Hygrocybe is a genus of agarics (gilled fungi) in the familyHygrophoraceae. Called waxcaps in English (sometimes waxy caps in North America), basidiocarps (fruit bodies) are often brightly coloured and have dry to waxy caps, white spores, and smooth, ringless stems. In Europe they are characteristic of old, unimproved grasslands (termed waxcap grasslands) which are a declining habitat, making many Hygrocybe species of conservation concern. Four of these waxcap-grassland species, Hygrocybe citrinovirens, H. punicea, H. spadicea, and H. splendidissima, are assessed as globally "vulnerable" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.[2] Elsewhere waxcaps are more typically found in woodlands. Most are ground-dwelling and all are believed to be biotrophs. Around 150 species are recognized worldwide. Fruit bodies of several Hygrocybe species are considered edible and are sometimes offered for sale in local markets.
Hygrocybe was first published in 1821 by Swedish mycologistElias Magnus Fries as a subsection of Agaricus and in 1871 was raised to the rank of genus by Kummer. In several papers, Karsten and Murrill used the name Hydrocybe, but this is now taken as an orthographic variant of Hygrocybe. The generic name is derived from the Greek ῦγρὁς (= moist) + κυβη (= head).[3][4]
Despite its comparatively early publication, the genus Hygrocybe was not widely accepted until the 1970s, most previous authors treating it as a synonym of Hygrophorus, a related genus of ectomycorrhizal agarics.[3][5]
Fruit bodies of Hygrocybe species are all agaricoid, most (but not all) having smooth to slightly scaly caps that are convex to conical and dry to waxy or viscid when damp. Many (but not all) are brightly coloured in shades of red, orange, or yellow. Where present, the gills beneath the cap are often equally coloured and usually distant, thick, and waxy. One atypical South American species, Hygrocybe aphylla, lacks gills.[10] The stems of Hygrocybe species lack a ring. The spore print is white. Fruit bodies of some species, notably Hygrocybe conica, blacken with age or when bruised. Microscopically, Hygrocybe species lack true cystidia and have comparatively large, smooth, inamyloidbasidiospores.[11]
Habitat, nutrition, and distribution
Species of Hygrocybe are soil-dwelling. In Europe, most species are typical of unimproved (nutrient-poor), short-sward grasslands, often termed "waxcap grasslands",[12] but elsewhere they are more commonly found in woodland.
Their metabolism has long been debated, but recent research suggests that they are not saprotrophic[13][14] but rather symbiotically associated with the roots of higher plants or mosses. Hyphae of H. conica have been detected in plant roots.[14]
Species are distributed worldwide, from the tropics to the sub-polar regions. Around 150 have been described to date.[15] Waxcaps receive most attention in northern Europe,[16] where they are found in nutrient-poor pastures.[11] However, outside Europe, waxcaps are more commonly associated with woodland habitats, for example the sclerophyll forests site at Lane Cove Bushland Park and Ferndale Park, Sydney.[17]
In Europe, waxcap grasslands and their associated fungi are of conservation concern, since unimproved grasslands (formerly commonplace) have declined dramatically as a result of changes in agricultural practice. This decline has led to four European Hygrocybe species, Hygrocybe citrinovirens, H. punicea, H. spadicea, and H. splendidissima, being assessed as globally "vulnerable" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.[2]
Elsewhere, several rare and localized endemic species are assessed as globally "endangered" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.[2] They include Hygrocybe boothii in Australia, Hygrocybe noelokelani and Hygrocybe pakelo in Hawaii, Hygrocybe striatella in Chile, and Hygrocybe flavifolia in California.
Economic usage
Because Hygrocybe species cannot be maintained in culture,[18] none is cultivated commercially. Fruit bodies of a few species are considered edible in eastern Europe, south-east Asia, and Central America and are collected and consumed locally.[19]
Literature
No comprehensive monograph of the genus has yet been published. In Europe, however, species of Hygrocybe have been illustrated and described in a standard English-language guide by Boertmann (2010)[11] and also (together with Hygrophorus) in an Italian guide by Candusso (1997).[20] European species have also been covered, more briefly, in descriptive French keys by Bon (1990).[21] Dutch species were illustrated and described by Arnolds (1990).[22] No equivalent modern guides have been published for North America, the most recent being by Hesler & Smith (1963).[5] There is, however, a guide to Californian species by Largent (1985).[23] In Australia, Hygrocybe species have been illustrated and described by Young (2005)[24] and in New Zealand by Horak (1990).[25]
^"Hygrocybe (Fr.) P. Kumm". MycoBank. International Mycological Association. Retrieved 2011-09-22.
^ abc"Hygrocybe: The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species". Retrieved 2022-05-01.
^ abRea C. (1922). British Basidiomycetaceae: A Handbook of the Larger British Fungi. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 799.
^Cornelis, Schrevel (1826). Schrevelius' Greek lexicon, tr. into Engl. with numerous corrections. pp. 184–186. Retrieved 2011-10-04.
^ abHesler LR, Smith AH (1963). North American species of Hygrophorus. University of Tennessee Press. p. 416.
^Kovalenko AE, Moncalvo J-M, Vilgalys R, Petersen RH, Hughes KW, Lodge DJ (2002). "Recent advances in molecular phylogeny of temperate Hygrophoraceae and concordance with morphology and ecology (abstract)". IMC7 Abstracts (146).[permanent dead link]
^Matheny PB, Curtis JM, Hofstetter V, Aime MC, Moncalvo JM, Ge ZW, Slot JC, Ammirati JF, Baroni TJ, Bougher NL, Hughes KW, Lodge DJ, Kerrigan RW, Seidl MT, Aanen DK, DeNitis M, Daniele GM, Desjardin DE, Kropp BR, Norvell LL, Parker A, Vellinga EC, Vilgalys R, Hibbett DS (2006). (PDF). Mycologia. 98 (6): 982–95. doi:10.3852/mycologia.98.6.982. PMID 17486974. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-03-03.
^Babos M, Halász K, Zagyva T, Zöld-Balogh Á, Szegő D, Bratek Z (2011). "Preliminary notes on dual relevance of ITS sequences and pigments in Hygrocybe taxonomy". Persoonia. 26: 99–107. doi:10.3767/003158511X578349. PMC3160800. PMID 22025807.
^Lodge, D. Jean; Padamsee, Mahajabeen; Matheny, P. Brandon; Aime, M. Catherine; Cantrell, Sharon A.; Boertmann, David; Kovalenko, Alexander; Vizzini, Alfredo; Dentinger, Bryn T. M. (2014-01-01). "Molecular phylogeny, morphology, pigment chemistry and ecology in Hygrophoraceae (Agaricales)" (PDF). Fungal Diversity. 64 (1): 1–99. doi:10.1007/s13225-013-0259-0. ISSN 1560-2745. S2CID 220615978.
^Læssøe T, Boertmann D (2008). "A new alamellate Hygrocybe species from Ecuador". Mycological Research. 112 (Pt 10): 1206–1209. doi:10.1016/j.mycres.2008.04.002. PMID 18703325.
^ abcBoertmann D. (2010). The genus Hygrocybe (2nd ed.). Copenhagen: Danish Mycological Society. p. 200. ISBN978-87-983581-7-6.
^Rotheroe M, Newton A, Evans S, Feehan J (1996). "Waxcap-grassland survey". The Mycologist. 10: 23–25. doi:10.1016/s0269-915x(96)80046-2.
^Seitzman BH, Ouimette A, Mixon RL, Hobbie EA, Hibbett DS (2011). "Conservation of biotrophy in Hygrophoraceae inferred from combined stable isotope and phylogenetic analyses". Mycologia. 103 (2): 280–290. doi:10.3852/10-195. PMID 21139028. S2CID 318326.
^Kirk PM, Cannon PF, Minter DW, Stalpers JA (2008). Dictionary of the Fungi (10th ed.). Wallingford, UK: CABI. p. 446. ISBN978-0-85199-826-8.
^Griffith, G.W.; Gamarra, J.G.P.; Holden, E.M.; Mitchel, D.; Graham, A.; Evans, D.A.; Evans, S.E.; Aron, C.; Noordeloos, M.E.; Kirk, P.M.; Smith, S.L.N.; Woods, R.G.; Hale, A.D.; Easton, G.L.; Ratkowsky, D.A.; Stevens, D.P.; Halbwachs, H. (30 August 2014). "The international conservation importance of Welsh 'waxcap' grasslands". Mycosphere. 4 (5): 969–984. doi:10.5943/mycosphere/4.
^Protecting and restoring the fungi (sic) community of Lane Cove Bushland Park(PDF). Department of Environment and Climate Change NSW. 2008. ISBN978-1-74122-965-3. Retrieved 18 May 2018.
^Griffith GW, Easton GL, Jones AW (2002). "Ecology and diversity of waxcap (Hygrocybe spp) fungi". Botanical Journal of Scotland. 54: 7–22. doi:10.1080/03746600208685025. S2CID 84829857.
^Boa ER. (2004). Wild edible fungi: a global overview of their use and importance to people. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. p. 147. ISBN978-92-5-105157-3.
^Candusso M. (1997). Fungi Europaei 6: Hygrophorus s.l.. Alassio, Italy: Libreria Basso. p. 784.
^Bon M. (1990). Flore mycologique d'Europe 1: Les Hygrophores (in French). Amiens Cedex: CRDP de Picardie. p. 99.
^Arnolds E. (1990). Genus Hygrocybe in Flora Agaricina Neerlandica 2. Lisse, Netherlands: AA Balkema. pp. 71–111. ISBN978-90-6191-971-1.
^Largent DL. (1985). The Agaricales (Gilled Fungi) of California 5: Hygrophoraceae. Eureka, California: Mad River Press. p. 220. ISBN978-0-916422-54-7.
^Young AM. (2005). Fungi of Australia: Hygrophoraceae. Collingwood, Victoria: CSIRO Publishing. p. 188. ISBN978-0-643-09195-5.
^Horak E. (1990). "Monograph of the New Zealand Hygrophoraceae (Agaricales)" (PDF). New Zealand Journal of Botany. 28 (3): 255–309. doi:10.1080/0028825x.1990.10412313.[permanent dead link]
hygrocybe, genus, agarics, gilled, fungi, family, hygrophoraceae, called, waxcaps, english, sometimes, waxy, caps, north, america, basidiocarps, fruit, bodies, often, brightly, coloured, have, waxy, caps, white, spores, smooth, ringless, stems, europe, they, c. Hygrocybe is a genus of agarics gilled fungi in the family Hygrophoraceae Called waxcaps in English sometimes waxy caps in North America basidiocarps fruit bodies are often brightly coloured and have dry to waxy caps white spores and smooth ringless stems In Europe they are characteristic of old unimproved grasslands termed waxcap grasslands which are a declining habitat making many Hygrocybe species of conservation concern Four of these waxcap grassland species Hygrocybe citrinovirens H punicea H spadicea and H splendidissima are assessed as globally vulnerable on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2 Elsewhere waxcaps are more typically found in woodlands Most are ground dwelling and all are believed to be biotrophs Around 150 species are recognized worldwide Fruit bodies of several Hygrocybe species are considered edible and are sometimes offered for sale in local markets HygrocybeScientific classificationKingdom FungiDivision BasidiomycotaClass AgaricomycetesOrder AgaricalesFamily HygrophoraceaeGenus Hygrocybe Fr P Kumm 1871 Type speciesHygrocybe conica Schaeff P Kumm 1871 Synonyms 1 Godfrinia Maire 1902 Bertrandia R Heim 1936 Pseudohygrocybe Bon Kovalenko 1988 Contents 1 Taxonomy 1 1 History 1 2 Current status 2 Description 3 Habitat nutrition and distribution 4 Conservation 5 Economic usage 6 Literature 7 Species 8 References 9 External linksTaxonomy EditHistory Edit Hygrocybe was first published in 1821 by Swedish mycologist Elias Magnus Fries as a subsection of Agaricus and in 1871 was raised to the rank of genus by Kummer In several papers Karsten and Murrill used the name Hydrocybe but this is now taken as an orthographic variant of Hygrocybe The generic name is derived from the Greek ῦgrὁs moist kybh head 3 4 Despite its comparatively early publication the genus Hygrocybe was not widely accepted until the 1970s most previous authors treating it as a synonym of Hygrophorus a related genus of ectomycorrhizal agarics 3 5 Current status Edit Recent molecular research based on cladistic analysis of DNA sequences has shown that Hygrocybe sensu lato is paraphyletic and does not form a single clade within the Hygrophoraceae As a result many species formerly referred to Hygrocybe have been transferred to the genera Chromosera Cuphophyllus Gliophorus Gloioxanthomyces Humidicutis Neohygrocybe or Porpolomopsis 6 7 8 9 This leaves Hygrocybe sensu stricto as a smaller but more cohesive genus of species related to the type Hygrocybe conica Description EditFruit bodies of Hygrocybe species are all agaricoid most but not all having smooth to slightly scaly caps that are convex to conical and dry to waxy or viscid when damp Many but not all are brightly coloured in shades of red orange or yellow Where present the gills beneath the cap are often equally coloured and usually distant thick and waxy One atypical South American species Hygrocybe aphylla lacks gills 10 The stems of Hygrocybe species lack a ring The spore print is white Fruit bodies of some species notably Hygrocybe conica blacken with age or when bruised Microscopically Hygrocybe species lack true cystidia and have comparatively large smooth inamyloid basidiospores 11 Habitat nutrition and distribution EditSpecies of Hygrocybe are soil dwelling In Europe most species are typical of unimproved nutrient poor short sward grasslands often termed waxcap grasslands 12 but elsewhere they are more commonly found in woodland Their metabolism has long been debated but recent research suggests that they are not saprotrophic 13 14 but rather symbiotically associated with the roots of higher plants or mosses Hyphae of H conica have been detected in plant roots 14 Species are distributed worldwide from the tropics to the sub polar regions Around 150 have been described to date 15 Waxcaps receive most attention in northern Europe 16 where they are found in nutrient poor pastures 11 However outside Europe waxcaps are more commonly associated with woodland habitats for example the sclerophyll forests site at Lane Cove Bushland Park and Ferndale Park Sydney 17 Conservation EditMain article Waxcap grassland In Europe waxcap grasslands and their associated fungi are of conservation concern since unimproved grasslands formerly commonplace have declined dramatically as a result of changes in agricultural practice This decline has led to four European Hygrocybe species Hygrocybe citrinovirens H punicea H spadicea and H splendidissima being assessed as globally vulnerable on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2 Elsewhere several rare and localized endemic species are assessed as globally endangered on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2 They include Hygrocybe boothii in Australia Hygrocybe noelokelani and Hygrocybe pakelo in Hawaii Hygrocybe striatella in Chile and Hygrocybe flavifolia in California Economic usage EditBecause Hygrocybe species cannot be maintained in culture 18 none is cultivated commercially Fruit bodies of a few species are considered edible in eastern Europe south east Asia and Central America and are collected and consumed locally 19 Literature EditNo comprehensive monograph of the genus has yet been published In Europe however species of Hygrocybe have been illustrated and described in a standard English language guide by Boertmann 2010 11 and also together with Hygrophorus in an Italian guide by Candusso 1997 20 European species have also been covered more briefly in descriptive French keys by Bon 1990 21 Dutch species were illustrated and described by Arnolds 1990 22 No equivalent modern guides have been published for North America the most recent being by Hesler amp Smith 1963 5 There is however a guide to Californian species by Largent 1985 23 In Australia Hygrocybe species have been illustrated and described by Young 2005 24 and in New Zealand by Horak 1990 25 Species EditMain article List of Hygrocybe species Hygrocybe cantharellus Hygrocybe flavescens Hygrocybe conica Hygrocybe chlorophana Hygrocybe appalachianensisReferences Edit Hygrocybe Fr P Kumm MycoBank International Mycological Association Retrieved 2011 09 22 a b c Hygrocybe The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species Retrieved 2022 05 01 a b Rea C 1922 British Basidiomycetaceae A Handbook of the Larger British Fungi Cambridge UK Cambridge University Press p 799 Cornelis Schrevel 1826 Schrevelius Greek lexicon tr into Engl with numerous corrections pp 184 186 Retrieved 2011 10 04 a b Hesler LR Smith AH 1963 North American species ofHygrophorus University of Tennessee Press p 416 Kovalenko AE Moncalvo J M Vilgalys R Petersen RH Hughes KW Lodge DJ 2002 Recent advances in molecular phylogeny of temperate Hygrophoraceae and concordance with morphology and ecology abstract IMC7 Abstracts 146 permanent dead link Matheny PB Curtis JM Hofstetter V Aime MC Moncalvo JM Ge ZW Slot JC Ammirati JF Baroni TJ Bougher NL Hughes KW Lodge DJ Kerrigan RW Seidl MT Aanen DK DeNitis M Daniele GM Desjardin DE Kropp BR Norvell LL Parker A Vellinga EC Vilgalys R Hibbett DS 2006 Major clades of Agaricales a multilocus phylogenetic overview PDF Mycologia 98 6 982 95 doi 10 3852 mycologia 98 6 982 PMID 17486974 Archived from the original PDF on 2016 03 03 Babos M Halasz K Zagyva T Zold Balogh A Szego D Bratek Z 2011 Preliminary notes on dual relevance of ITS sequences and pigments in Hygrocybe taxonomy Persoonia 26 99 107 doi 10 3767 003158511X578349 PMC 3160800 PMID 22025807 Lodge D Jean Padamsee Mahajabeen Matheny P Brandon Aime M Catherine Cantrell Sharon A Boertmann David Kovalenko Alexander Vizzini Alfredo Dentinger Bryn T M 2014 01 01 Molecular phylogeny morphology pigment chemistry and ecology in Hygrophoraceae Agaricales PDF Fungal Diversity 64 1 1 99 doi 10 1007 s13225 013 0259 0 ISSN 1560 2745 S2CID 220615978 Laessoe T Boertmann D 2008 A new alamellate Hygrocybe species from Ecuador Mycological Research 112 Pt 10 1206 1209 doi 10 1016 j mycres 2008 04 002 PMID 18703325 a b c Boertmann D 2010 The genusHygrocybe 2nd ed Copenhagen Danish Mycological Society p 200 ISBN 978 87 983581 7 6 Rotheroe M Newton A Evans S Feehan J 1996 Waxcap grassland survey The Mycologist 10 23 25 doi 10 1016 s0269 915x 96 80046 2 Seitzman BH Ouimette A Mixon RL Hobbie EA Hibbett DS 2011 Conservation of biotrophy in Hygrophoraceae inferred from combined stable isotope and phylogenetic analyses Mycologia 103 2 280 290 doi 10 3852 10 195 PMID 21139028 S2CID 318326 a b Halbwachs Hans Dentinger Bryn T M Detheridge Andrew P Karasch Peter Griffith Gareth W December 2013 Hyphae of waxcap fungi colonise plant roots Fungal Ecology 6 6 487 492 doi 10 1016 j funeco 2013 08 003 ISSN 1754 5048 Kirk PM Cannon PF Minter DW Stalpers JA 2008 Dictionary of the Fungi 10th ed Wallingford UK CABI p 446 ISBN 978 0 85199 826 8 Griffith G W Gamarra J G P Holden E M Mitchel D Graham A Evans D A Evans S E Aron C Noordeloos M E Kirk P M Smith S L N Woods R G Hale A D Easton G L Ratkowsky D A Stevens D P Halbwachs H 30 August 2014 The international conservation importance of Welsh waxcap grasslands Mycosphere 4 5 969 984 doi 10 5943 mycosphere 4 Protecting and restoring the fungi sic community of Lane Cove Bushland Park PDF Department of Environment and Climate Change NSW 2008 ISBN 978 1 74122 965 3 Retrieved 18 May 2018 Griffith GW Easton GL Jones AW 2002 Ecology and diversity of waxcap Hygrocybe spp fungi Botanical Journal of Scotland 54 7 22 doi 10 1080 03746600208685025 S2CID 84829857 Boa ER 2004 Wild edible fungi a global overview of their use and importance to people Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations p 147 ISBN 978 92 5 105157 3 Candusso M 1997 Fungi Europaei 6 Hygrophorus s l Alassio Italy Libreria Basso p 784 Bon M 1990 Flore mycologique d Europe 1 Les Hygrophores in French Amiens Cedex CRDP de Picardie p 99 Arnolds E 1990 GenusHygrocybein Flora Agaricina Neerlandica 2 Lisse Netherlands AA Balkema pp 71 111 ISBN 978 90 6191 971 1 Largent DL 1985 The Agaricales Gilled Fungi of California 5 Hygrophoraceae Eureka California Mad River Press p 220 ISBN 978 0 916422 54 7 Young AM 2005 Fungi of Australia Hygrophoraceae Collingwood Victoria CSIRO Publishing p 188 ISBN 978 0 643 09195 5 Horak E 1990 Monograph of the New Zealand Hygrophoraceae Agaricales PDF New Zealand Journal of Botany 28 3 255 309 doi 10 1080 0028825x 1990 10412313 permanent dead link External links EditWaxCap Website University of Wales Aberystwyth Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Hygrocybe amp oldid 1123701820, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,
