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Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae

January 01, 1970

This article is about the disease called "erysipelas" in livestock and wild animals. For the disease called "erysipelas" in humans, see erysipelas.

Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae is a Gram-positive, catalase-negative, rod-shaped, non-spore-forming, nonacid-fast, nonmotile bacterium. Distributed worldwide, E. rhusiopathiae is primarily considered an animal pathogen, causing the disease known as erysipelas that may affect a wide range of animals. Pigs, turkeys and laying hens are most commonly affected, but cases have been reported in other mammals, birds, fish, and reptiles.[1] In pigs, the disease is known as diamond skin disease. The bacterium can also cause zoonotic infections in humans, called erysipeloid. The human disease called erysipelas is not caused by E. rhusiopathiae, but by various members of the genus Streptococcus.

Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae
Cellular and colonial morphology of Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae
Scientific classification
Domain: Bacteria
Phylum: Bacillota
Class: Erysipelotrichia
Order: Erysipelotrichales
Family: Erysipelotrichaceae
Genus: Erysipelothrix
Species:
E. rhusiopathiae
Binomial name
Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae
Migula, 1900

History edit

Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae was first isolated by Robert Koch in 1876. A few years later the bacterium was recognised as the cause of erysipelas in pigs and in 1884 the organism was first established as a human pathogen.[2][3] In 1909, the genus was named Erysipelothrix. In 1918 the name Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae was introduced and in 1920 it was designated as the type species of the genus.[4]

Epidemiology edit

Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae may be isolated from soil, food scraps, and water contaminated by infected animals. It can survive in soil for several weeks. In pig faeces, the survival period of this bacterium ranges from 1 to 5 months.[5] Erysipeloid is transmitted by several animals, particularly pigs, in which the disease (very common in the past) has several names (swine erysipelas in English, rouget du porc in French and mal rossino in Italian). Urticaria-like lesions, arthralgia, arthritis, endocarditis, and sepsis are the most characteristic features of swine erysipelas. Other animals that can transmit the infection are sheep, rabbits, chickens, turkeys, ducks, emus, scorpion fish, and lobsters. Erysipeloid is an occupational disease, mainly found in animal breeders, veterinarians, slaughterhouse workers, furriers, butchers, fishermen, fishmongers, housewives, cooks, and grocers. One epidemic of erysipeloid was described in workers involved in manufacturing buttons from animal bone.[5] The disease is of economic importance to the pig industries of North America, Europe, Asia, and Australia.[6]

Clinical disease edit

Humans edit

In humans, E. rhusiopathiae infections most commonly present in a mild cutaneous form known as erysipeloid.[1] Less commonly, it can result in sepsis; this scenario is often associated with endocarditis. Erysipeloid, also named in the past Rosenbach's disease, Baker–Rosenbach disease, and pseudoerysipelas, is a bacterial infection of the skin caused by traumatic penetration of E. rhusiopathiae.[5]

It occurs most commonly as an occupational disease. The disease is characterized clinically by an erythematous oedema, with well-defined and raised borders, usually localized to the back of one hand and/or fingers. The palms, forearms, arms, face, and legs are rarely involved.[5] Vesicular, bullous, and erosive lesions may also be present. The lesion may be asymptomatic or accompanied by mild pruritus, pain, and fever.

Animals edit

Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae may infect a wide range of animals, with or without causing the clinical disease that in animals is termed erysipelas.

Pigs edit

In pigs, three forms of erysipelas may be seen; acute, subacute or chronic. The acute form is characterised by high fever, anorexia, depression and death of one or more animals. Also, diamond-shaped cutaneous lesions may be seen, these are pathognomonic for erysipelas in pigs. During subacute erysipelas, similar but milder signs than in the acute form are seen. The chronic form may follow from acute or subacute cases or subclinical infections. The chronic form is mostly characterised by arthritis but sudden deaths, due to valvular lesions in the heart, may occur.[7]

Poultry edit

The bacterium has been isolated from a wide range of avian species and differences in susceptibility depending on species have been suggested. Erysipelas outbreaks have been reported in almost all poultry species. Historically, erysipelas has been considered a disease of significant importance primarily in turkeys.[8] However, an increasing number of outbreaks in laying hen flocks have been reported in several countries.[9] Signs seen during an outbreak of erysipelas in a laying hen flock include sudden onset of high mortality and egg production losses.[10]

Muskox edit

Due to unregulated hunting of muskox the species was almost wiped out in the late 19th century. However, by 1917 regulations were in place and the herds began to recover to such an extent that regulated hunting was permitted in the 1980s. By the 1990s hunters were permitted to take 10,000 muskox on Banks Island alone and in 2001 it was estimated that there were more than 68,000 muskox on the island making it the largest population in the world. However, since then the numbers have dropped by 70% due to E. rhusiopathiae.[11][12][13]

Virulence factors edit

Various virulence factors have been suggested as being involved in the pathogenicity of E. rhusiopathiae. The presence of a hyaluronidase and neuraminidase has been recognized, and neuraminidase was shown to play a significant role in bacterial attachment and subsequent invasion into host cells. The role of hyaluronidase in the disease process is controversial. The presence of a heat-labile capsule has been reported as important in virulence.[6]

Diagnosis edit

 
Blood agar plate culture of E. rhusiopathiae

Isolation edit

Traditionally, culture methods for the isolation of E. rhusiopathiae involve the use of selective and enrichment media. Commercially available blood culture media are satisfactory for primary isolation from blood, since E. rhusiopathiae is not particularly fastidious. A number of selective media for the isolation of Erysipelothrix have been described, also. A commonly used medium is Erysipelothrix selective broth (ESB), a nutrient broth containing serum, tryptose, kanamycin, neomycin, and vancomycin. Modified blood azide medium (MBA) is a selective agar containing sodium azide and horse blood or serum. Packer's medium is a selective medium for grossly contaminated specimens, which contains sodium azide and crystal violet. Bohm's medium uses sodium azide, kanamycin, phenol, and water blue. Shimoji's selective enrichment broth contains tryptic soy broth, Tween 80, tris-aminomethane, crystal violet, and sodium azide.[6]

Species identification edit

Conventional species identification is based on colony morphology, Gram-staining and biochemical tests. Colonies are small with a narrow zone of alpha hemolysis on blood agar plates. Laboratory smears show Gram-positive rods (though Gram stain has low sensitivity for this microbe). It is nonmotile, catalase-negative, microaerophilic, capnophilic, and non-spore-forming. It can also produce H2S (gas), which is a unique characteristic for a Gram-positive bacillus. Acid is produced from glucose, fructose, galactose, and lactose, but not from maltose, xylose, and mannitol. Sucrose is fermented by most strains of E. tonsillarum, but not by E. rhusiopathiae. Hydrogen sulfide H2S is produced by 95% of strains of Erysipelothrix species as demonstrated on triple sugar iron (TSI) agar. E. rhusiopathiae can be differentiated from other Gram-positive bacilli, in particular, from Arcanobacterium (Corynebacterium) pyogenes and Arcanobacterium (Corynebacterium) haemolyticum, which are hemolytic on blood agar and do not produce hydrogen sulfide in TSI agar slants, and from Listeria monocytogenes, which is catalase positive, motile, and sensitive to neomycin. Rapid identification of E. rhusiopathiae can be achieved with the API Coryne System. It is a commercial strip system based on a number of biochemical reactions for the identification of coryneform bacteria and related genera, including E. rhusiopathiae. The system permits reliable and rapid identification of bacteria and has been considered to be a good alternative to traditional biochemical methods.[6]

Other assays edit

Several polymerase chain reaction (PCR) based methods have also been developed for detection of E. rhusiopathiae.[6] Laboratory investigations of humans may reveal leucocytosis, slightly increased serum c-globulins, and an increase in inflammatory markers (erythrocyte sedimentation rate, C-reactive protein, and a-1 acid glycoprotein).[5]

Treatment edit

Humans edit

Penicillin is the treatment of choice for both disease states in humans. E. rhusiopathiae is sensitive in vitro and in vivo mainly to penicillins, but also to cephalosporins (cefotaxime, ceftriaxone), tetracyclines (chlortetracycline, oxytetracycline), quinolones (ciprofloxacin, pefloxacin), clindamycin, erythromycin, imipenem, and piperacillin. It is resistant to vancomycin, chloramphenicol, daptomycin, gentamicin, netilmicin, polymyxin B, streptomycin, teicoplanin, tetracycline, and trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole. Penicillins and cephalosporins are the first-line choices for treatment. A 7-day course is appropriate, and clinical improvement is usually observed 2–3 days after the beginning of the treatment.[5]

Poultry edit

Only a few poultry isolates have been investigated for antimicrobial susceptibility.[14] Penicillin is the drug of choice for treatment of poultry,[15] however the disease may reoccur. Therefore, antibiotic treatment may be combined with vaccination.

References edit

  1. ^ a b C. Josephine Brooke; Thomas V. Riley (1999). "Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae: bacteriology, epidemiology and clinical manifestations of an occupational pathogen". Journal of Medical Microbiology. 48 (9): 789–799. doi:10.1099/00222615-48-9-789. PMID 10482289.
  2. ^ Dworkin, Martin; Falkow, Stanley; Rosenberg, Eugene; Schleifer, Karl-Heinz; Stackebrandt, Erko, eds. (2006). Bacteria: Firmicutes, Cyanobacteria (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Springer. pp. 492–510. ISBN 0387254943.
  3. ^ Rosenbach, F.J. (1909). "Experimentelle, morphologische und klinische Studie über die krankheitserregenden Mikrooganismen des Schweinerotlaufs, des Erysipeloids und der Mäusesepsis". Zeitschrift für Hygiene und Infektionskrankheiten. 63: 343–371. doi:10.1007/BF02227897.
  4. ^ Winslow, CE; Broadhurst, J; Buchanan, RE; Krumwiede, C; Rogers, LA; Smith, GH (May 1920). "The Families and Genera of the Bacteria: Final Report of the Committee of the Society of American Bacteriologists on Characterization and Classification of Bacterial Types". Journal of Bacteriology. 5 (3): 191–229. PMC 378870. PMID 16558872.
  5. ^ a b c d e f S. Veraldi; V. Girgenti; F. Dassoni; R. Gianotti (2009). "Erysipeloid: a review". Journal of Clinical and Experimental Dermatology. 34 (8): 859–862. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2230.2009.03444.x. PMID 19663854.
  6. ^ a b c d e Q. Wang; B.J. Chang; Th.V. Riley (2010). "Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae". Journal of Veterinary Microbiology. 140 (3–4): 405–417. doi:10.1016/j.vetmic.2009.08.012. PMID 19733019.
  7. ^ Opriessnig, T; Wood, RL (2012). Zimmerman, Jeffrey J; Karriker, Locke A; Ramirez, Alejandro; Schwartz, Kent J; Stevenson, Gregory W (eds.). Diseases of Swine (10th ed.). Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 750–59. ISBN 978-0-813-82267-9.
  8. ^ Bricker, JM; Saif, YM (2013). Swayne, David E.; Glisson, J.R.; McDougald, L.R.; Nolan, L.K.; Suarez, D.L.; Nair, V.L. (eds.). Diseases of poultry (13th ed.). Ames, Iowa: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 986–994. ISBN 978-0-470-95899-5.
  9. ^ Eriksson, Helena; Bagge, Elisabeth; Båverud, Viveca; Fellström, Claes; Jansson, Désirée S. (22 April 2014). "Contamination in the poultry house environment during erysipelas outbreaks in organic laying hen flocks". Avian Pathology. 43 (3): 231–237. doi:10.1080/03079457.2014.907485. PMID 24661145.
  10. ^ Eriksson, Helena; Brännström, Sara; Skarin, Hanna; Chirico, Jan (10 December 2010). "Characterization of isolates from laying hens and poultry red mites (Dermanyssus gallinae) from an outbreak of erysipelas". Avian Pathology. 39 (6): 505–509. doi:10.1080/03079457.2010.518313. PMID 21154061.
  11. ^ Gunn, A.; Forchhammer, M. (2016) [errata version of 2008 assessment]. "Ovibos moschatus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2008: e.T29684A86066477. Retrieved 24 December 2019.
  12. ^ "Banks Island Migratory Bird Sanctuary No. 2". Parks Canada. Retrieved 2020-01-01.
  13. ^ Kutz, S.; Bollinger, T.; Branigan, M.; Checkley, S.; Davison, T.; Dumond, M.; Elkin, B.; Forde, T.; Hutchins, W.; Niptanatiak, A.; Orsel, Karin (June 2015). "Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae associated with recent widespread muskox mortalities in the Canadian Arctic". Canadian Veterinary Journal. 56 (6): 560–563. PMC 4431149. PMID 26028673.
  14. ^ Eriksson, Helena; Jansson, Désirée S.; Johansson, Karl-Erik; Båverud, Viveca; Chirico, Jan; Aspán, Anna (May 2009). "Characterization of Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae isolates from poultry, pigs, emus, the poultry red mite and other animals". Veterinary Microbiology. 137 (1–2): 98–104. doi:10.1016/j.vetmic.2008.12.016.
  15. ^ Hofacre, C.L.; Fricke, J.A.; Inglis, T. (2013). Giguère, Steeve; Prescott, John F.; Dowling, Patricia M. (eds.). Antimicrobial Therapy in Veterinary Medicine (5th ed.). Hoboken: Wiley. pp. 569–587. ISBN 9781118675106.

External links edit

  • Type strain of Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae at BacDive - the Bacterial Diversity Metadatabase

January 01, 1970
erysipelothrix, rhusiopathiae, this, article, about, disease, called, erysipelas, livestock, wild, animals, disease, called, erysipelas, humans, erysipelas, gram, positive, catalase, negative, shaped, spore, forming, nonacid, fast, nonmotile, bacterium, distri. This article is about the disease called erysipelas in livestock and wild animals For the disease called erysipelas in humans see erysipelas Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae is a Gram positive catalase negative rod shaped non spore forming nonacid fast nonmotile bacterium Distributed worldwide E rhusiopathiae is primarily considered an animal pathogen causing the disease known as erysipelas that may affect a wide range of animals Pigs turkeys and laying hens are most commonly affected but cases have been reported in other mammals birds fish and reptiles 1 In pigs the disease is known as diamond skin disease The bacterium can also cause zoonotic infections in humans called erysipeloid The human disease called erysipelas is not caused by E rhusiopathiae but by various members of the genus Streptococcus Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae Cellular and colonial morphology of Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae Scientific classification Domain Bacteria Phylum Bacillota Class Erysipelotrichia Order Erysipelotrichales Family Erysipelotrichaceae Genus Erysipelothrix Species E rhusiopathiae Binomial name Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiaeMigula 1900 Contents 1 History 2 Epidemiology 3 Clinical disease 3 1 Humans 3 2 Animals 3 2 1 Pigs 3 2 2 Poultry 3 3 Muskox 4 Virulence factors 5 Diagnosis 5 1 Isolation 5 2 Species identification 5 3 Other assays 6 Treatment 6 1 Humans 6 2 Poultry 7 References 8 External linksHistory editErysipelothrix rhusiopathiae was first isolated by Robert Koch in 1876 A few years later the bacterium was recognised as the cause of erysipelas in pigs and in 1884 the organism was first established as a human pathogen 2 3 In 1909 the genus was named Erysipelothrix In 1918 the name Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae was introduced and in 1920 it was designated as the type species of the genus 4 Epidemiology editErysipelothrix rhusiopathiae may be isolated from soil food scraps and water contaminated by infected animals It can survive in soil for several weeks In pig faeces the survival period of this bacterium ranges from 1 to 5 months 5 Erysipeloid is transmitted by several animals particularly pigs in which the disease very common in the past has several names swine erysipelas in English rouget du porc in French and mal rossino in Italian Urticaria like lesions arthralgia arthritis endocarditis and sepsis are the most characteristic features of swine erysipelas Other animals that can transmit the infection are sheep rabbits chickens turkeys ducks emus scorpion fish and lobsters Erysipeloid is an occupational disease mainly found in animal breeders veterinarians slaughterhouse workers furriers butchers fishermen fishmongers housewives cooks and grocers One epidemic of erysipeloid was described in workers involved in manufacturing buttons from animal bone 5 The disease is of economic importance to the pig industries of North America Europe Asia and Australia 6 Clinical disease editHumans edit In humans E rhusiopathiae infections most commonly present in a mild cutaneous form known as erysipeloid 1 Less commonly it can result in sepsis this scenario is often associated with endocarditis Erysipeloid also named in the past Rosenbach s disease Baker Rosenbach disease and pseudoerysipelas is a bacterial infection of the skin caused by traumatic penetration of E rhusiopathiae 5 It occurs most commonly as an occupational disease The disease is characterized clinically by an erythematous oedema with well defined and raised borders usually localized to the back of one hand and or fingers The palms forearms arms face and legs are rarely involved 5 Vesicular bullous and erosive lesions may also be present The lesion may be asymptomatic or accompanied by mild pruritus pain and fever Animals edit Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae may infect a wide range of animals with or without causing the clinical disease that in animals is termed erysipelas Pigs edit In pigs three forms of erysipelas may be seen acute subacute or chronic The acute form is characterised by high fever anorexia depression and death of one or more animals Also diamond shaped cutaneous lesions may be seen these are pathognomonic for erysipelas in pigs During subacute erysipelas similar but milder signs than in the acute form are seen The chronic form may follow from acute or subacute cases or subclinical infections The chronic form is mostly characterised by arthritis but sudden deaths due to valvular lesions in the heart may occur 7 Poultry edit The bacterium has been isolated from a wide range of avian species and differences in susceptibility depending on species have been suggested Erysipelas outbreaks have been reported in almost all poultry species Historically erysipelas has been considered a disease of significant importance primarily in turkeys 8 However an increasing number of outbreaks in laying hen flocks have been reported in several countries 9 Signs seen during an outbreak of erysipelas in a laying hen flock include sudden onset of high mortality and egg production losses 10 Muskox edit Due to unregulated hunting of muskox the species was almost wiped out in the late 19th century However by 1917 regulations were in place and the herds began to recover to such an extent that regulated hunting was permitted in the 1980s By the 1990s hunters were permitted to take 10 000 muskox on Banks Island alone and in 2001 it was estimated that there were more than 68 000 muskox on the island making it the largest population in the world However since then the numbers have dropped by 70 due to E rhusiopathiae 11 12 13 Virulence factors editVarious virulence factors have been suggested as being involved in the pathogenicity of E rhusiopathiae The presence of a hyaluronidase and neuraminidase has been recognized and neuraminidase was shown to play a significant role in bacterial attachment and subsequent invasion into host cells The role of hyaluronidase in the disease process is controversial The presence of a heat labile capsule has been reported as important in virulence 6 Diagnosis edit nbsp Blood agar plate culture of E rhusiopathiae Isolation edit Traditionally culture methods for the isolation of E rhusiopathiae involve the use of selective and enrichment media Commercially available blood culture media are satisfactory for primary isolation from blood since E rhusiopathiae is not particularly fastidious A number of selective media for the isolation of Erysipelothrix have been described also A commonly used medium is Erysipelothrix selective broth ESB a nutrient broth containing serum tryptose kanamycin neomycin and vancomycin Modified blood azide medium MBA is a selective agar containing sodium azide and horse blood or serum Packer s medium is a selective medium for grossly contaminated specimens which contains sodium azide and crystal violet Bohm s medium uses sodium azide kanamycin phenol and water blue Shimoji s selective enrichment broth contains tryptic soy broth Tween 80 tris aminomethane crystal violet and sodium azide 6 Species identification edit Conventional species identification is based on colony morphology Gram staining and biochemical tests Colonies are small with a narrow zone of alpha hemolysis on blood agar plates Laboratory smears show Gram positive rods though Gram stain has low sensitivity for this microbe It is nonmotile catalase negative microaerophilic capnophilic and non spore forming It can also produce H2S gas which is a unique characteristic for a Gram positive bacillus Acid is produced from glucose fructose galactose and lactose but not from maltose xylose and mannitol Sucrose is fermented by most strains of E tonsillarum but not by E rhusiopathiae Hydrogen sulfide H2S is produced by 95 of strains of Erysipelothrix species as demonstrated on triple sugar iron TSI agar E rhusiopathiae can be differentiated from other Gram positive bacilli in particular from Arcanobacterium Corynebacterium pyogenes and Arcanobacterium Corynebacterium haemolyticum which are hemolytic on blood agar and do not produce hydrogen sulfide in TSI agar slants and from Listeria monocytogenes which is catalase positive motile and sensitive to neomycin Rapid identification of E rhusiopathiae can be achieved with the API Coryne System It is a commercial strip system based on a number of biochemical reactions for the identification of coryneform bacteria and related genera including E rhusiopathiae The system permits reliable and rapid identification of bacteria and has been considered to be a good alternative to traditional biochemical methods 6 Other assays edit Several polymerase chain reaction PCR based methods have also been developed for detection of E rhusiopathiae 6 Laboratory investigations of humans may reveal leucocytosis slightly increased serum c globulins and an increase in inflammatory markers erythrocyte sedimentation rate C reactive protein and a 1 acid glycoprotein 5 Treatment editHumans edit Penicillin is the treatment of choice for both disease states in humans E rhusiopathiae is sensitive in vitro and in vivo mainly to penicillins but also to cephalosporins cefotaxime ceftriaxone tetracyclines chlortetracycline oxytetracycline quinolones ciprofloxacin pefloxacin clindamycin erythromycin imipenem and piperacillin It is resistant to vancomycin chloramphenicol daptomycin gentamicin netilmicin polymyxin B streptomycin teicoplanin tetracycline and trimethoprim sulfamethoxazole Penicillins and cephalosporins are the first line choices for treatment A 7 day course is appropriate and clinical improvement is usually observed 2 3 days after the beginning of the treatment 5 Poultry edit Only a few poultry isolates have been investigated for antimicrobial susceptibility 14 Penicillin is the drug of choice for treatment of poultry 15 however the disease may reoccur Therefore antibiotic treatment may be combined with vaccination References edit a b C Josephine Brooke Thomas V Riley 1999 Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae bacteriology epidemiology and clinical manifestations of an occupational pathogen Journal of Medical Microbiology 48 9 789 799 doi 10 1099 00222615 48 9 789 PMID 10482289 Dworkin Martin Falkow Stanley Rosenberg Eugene Schleifer Karl Heinz Stackebrandt Erko eds 2006 Bacteria Firmicutes Cyanobacteria 3rd ed New York NY Springer pp 492 510 ISBN 0387254943 Rosenbach F J 1909 Experimentelle morphologische und klinische Studie uber die krankheitserregenden Mikrooganismen des Schweinerotlaufs des Erysipeloids und der Mausesepsis Zeitschrift fur Hygiene und Infektionskrankheiten 63 343 371 doi 10 1007 BF02227897 Winslow CE Broadhurst J Buchanan RE Krumwiede C Rogers LA Smith GH May 1920 The Families and Genera of the Bacteria Final Report of the Committee of the Society of American Bacteriologists on Characterization and Classification of Bacterial Types Journal of Bacteriology 5 3 191 229 PMC 378870 PMID 16558872 a b c d e f S Veraldi V Girgenti F Dassoni R Gianotti 2009 Erysipeloid a review Journal of Clinical and Experimental Dermatology 34 8 859 862 doi 10 1111 j 1365 2230 2009 03444 x PMID 19663854 a b c d e Q Wang B J Chang Th V Riley 2010 Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae Journal of Veterinary Microbiology 140 3 4 405 417 doi 10 1016 j vetmic 2009 08 012 PMID 19733019 Opriessnig T Wood RL 2012 Zimmerman Jeffrey J Karriker Locke A Ramirez Alejandro Schwartz Kent J Stevenson Gregory W eds Diseases of Swine 10th ed Chichester West Sussex Wiley Blackwell pp 750 59 ISBN 978 0 813 82267 9 Bricker JM Saif YM 2013 Swayne David E Glisson J R McDougald L R Nolan L K Suarez D L Nair V L eds Diseases of poultry 13th ed Ames Iowa John Wiley amp Sons pp 986 994 ISBN 978 0 470 95899 5 Eriksson Helena Bagge Elisabeth Baverud Viveca Fellstrom Claes Jansson Desiree S 22 April 2014 Contamination in the poultry house environment during erysipelas outbreaks in organic laying hen flocks Avian Pathology 43 3 231 237 doi 10 1080 03079457 2014 907485 PMID 24661145 Eriksson Helena Brannstrom Sara Skarin Hanna Chirico Jan 10 December 2010 Characterization of isolates from laying hens and poultry red mites Dermanyssus gallinae from an outbreak of erysipelas Avian Pathology 39 6 505 509 doi 10 1080 03079457 2010 518313 PMID 21154061 Gunn A Forchhammer M 2016 errata version of 2008 assessment Ovibos moschatus IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2008 e T29684A86066477 Retrieved 24 December 2019 Banks Island Migratory Bird Sanctuary No 2 Parks Canada Retrieved 2020 01 01 Kutz S Bollinger T Branigan M Checkley S Davison T Dumond M Elkin B Forde T Hutchins W Niptanatiak A Orsel Karin June 2015 Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae associated with recent widespread muskox mortalities in the Canadian Arctic Canadian Veterinary Journal 56 6 560 563 PMC 4431149 PMID 26028673 Eriksson Helena Jansson Desiree S Johansson Karl Erik Baverud Viveca Chirico Jan Aspan Anna May 2009 Characterization of Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae isolates from poultry pigs emus the poultry red mite and other animals Veterinary Microbiology 137 1 2 98 104 doi 10 1016 j vetmic 2008 12 016 Hofacre C L Fricke J A Inglis T 2013 Giguere Steeve Prescott John F Dowling Patricia M eds Antimicrobial Therapy in Veterinary Medicine 5th ed Hoboken Wiley pp 569 587 ISBN 9781118675106 External links editType strain of Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae at BacDive the Bacterial Diversity Metadatabase Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae amp oldid 1213330605, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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