. 38 (4): 388–402. doi:10.1016/S0028-3932(99)00093-7. PMID 10683390. S2CID 23448920.
  32. ^ Kane, M.J. & Engle, R.W. (2002). "The role of prefontal cortex in working-memory capacity, executive attention, and general fluid intelligence: An individual-differences perspective." Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 9(4), 637-671. Retrieved from (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-12-27. Retrieved 2011-12-31.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  33. ^ Basso, Michael R.; Lowery, Natasha; Ghormley, Courtney; Bornstein, Robert A. (2001). "Practice Effects on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test–64 Card Version Across 12 Months". The Clinical Neuropsychologist. 15 (4): 471–478. doi:10.1076/clin.15.4.471.1883. ISSN 1385-4046. PMID 11935448. S2CID 28784781.

Further reading edit

  • Strauss, Esther; Sherman, Elizabeth M.; Spreen, Otfried (2006). A Compendium of Neuropsychological Tests: Administration, Norms, and Commentary. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-515957-8. Retrieved 14 July 2013.

External links edit

  • Online demonstration of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test via PsyToolkit
  • Android application, which demonstrates the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test via Metatrans Apps

January 01, 1970
wisconsin, card, sorting, test, wcst, neuropsychological, test, shifting, which, capability, show, flexibility, when, exposed, changes, reinforcement, wcst, written, david, grant, esta, berg, professional, manual, wcst, written, robert, heaton, gordon, chelune. The Wisconsin Card Sorting Test WCST is a neuropsychological test of set shifting which is the capability to show flexibility when exposed to changes in reinforcement 1 2 The WCST was written by David A Grant and Esta A Berg The Professional Manual for the WCST was written by Robert K Heaton Gordon J Chelune Jack L Talley Gary G Kay and Glenn Curtiss Wisconsin Card Sorting TestScreenshot from the PEBL computerized version of the Wisconsin Card sortPurposemeasure frontal lobe dysfunction Contents 1 Method 2 Clinical use 3 References 4 Further reading 5 External linksMethod editStimulus cards are shown to the participant and the participant is then instructed to match the cards 3 They are not given instructions on how to match the cards but are given feedback when the matches they make are right or wrong 4 When the test was first released the method of showing the cards was done with an evaluator using paper cards with the evaluator on one side of the desk facing the participant on the other 5 The test takes approximately 12 20 minutes to carry out using manual scoring which is greatly reduced with the aid of computer testing 6 7 The test results produce a number of useful psychometric scores including numbers percentages and percentiles of categories achieved trials errors and perseverative errors 8 9 The WCST has been shown to be reliable and valid in multiple populations including people with autism 10 people recovering from a stroke 11 pediatric populations 12 and psychiatric populations 13 Clinical use editSince 1948 the test has been used by neuropsychologists and clinical psychologists in patients with acquired brain injury 11 14 15 neurodegenerative disease or mental illness such as schizophrenia 13 16 It is one of several psychological tests which can be administered to patients to measure frontal lobe dysfunction 17 18 When administered the WCST allows the clinician speculate to the following frontal lobe functions strategic planning organized searching utilizing environmental feedback to shift cognitive sets directing behavior toward achieving a goal and modulating impulsive responding 19 20 The test can be administered to those from 6 5 years to 89 years of age 21 22 The WCST relies upon a number of cognitive functions including attention working memory and visual processing 23 24 25 The WCST was originally developed to measure abstract reasoning 26 as such it may be used to help measure an individual s competence in abstract reasoning and the ability to change problem solving strategies when needed 27 28 In this test a number of cards are presented to the participants The figures on the cards differ with respect to color quantity and shape 29 Psychological tests such as the WCST administered alone cannot be used to measure the effects of a frontal lobe injury or the aspects of cognitive function it may affect such as working memory a variety of tests must be used 17 30 31 A participant may be good at one task but show dysfunction in executive function overall Similarly test results can be made misleading after testing the same individual over a long period of time The participant may get better at a task but not because of an improvement in executive cognitive function they may have simply learned some strategies for doing this particular task that made it no longer a good measurement tool 32 33 References edit Monchi O Petrides M Petre V Worsley K amp Dagher A 2001 Wisconsin card sorting revisited Distinct neural circuits participating in different stages of the task identified by event related functional magnetic resonance imaging The Journal of Neuroscience 21 19 7733 7741 E A Berg 1948 A simple objective technique for measuring flexibility in thinking J Gen Psychol 39 15 22 Grant David A Berg Esta A 2014 07 07 Wisconsin Card Sorting Test doi 10 1037 t31298 000 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Barcelo Francisco 2001 Does the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test Measure Prefontral Function The Spanish Journal of Psychology 4 1 79 100 doi 10 1017 S1138741600005680 ISSN 1138 7416 PMID 11705346 S2CID 10432180 Jodzio Krzysztof Biechowska Daria 2010 11 30 Wisconsin Card Sorting Test as a Measure of Executive Function Impairments in Stroke Patients Applied Neuropsychology 17 4 267 277 doi 10 1080 09084282 2010 525104 ISSN 0908 4282 PMID 21154040 S2CID 205615311 Feldstein Simeon N Keller Frederick R Portman Rebecca E Durham Robert L Klebe Kelli J Davis Hasker P 1999 A Comparison of Computerized and Standard Versions of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test The Clinical Neuropsychologist 13 3 303 313 doi 10 1076 clin 13 3 303 1744 ISSN 1385 4046 PMID 10726602 Heaton R K amp Staff P A R 1993 Wisconsin card sorting test computer version 2 Odessa Psychological Assessment Resources 4 1 4 Romine C 2004 Wisconsin Card Sorting Test with children a meta analytic study of sensitivity and specificity Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology 19 8 1027 1041 doi 10 1016 j acn 2003 12 009 PMID 15533695 Bowden Stephen C Fowler Kylie S Bell Richard C Whelan Gregory Clifford Christine C Ritter Alison J Long Caroline M 1998 The Reliability and Internal Validity of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test Neuropsychological Rehabilitation 8 3 243 254 doi 10 1080 713755573 ISSN 0960 2011 Ozonoff Sally 1995 Reliability and validity of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test in studies of autism Neuropsychology 9 4 491 500 doi 10 1037 0894 4105 9 4 491 ISSN 1931 1559 a b Chiu En Chi Wu Wen Chi Hung Jen Wen Tseng Yu Hsuan 2018 07 31 Validity of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test in patients with stroke Disability and Rehabilitation 40 16 1967 1971 doi 10 1080 09638288 2017 1323020 ISSN 0963 8288 PMID 28494623 S2CID 205662922 Lichtenstein Jonathan D Erdodi Laszlo A Rai Jaspreet K Mazur Mosiewicz Anya Flaro Lloyd 2018 02 17 Wisconsin Card Sorting Test embedded validity indicators developed for adults can be extended to children Child Neuropsychology 24 2 247 260 doi 10 1080 09297049 2016 1259402 ISSN 0929 7049 PMID 27892806 S2CID 4546591 a b Bell Morris D Greig Tamasine Conway Kaplan Edward Bryson Gary 1997 Wisconsin card sorting test dimensions in schizophrenia Factorial predictive and divergent validity Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 19 6 933 941 doi 10 1080 01688639708403774 ISSN 1380 3395 PMID 9524888 Greve Kevin W Bianchini Kevin J Mathias Charles W Houston Rebecca J Crouch John A 2002 Detecting Malingered Performance With the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test A Preliminary Investigation in Traumatic Brain Injury The Clinical Neuropsychologist 16 2 179 191 doi 10 1076 clin 16 2 179 13241 ISSN 1385 4046 PMID 12221480 S2CID 42534630 Drewe E A 1974 The Effect of Type and Area of Brain Lesion on Wisconsin Card Sorting Test Performance Cortex 10 2 159 170 doi 10 1016 S0010 9452 74 80006 7 PMID 4844468 Banno M Koide T Aleksic B et al 2012 Wisconsin Card Sorting Test scores and clinical and sociodemographic correlates in schizophrenia multiple logistic regression analysis BMJ Open 2 6 e001340 doi 10 1136 bmjopen 2012 001340 PMC 3533115 PMID 23135537 a b Anderson Steven W Damasio Hanna Jones R Dallas Tranel Daniel 1991 Wisconsin Card Sorting Test Performance as a Measure of Frontal Lobe Damage Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 13 6 909 922 doi 10 1080 01688639108405107 ISSN 0168 8634 PMID 1779030 Robinson Amy L Heaton Robert K Lehman Ralph A Stilson Donald W 1980 The utility of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test in detecting and localizing frontal lobe lesions Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 48 5 605 614 doi 10 1037 0022 006X 48 5 605 ISSN 1939 2117 PMID 7410659 Weyandt Lisa L Willis W Grant 1994 Executive functions in school aged children Potential efficacy of tasks in discriminating clinical groups Developmental Neuropsychology 10 1 27 38 doi 10 1080 87565649409540564 ISSN 8756 5641 Rzezak Patricia Fuentes Daniel Guimaraes Catarina A Thome Souza Sigride Kuczynski Evelyn Guerreiro Marilisa Valente Kette D R 2009 Executive dysfunction in children and adolescents with temporal lobe epilepsy Is the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test enough Epilepsy amp Behavior 15 3 376 381 doi 10 1016 j yebeh 2009 04 014 PMID 19379836 S2CID 19431911 Rhodes Matthew G 2004 Age Related Differences in Performance on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test A Meta Analytic Review Psychology and Aging 19 3 482 494 doi 10 1037 0882 7974 19 3 482 ISSN 1939 1498 PMID 15382998 Chelune Gordon J Baer Ruth A 1986 Developmental norms for the wisconsin card sorting test Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 8 3 219 228 doi 10 1080 01688638608401314 ISSN 0168 8634 PMID 3722348 Barcelo Francisco Munoz Cespedes Juan M Pozo Miguel A Rubia Francisco J 2000 Attentional set shifting modulates the target P3b Response in the Wisconsin card sorting test Neuropsychologia 38 10 1342 1355 doi 10 1016 S0028 3932 00 00046 4 PMID 10869577 S2CID 10663176 Wang Lihong Kakigi Ryusuke Hoshiyama Minoru 2001 Neural activities during Wisconsin Card Sorting Test MEG observation Cognitive Brain Research 12 1 19 31 doi 10 1016 S0926 6410 01 00022 2 PMID 11489605 Berman K 1995 Physiological activation of a cortical network during performance of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test A positron emission tomography study Neuropsychologia 33 8 1027 1046 doi 10 1016 0028 3932 95 00035 2 PMID 8524452 S2CID 21624133 Eling Paul Derckx Kristianne Maes Roald 2008 On the historical and conceptual background of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test Brain and Cognition 67 3 247 253 doi 10 1016 j bandc 2008 01 006 hdl 2066 73651 PMID 18328609 S2CID 205788199 Biederam J Faraone S Monutaeux M et al 2000 Neuropsychological functioning in nonreferred siblings of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder Journal of Abnormal Psychology 109 2 252 65 doi 10 1037 0021 843X 109 2 252 PMID 10895563 Teubner Rhodes Susan Vaden Kenneth I Dubno Judy R Eckert Mark A 2017 Cognitive persistence Development and validation of a novel measure from the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test Neuropsychologia 102 95 108 doi 10 1016 j neuropsychologia 2017 05 027 PMC 5538310 PMID 28552783 US National Library of Medicine National Institutes of Health 2009 Mountain Mary Ann Snow William G 1993 Wisconsin card sorting test as a measure of frontal pathology A review Clinical Neuropsychologist 7 1 108 118 doi 10 1080 13854049308401893 ISSN 0920 1637 Stuss D T Levine B Alexander M P Hong J Palumbo C Hamer L Murphy K J Izukawa D 2000 Wisconsin Card Sorting Test performance in patients with focal frontal and posterior brain damage effects of lesion location and test structure on separable cognitive processes Neuropsychologia 38 4 388 402 doi 10 1016 S0028 3932 99 00093 7 PMID 10683390 S2CID 23448920 Kane M J amp Engle R W 2002 The role of prefontal cortex in working memory capacity executive attention and general fluid intelligence An individual differences perspective Psychonomic Bulletin amp Review 9 4 637 671 Retrieved from Archived copy PDF Archived from the original PDF on 2011 12 27 Retrieved 2011 12 31 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint archived copy as title link Basso Michael R Lowery Natasha Ghormley Courtney Bornstein Robert A 2001 Practice Effects on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test 64 Card Version Across 12 Months The Clinical Neuropsychologist 15 4 471 478 doi 10 1076 clin 15 4 471 1883 ISSN 1385 4046 PMID 11935448 S2CID 28784781 Further reading editStrauss Esther Sherman Elizabeth M Spreen Otfried 2006 A Compendium of Neuropsychological Tests Administration Norms and Commentary Oxford Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 515957 8 Retrieved 14 July 2013 External links editOnline demonstration of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test via PsyToolkit Android application which demonstrates the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test via Metatrans Apps Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Wisconsin Card Sorting Test amp oldid 1208825574, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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