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Swaminarayan Sampradaya

August 25, 2023

For more definitions of Swaminarayan, see Swaminarayan (disambiguation).

The Swaminarayan Sampradaya, also known as Swaminarayan Hinduism and Swaminarayan movement, is a Hindu Vaishnava sampradaya rooted in Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita,[note 1][note 2] characterized by the worship of its charismatic[3] founder Sahajanand Swami, better known as Swaminarayan (1781–1830), as an avatar of Krishna[4][5][6] or as the highest manifestation of Purushottam, the supreme God.[5][6][7][8][9] According to the tradition's lore, both the religious group and Sahajanand Swami became known as Swaminarayan after the Swaminarayan mantra, which is a compound of two Sanskrit words, swami ("master, lord"[web 1][web 2]) and Narayan (supreme God, Vishnu).[10][note 3]

Swaminarayan Sampradaya
Swaminarayan, founder of the Swaminarayan Sampradaya
Total population
5,000,000[1]
Founder
Swaminarayan
Regions with significant populations
Gujarat
Religions
Hinduism
Scriptures
Languages

During his lifetime, Swaminarayan institutionalized his charisma and beliefs in various ways.[11] He constructed six mandirs to facilitate followers' devotional worship of God,[12][13][14] and encouraged the creation of a scriptural tradition.[15][16][3] In 1826, in a legal document titled the Lekh, Swaminarayan created two dioceses, the Laxmi Narayan Dev Gadi (Vadtal Gadi) and Nar Narayan Dev Gadi (Ahmedabad Gadi), with a hereditary leadership of acharyas and their wives,[web 3] who were authorized to install statues of deities in temples and to initiate ascetics.[3]

In Swaminarayan's soteriology the ultimate goal of life is to become Brahmarūpa,[17] attaining the form (rūpa) of Aksharbrahman, in which the jiva is liberated from maya and saṃsāra (the cycle of births and deaths), and enjoys eternal bliss, offering sādhya bhakti, continuous and pure devotion to God.[17][18]

While related to Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita,[note 1] for which he stated his affinity,[note 4] and incorporating devotional elements of Vallabha's Pushtimarg,[19][20][note 5] Sahajanand Swaminarayan gave his own specific interpretations of the classical Hindu texts.[note 1] As in Vishishtadvaita, God and jiva are forever distinct, but a distinction is also made between Parabrahman (Purushottam, Narayana) and Aksharbrahman as two distinct eternal realities.[21][web 4] This distinction is emphasized by BAPS-swamis as a defining characteristic,[21][22][23] and referred to as Akshar-Purushottam Darshan to distinguish the Swaminarayan Darshana, Swaminarayan's views or teachings, from other Vedanta-traditions.[web 5][21][23]

In the 20th century, due to "different interpretations of authentic successorship,"[24] various denominations split-off from the dioceses.[25] All groups regard Swaminarayan as God, but differ in their theology and the religious leadership they accept.[10][22][26][27][10][28] The BAPS, split-off in 1907 from Vadtal Gadi, venerates "a lineage of akṣaragurus, or living gurus, [which] has been retroactively traced back to Gunatitanand Swami."[25]

Socially, Swaminarayan accepted caste-based discrimination within the religious community, but inspired followers to engage in humanitarian service activities, leading various denominations of the Swaminarayan Sampradaya to currently provide humanitarian service globally.

Early history

Origins

The Swaminarayan Sampradaya developed out of Ramanand Swami's Uddhav Sampraday,[29][30][web 6] a Gujarat-based Sri Vaishnavism teacher rooted in Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita.[31] It takes its name from Ramanand's successor, Sahajanand Swami,[32][33] who was a charismatic leader[34] and gained fame as Swaminarayan.[9][8] The various branches of the Swaminarayan-tradition relate their origin to Sahajanand Swami,[25] but an exact "modern historical account" of his life cannot be reconstructed, given the hagiographic nature of the stories preserved among his followers.[25][35]

Sahajanand Swami

Main article: Swaminarayan

Sahajanand Swami was born on 3 April 1781 in the village of Chhapaiya in present-day Uttar Pradesh, India, and given the name Ghansyam.[9][36][37] After his parents' death, he renounced his home at the age of 11 and traveled for 7 years as a child yogi around India, taking the name Neelkanth, before settling in the hermitage of Ramanand Swami, a Vaishnava religious leader in present-day Gujarat.[9][38][39] Ramanand Swami initiated him as a Vaishnavite ascetic on 28 October 1800, giving him the name Sahajanand Swami.[25][29] According to the Swaminarayan-tradition, Ramanand appointed Sahajanand to be his successor and the leader of the sampradaya in 1801, shortly before his death.[40][39][41]

Ramanand Swami died on 17 December 1801,[42] and Sahajanand Swami became the new leader of the remains of the Uddhav Sampraday, despite "considerable opposition."[40][web 6] Several members left the group, or were expelled by Sahajanand Swami, and one group established a new group, together with one of the four temples of Ramanand.[29] While the Krishna-iconography in the original temples, as well as the Vachanamritam and the Shikshapatri, reflect a belief in Krishna as Purushottam,[25] as early as 1804, Sahajanand Swami himself was described as the manifestation of God,[29] and over his life, he would be worshipped as God by thousands of followers.[43][44] Nevertheless, according to Kim in the original sampradaya Sahajanand Swami is not "necessarily" regarded as Purushottam.[6][note 6]

In time, both the leader and the group became known by the name "Swaminarayan."[8] According to the "Swaminarayan origin narrative",[25] shortly after his succession, Sahajanand Swami directed devotees to chant a new mantra, "Swaminarayan" (Svāmīnārāyaṇa),[29][10] a compound of two Sanskrit words: Swami (Svāmī) and Narayan (Nārāyaṇa),[10] that is, Vishnu c.q. Purushottam.[10] According to the Swaminarayan-tradition, Narayana was also a second name given to Naharajand when he was initiated as an ascetic.[25][29][note 3]

Growth and opposition

 
Swaminarayan, acharyas, and ascetics

The sampradaya grew quickly over the 30 years under Swaminarayan's leadership, with British sources estimating at least 100,000 followers by the 1820s.[49][9][39] He was a charismatic personality,[3] and in the early period of the Swaminarayan movement, followers were often induced into a visionary trance state interpreted as samadhi, either by direct contact with Swaminarayan or by chanting the Swaminarayan mantra, in which they had visions of their "chosen deity" (istadevata).[50][51][52] Swaminarayan was criticized for receiving large gifts from his followers after renouncing the world and assuming leadership of the fellowship.[53] Swaminarayan responded that he accepts gifts because "it was appropriate for the person to give" and to satisfy the devotion of his followers but he does not seek it out of personal desire.[54]

In the first fifteen years of his leadership, until the arrival of the British colonizers in Gujarat, Swaminarayan's ministry "faced great opposition,"[55] and a number of attempts at his life, "by both religious and secular powers," are reported.[55] Swaminarayan accepted people from all castes, undermining caste-based discrimination, which lead to criticism and opposition from high-caste Hindus.[56] While Sahajanand's ethical reforms have been regarded as a protest against immoral Pushtimarg practices,[57] Sahajanand was in fact influenced by and positive towards Vallabha and other Vaisnava-traditions,[58] and he incorporated elements of Vallabha's Pushtimarg,[19][58] popular in Gujarat,[59] to gain recognition.[19][note 5] His reforms may have been primarily targeted against Tantrics, and against practices "associated with village and tribal deities."[58]

According to David Hardiman, the lower classes were attracted to Swaminarayan's community because they aspired the same success and merchantile ideology. It grew, states Hardiman, in an era of British colonial rule where land taxes were raised to unprecedented heights, lands were "snatched from village communities", and poverty spread.[60] According to Hardiman, Sahajanand's pacifist approach to community re-organization and reaching out to the lowest classes of his day found support with the British rulers, but it also furthered their exploitation by the British, the local moneylenders and richer farmers.[60]

Swaminarayan ordained 3,000 swamis over the span of his leadership,[10][9] with 500 of them into the highest state of asceticism as paramhansas, thereby allowing them to suspend all distinguishing practices, like applying sacred marks.[55][61][note 7] Swaminarayan encouraged his swamis to serve others. During the devastating famine of 1813–14 in Kathiawar, for example, the swamis collected alms in unaffected regions of Gujarat to distribute among the afflicted.[62][63] As teachers and preachers, they were instrumental in spreading Swaminarayan's teachings throughout Guajarat, which aided to the rapid growth of the sampradaya,[63][25] and they created the "sacred literature" of the sampradaya, authoring scriptural commentaries and composing bhakti poetry.[63][64][65][66]

Temples

Toward the end of his life, Swaminarayan institutionalized his charisma in various ways: the building of temples to facilitate worship; the writing of sacred texts; and the creation of a religious organization for the initiation of ascetics.[3] He instituted the mandir tradition of the sampradaya to provide followers a space for devotional worship (upasana, upāsanā) to God.[12][13] He constructed six mandirs in the following locations, housing images of Krishna[67] which are regarded as representations of Swaminarayan by his followers:[67]

Swaminarayan installed murtis of various manifestations of Krishna in the temples. For example, idol of Vishnu was installed with his consort Lakshmi and idol of Krishna was installed with his consort Radha to highlight the representation of God and his ideal devotee in the central shrines of each of these temple.[69] He also installed his own image in the form of Harikrishna in a sideshrine at the mandir at Vadtal.[67][70][71][72] The BAPS initiated the tradition of installing murtis of God (Swaminarayan) and his ideal devotee to facilitate his followers' pursuit of moksha.[73]

Vadtal Gadi and Ahmedabad Gadi

   
Acharya Ajendraprasad & Acharya Koshalendraprasad
Main articles: Nar Narayan Dev Gadi and Laxmi Narayan Dev Gadi

In the early years of the sampradaya, Swaminarayan personally directed control of the spiritual and administrative duties.[74] Swaminarayan later delegated responsibilities amongst swamis, householders, and the members of his family.[74] Before his death, Swaminarayan established two dioceses, the Laxmi Narayan Dev Gadi (Vadtal Gadi) and Nar Narayan Dev Gadi (Ahmedabad Gadi) as recorded in the Lekh,[75][25][76][10] based on the Vadtal and Ahmedabad mandirs, respectively.

Acharya's

On 21 November 1825, he appointed two of his nephews as acharyas to administer the two gadis, or dioceses, adopting them as his own sons and establishing a hereditary line of succession.[10] These acharyas came from his immediate family after sending representatives to search them out in Uttar Pradesh.[77] They were authorized to "administer his temple properties"[10] which are distributed among them.[75][76] Ayodhyaprasadji, son of his elder brother Rampratap, became acharya of the Nar Narayan Dev Gadi (Ahmedabad diocese), and Raghuvirji, son of his younger brother Ichcharam, became acharya of the Laxmi Narayan Dev Gadi (Vadtal diocese).[78][75][note 8] Siddhant paksh believes Ajendraprasad is the current acharya of the Vadtal Gadi. [84] Due to Swaminarayan's initiation into the Uddhav sampradaya, the Vadtal and Ahmedabad-branches trace the authority of their acharyas to Ramanuja's guru parampara.[85]

Death of Swaminarayan

Swaminarayan died on 1 June 1830, but the sampradaya continued to grow, with British officials counting 287,687 followers by 1872.[86][87] By 2001, the number of members had grown to an estimated 5 million followers.[1]

Schisms

Currently the following branches exist:

- International Swaminarayan Satsang Mandal (ISSM)(daughter-branch, USA)
- Laxminarayan Dev Yuvak Mandal (LNDYM)(youth-wing)
- Shree Swaminarayan Agyna Upasana Satsang Mandal (SSAUSM)(daughter-branch, USA)
  • Gunatit Samaj (Yogi Divine Society (YDS), split-off from BAPS in 1966. Several wings:YDS, The Anoopam Mission, and The Gunatit Jyot
  • Swaminarayan Gurukul (educational institution established in 1947, by Dharmajivandasji Swami in order to spread sadvidya in students around the world) [88]
- International Swaminarayan Satsang Organisation (ISSO)(daughter-branch, USA)
- ISSO Seva (2001, charity organisation)
- Narnarayan Dev Yuvak Mandal (NNDYM)(youth organisation)
  • Swaminarayan Gadi (Maninagar)(split-off from Ahmedabad Gadi in the 1940s)

Different interpretations of succession

 
Swaminarayan temple Ahmedabad 1866

In the 20th century, due to "different interpretations of authentic successorship,"[89] various branches split-off from the diocese,[90] the largest being the BAPS.[25] All groups regard Swaminarayan as the manifestation of God but differ in their theology and the religious leadership they accept.[91][26][92]

The Vadtal Gadi and Ahmedabad Gadi are the original institutions, with a hereditary leadership in the form of acharyas. The succession was established in the Lekh, a legal document authored by Swaminarayan.[75] It is followed by the Nar-Narayan (Ahmedabad) and Laxmi-Narayan (Vadtal) branches, but "downplay[ed] or ignored" by other branches that "emphasis the authority of the sadhus over the acharya."[93][note 9]

Williams notes that "this important function of the acharya as religious specialist is emphasized in all the Swaminarayan scriptures including the Desh Vibhag Lekh. In the Shikshapatri Verse 62: 'My followers should worship only those images of the lord that are given by the acharya or installed by him. In Vachanamrut Vadtal I-18.4 and in other scriptures, Swaminarayan signifies the importance of Dharmakul (family of Dharmadev, Swaminarayan's father), and states that those who know him to be their deity and desire moksha shall follow only the Swaminarayan Sampraday under the leadership of the acharyas which he has established and their successors.

According to the Vadtal branch, "Gopalanand Swami was the chief ascetic disciple of Sajahanand," and "the acharyas have the sole authority to initiate sadhus and to install images in the temples."[94] According to the BAPS, the largest Swaminarayan offshoot, Gunatitanand Swami was appointed successor of Sajahanand, and "the chief ascetics had been given the authority to perform the primary rituals of the group, including the initiation of sadhus," and "this authority had not been revoked when the acharyas were appointed."[95] They furthermore argue that those who life a strictly virtuous life are the ones worthy of inheritance. According to Williams, "[t]he emphasis is on the spiritual lineage rather than the hereditary lineage, and the claim is that the one who observes the rules should be the acharya."[96]

According to the BAPS, Swaminarayan established two modes of succession: a hereditary administrative mode through the Lekh; and a spiritual mode established in the Vachanamrut, in which Swaminarayan conveyed his theological doctrines.[97] According to the BAPS, Swaminarayan described a spiritual mode of succession whose purpose is purely soteriological,[97] reflecting his principle that a form of God who lives "before one's eyes" is necessary for aspirants to attain moksha (liberation).[98] They venerate "a lineage of akṣaragurus, or living gurus, [which] has been retroactively traced back to Gunatitanand Swami."[25] According to the BAPS, Swaminarayan identified Gunatitanand Swami as the first successor in this lineage.[91] For the sadhus of the Vadtal diocese, the idea that Swaminarayan had appointed Gunatitanand as his spiritual successor was a heretical teaching, and they "refused to worship what they considered to be a human being."[99]

Bochasanwasi Akshar Purushottam Swaminarayan Sanstha

 
Mahant Swami Maharaj, current guru and president of BAPS
Main article: Bochasanwasi Akshar Purushottam Swaminarayan Sanstha

The Bochasanwasi Akshar Purushottam Swaminarayan Sanstha (BAPS) was formed in 1907, by Shastriji Maharaj (Shastri Yagnapurushdas).[100][101] Shastriji Maharaj's separated from the Vadtal diocese and created of BAPS due to his interpretation of Akshar (Aksharbrahma) and Purushottam.[100][102][103] As articulated in the BAPS-theology of Akṣara-Puruṣottama Upāsanā,[web 11] BAPS adherents, following Shastriji Maharaj, believe that Swaminarayan introduced Gunatitanand Swami as his ideal devotee, from which a spiritual lineage of gurus began,[104][25][10] reflecting Shastriji Maharaj's idea that a form of God who lives "before one's eyes" who is to be worshipped is necessary for aspirants to attain moksha (liberation).[105][note 10]

Gunatit Samaj

The Yogi Divine Society (YDS) was established in 1966, by Dadubhai Patel and his brother, Babubhai after they were excommunicated from BAPS by Yogiji Maharaj. The brothers were expelled after it was discovered that Dadubhai illicitly collected and misappropriated funds and, falsely claiming that he was acting on the organization's behalf, led a number of young women to renounce their families and join his ashram under his leadership.[106] After Dadubhai's death in 1986, an ascetic named Hariprasad Swami became the leader of the Yogi Divine Society. Yogi Divine Society became known as the Gunatit Samaj and consists of several wings: namely, YDS, The Anoopam Mission, and The Gunatit Jyot.[107]

Swaminarayan Gadi (Maninagar)

The Swaminarayan Gadi (Maninagar) was founded in the 1940s by Muktajivandas Swami after he left the Ahmedabad diocese with the belief that Gopalanand Swami, a paramhansa from Swaminarayan's time, was the spiritual successor to Swaminarayan.[108] The current spiritual leader is Jitendrapriyadasji Swami.[web 12][web 13][note 11]

Followers of the Swaminarayan Gadi accept the Rahasyarth Pradeepika Tika, a five-volume work written by Abji Bapa, as an authentic exegesis of the Vachanamrut.[109]

Beliefs and practices

Swaminarayan's views are found in the Vachanamrut (Vacanāmṛta), the principal theological text of the Swaminarayan Sampradaya.[110] As followers believe Swaminarayan to be the manifestation of Parabrahman, or Puruṣottama, his views are considered a direct revelation of God.[111] In the Vachanamrut, Swaminarayan describes that the ultimate goal of life is moksha (mokṣa), a spiritual state of ultimate liberation from the cycle of births and deaths and characterized by eternal bliss and devotion to God.[112][113]

Background

Swaminayaran's siddhanta ("view," "doctrine") emerged within the Vedanta tradition, particularly the Vaishnava tradition as articulated by Ramanuja, Madhva, Vallabha, and Chaitanya.[114][115] Swaminarayan's interpretation of the classical Hindu texts has similarities with Ramanuja's Vishistadvaita,[116][115][117][25][note 1] for which he stated his affinity.[note 4] He also incorporated elements of Vallabha's Pushtimarg, which belongs to Shuddhadvaita, to gain recognition.[19][note 5] Yet, there are also metaphysical and philosophical divergences between Swaminarayan's and Ramanuja's teachings, most notably the distinction between Purushottam and Aksharbrahman,[118][20][note 1] referred to by BAPS-swamis as the Akshar-Purushottam Darshan (philosophy) and used to set apart Swaminarayan's teachings from other Vedanta traditions.[119] While the Vadtal Mandir states that "Swaminarayan propagated a philosophy called Vishistadvaita,"[web 6] a number of BAPS-swamis argue that Swaminarayan's teachings are a distinct system within the Vedanta-tradition.[120][23]

Soteriology - Brahmarūp

In Swaminarayan's soteriology, the ultimate goal of life is to become Brahmarūp,[17] attaining the form (rūpa) of Aksharbrahman,[web 15] in which the jiva is liberated from maya and saṃsāra (the cycle of births and deaths), and in which the jiva offers sādhya bhakti, continuous and pure devotion to God.[17][18] Whereas identification with Purushottam is impossible, Brahmarūpa as identification with Akshrabrahman is feasible and encouraged,[121] though the jiva or ishwar remains distinct from Aksharbrahman.[122][123]

To become Brahmarūp, an individual must overcome the ignorance of maya, which Swaminarayan describes as self-identification with the physical body, personal talents, and material possessions.[124][note 12] Swaminarayan explains in the Vachanamrut that ekantik dharma is a means to earn God's grace and attain liberation.[125][126][127][note 13] Ekantik dharma (ekāntik dharma) consists of dharma (dharma; religious and moral duties), gnan (jñāna; realization of the atman and Paramatman) vairagya (vairāgya; dispassion for worldly objects), and bhakti (recognition of Swaminarayan as Purushottam and devotion to him, coupled with the understanding of God's greatness).[25][128][126][127][note 13]

Various branches of the Swaminarayan Sampradaya differ in their belief of how to attain moksha. The Narnarayan and Laxminarayan Gadis believe moksha is attained by worshipping the sacred images of Swaminarayan installed by acharyas.[129] In the BAPS reading of the Vachanamrut and other scriptures,[128] the jiva becomes brahmarūp, or like Aksharbrahman, under the guidance of the manifest form of God.[130][131][132][note 14] The Swaminarayan Gadi (Maninagar) believes that moksha can be attained through the lineage of gurus beginning with Gopalanand Swami.[108]

Ekantik dharma

 
Boy offering personal worship

Ekantik dharma (ekāntik dharma) is an important element of the Swaminarayan Sampradaya, and its establishment is one of the reasons why Swaminarayan is believed to have incarnated.[133] Ekantik dharma consists of dharma, gnan, vairagya, and bhakti.[134][126][127][note 15]

Dharma

Dharma consists of religious and moral duties according to one's responsibilities and situation.[135] All Swaminarayan Hindus who are householders maintain five basic vows: abstaining from theft, gambling, adultery, meat, and intoxicants like alcohol.[136][137] As part of their dharma, swamis additionally endeavor to perfect the five virtues of non-lust (nishkam/niṣkāma), non-greed (nirlobh/nirlobha), non-attachment (nissneh/nissneha), non-taste (niswad/nissvada), and non-ego (nirman/nirmāna).[138][139] Another aspect of the practice of dharma is the Swaminarayan diet, a type of vegetarianism, similar to that practiced generally by Vaishnava sampradayas, that entails abstaining from animal flesh, eggs, onions, and garlic.[136]

Gnan (jnana)

Gnan is knowledge of Parabrahman and realizing oneself as the atman. Basic practices of gnan include the daily study of scriptures like the Vachanamrut and Shikshapatri and weekly participation in congregational worship services (sabha/sabhā) at the mandir (temple), in which scriptural discourses geared towards personal and spiritual growth occur.[140] According to the BAPS, in the Vachanamrut Swaminarayan explains that adhering to the Aksharbrahman Guru's commands is commensurate with perfectly embodying gnan—that is, realizing oneself as the atman.[141][note 16]

Vairagya

Vairagya is dispassion for worldly objects. Swaminarayan Hindus cultivate vairagya through practices like fasting on Ekadashi days, two of which occur every month, and observing extra fasts, during the holy months of Chaturmas (a period of four months between July and October)[142] Vairagya is realized by adhering to the codes of conduct, inclusive of these practices, serving other devotees physically, listening to discourses, and engaging in devotion.[143][note 17]

Bhakti

 
Tilak Chandlo, illustrated

Bhakti involves devotion towards God, while understanding God's greatness and identifying one's inner core — atman — with Aksharbrahman.[144][note 18] Adherents believe that they can achieve moksha, or freedom from the cycle of birth and death, by becoming aksharrup (or brahmarup), that is, by attaining qualities similar to Akshar (or Aksharbrahman) and worshipping Purushottam (or Parabrahman; the supreme living entity; God).[145] Important bhakti rituals for Swaminarayan Hindus include puja (pūjā; personal worship of God), arti (ārtī; the ritual waving of lighted wicks around murtis, or images), thal (thāl; the offering of food to murtis of God), and cheshta (ceṣtā; the singing of devotional songs that celebrate the divine acts and form of Swaminarayan).[146]

During puja, adherents ritually worship Swaminarayan, and for the BAPS and some other denominations, also the lineage of Aksharbrahman Gurus through whom Swaminarayan is believed to be manifest.[147][148][149] At the beginning of the puja ritual, men imprint a symbol known as the tilak chandlo on their forehead, and women imprint a chandlo.[150] The tilak which is a U-shaped saffron-colored symbol made of sandalwood represents God's feet. The chandlo is a red symbol made of kumkum to symbolize Lakshmi, the goddess of fortune and prosperity. Collectively the two symbolize Lakshmi living in the heart of Swaminarayan. [150][web 16]

The worship of Swamianarayan is an important element of the swaminarayan religion. For the Ahmedabad and Vadtal diocese, Swaminarayan is present in his images and in his sacred scriptures.[151] For the BAPS, Narayan, who is Purushottam, can only be reached through contact with Purushottam, in the form of the guru, the abode of god.[152] For the BAPS, by associating with and understanding that Aksharbrahman guru, alternatively referred to as the Satpurush, Ekantik Bhakta or Ekantik Sant, spiritual seekers can transcend the influences of maya and attain spiritual perfection.[153]

Other bhakti rituals included in Swaminarayan religious practice are abhishek (abhiśeka), the bathing of a murti of God,[154] mahapuja (māhāpūjā), a collective worship of God usually performed on auspicious days or festivals,[155] and mansi (mānsi) puja, worship of God offered mentally.[156]

In general, Swaminarayan was positive about "other Vaishnava and Krishnite traditions,"[58] and Swaminarayan "adopted three aspects of Vallabhacharya practice," namely "the pattern of temple worship, fasts, and observances of festivals." [58] Shruti Patel argues that such a consistency with existing practices, notably the Pushtimarg, would have aided in "sanctioning [the] novelty" of the Swaminarayan Sampradaya.[157][note 5]

Manifestation of God

Swaminarayan's view on god was theanthropic, the idea that "the most extalted of the manifestations of god are in a divine form in human shape,"[158] teaching that "god's divine form has a human-shaped form."[159] Most followers believe that Swaminarayan was the 'manifest' form of this supreme God.[160] By 'manifest', it is understood that the very same transcendent entity who possesses a divine form in his abode assumes a human form that is still "totally divine," but "accessible" to his human devotees.[161]

Three stances regarding the ontological position of Sahajanand Swami, c.q. Swaminarayan, can be found in the tradition and its history: as guru, as an avatar of Krishna, or as a manifestation of God c.q. Purushottam, the highest Godhead, himself.[4][5][6]

According to Williams, "Some followers hold the position that Sahajanand taught that Krishna was the highest maifestation of Parabrahman or Purushottam and that he was the only appropriate object of devotion and meditation."[162] According to Kim, in the original sampradaya "Sahajanand Swami is not necessarily seen to occupy the space of ultimate reality," purna purushottam,[6] and the Krishna-iconography in the original temples, as well as the Vachanamritam and the Shikshapatri, reflect a belief in Krishna as Purushottam.[25]

According to Williams another, more accepted idea, is that "Sahajanand was a manifestation of Krishna,"[163] an understanding reflected in the Ahmedabad and Vadtal mandirs, where statues of NarNarayan and Lakshmi Narayan are enshrined, but where Swaminarayan's uniqueness is also emphasized.[164]

Most followers, including the BAPS,[5][6] take a third stance, that "Swaminarayan is the single, complete manifestation of Purushottam, the supreme god, superior to [...] all other manifestations of god, including Rama and Krishna."[165] He was thus "not a manifestation of Krishna, as some believed,"[166] but "the full manifestation of Purushottam, the supreme person himself."[166] These other manifestations of God, of which Rama and Krishna are two examples, are known as avatars, and according to Paramtattvadas Purushottam (or God) is believed to be "metaphysically different"[161] from them and their cause, the avatarin,[161] whom Swaminarayan revealed as himself.[161]

Akshar-Purushottam Darsana

Main article: Akshar-Purushottam Darshan

The BAPS puts a strong emphasis on the distinction between Akshar and Purushottam, which it sees as a defining difference between Ramanuja's Vishistadvaita and other systems of Vedanta, and Swaminarayan's teachings.[21][22][23] While his preference for Ramanuja's theology is stated in the sacred text, the Shikshapatri (Śikṣāpatrī),[note 4] in his discourses collected in the Vachanamrut Swaminarayan gave a somewhat different explanation of the classical Hindu texts. In Ramanuja's understanding, there are three entities: Parabrahman, maya (māyā), and jiva (jīva).[167][168][169][170] Throughout the Vachanamrut, Swaminarayan identifies five eternal and distinct entities: Parabrahman, Aksharbrahman (Akṣarabrahman, also Akshara, Akṣara, or Brahman), maya, ishwar (īśvara), and jiva.[171][172][173][174][note 19] This distinction between Akshar and Purushottam is referred to by the BAPS as Akshar-Purushottam Darshan or Aksarabrahma-Parabrahma-Darsanam,[21] (darśana, philosophy)[note 20] and used as an alternate name for Swaminarayan Darshana,[21][23][web 5] Swaminarayan's views or teachings. This emphasis on the distinction between Akshar and Purushottam is also reflected in its name[73] and the prominent position of Akshar as the living guru.[25][177]

BAPS-theologian Paramtattvadas (2017) and others further elaborate on these five eternal realities:

God is Parabrahman, the all-doer (kartā, "omniagent"), possessing an eternal and divine form (sākār,) but transcending all entities (sarvoparī, ), and forever manifests on Earth to liberate spiritual seekers (pragat).[178][note 21]

Aksharbrahman, from akshar (अक्षर, "imperishable," "unalterable"), and Brahman, is the second highest entity and has four forms: 1) Parabrahman's divine abode; 2) the ideal devotee of Parabrahman, eternally residing in that divine abode; 3) the sentient substratum pervading and supporting the cosmos (chidakash, cidākāśa); and 4) the Aksharbrahman Guru, who serves as the manifest form of God on earth. In the BAPS, the gurus is the ideal devotee and Aksharbrahman Guru through whom God guides aspirants to moksha.[179][180][181] This further interpretation of Akshar is one of the features that distinguishes Swaminarayan's theology from others.[182][183][184][118][note 22]

Maya refers to the universal material source used by Parabrahman to create the world.[186][note 23] Maya has three gunas (guṇas, qualities) which are found to varying degrees in everything formed of it: serenity (sattva), passion (rajas), and darkness (tamas).[187][note 24] Maya also refers to the ignorance which enshrouds both ishwars and jivas, which results in their bondage to the cycle of births and deaths (transmigration) and subsequently suffering.[188][189][190][note 25]

Ishwars are sentient beings responsible for the creation, sustenance, and dissolution of the cosmos, at the behest of Parabrahman.[187][188][note 26] While they are metaphysically higher than jivas, they too are bound by maya and must transcend it to attain moksha.[191][192][190][note 27]

Jivas, also known as atmans, are distinct, eternal entities, composed of consciousness that can reside in bodies, animating them. The jiva is inherently pure and flawless, though under the influence of maya, jivas falsely believe themselves to be the bodies they inhabit and remain bound to the cycle of transmigration.[193][194][190][note 28]

Mandir tradition

 
Murtis of Radha (right), Krishna (center) and HariKrishna Maharaj (left) at Swaminarayan Temple, Vadtal

The Swaminarayan Sampradaya is well known for its mandirs, or Hindu places of worship.[195] From Swaminarayan's time through the present, mandirs functioned as centers of worship and gathering as well as hubs for cultural and theological education.[196][197] They can vary in consecration rituals and architecture, which can be adapted to the means of the local congregation.[198]

Murti puja

The Swaminarayan Sampradaya is a bhakti tradition that believes God possesses an eternal, divine, human-like, transcendent form.[199] Thus, Swaminarayan mandirs facilitate devotion to God by housing murtis which are believed to resemble God's divine form.[200] The murtis are consecrated through the prana pratishta (prāṅa pratiṣṭha) ceremony, after which God is believed to reside in the murtis. Consequently, the worship practiced in Swaminarayan mandirs is believed to directly reach God.[200]

After the consecration of a mandir, various rituals are regularly performed in it. Arti is a ritual which involves singing a devotional song of praise, while waving a flame before the murtis. Arti is performed five times per day in shikharbaddha mandirs and twice per day in hari mandirs. Thal, a ritual offering of food to God accompanied by devotional songs, is also regularly offered three times per day to the murtis in Swaminarayan mandirs. The sanctified food is distributed to devotees after the ritual.[201]

In all major Swaminarayan temples, usually Radha Krishna, Lakshmi Narayan, Nar Narayan and Swaminarayan idols are worshipped.[202][page needed]

Devotees also engage with the murtis in a Swaminarayan mandir through other worship rituals, including darshan, dandvat, and pradakshina. Darshan is the devotional act of viewing the murtis, which are adorned with elegant clothing and ornaments.[203] Dandvats (daṇdavat), or prostrations, before the murtis symbolize surrendering to God.[204] Pradakshina (pradakṣiṇā), or circumambulations around the murtis, express the desire to keep God at the center of the devotees' lives.[205]

Community building and worship

Swaminarayan mandirs also serve as hubs for congregational worship and theological and cultural education.[206][207] Singing devotional songs, delivering katha (sermons), and performing rituals such as arti all occur daily in Swaminarayan mandirs. In addition, devotees from the surrounding community gather at least once per week, often on a weekend, to perform these activities congregationally.[208]

Cultural and theological instruction is also delivered on this day of weekly congregation. Cultural instruction may include Gujarati language instruction; training in music and dance; and preparation for festival performances.[197] Theological instruction includes classes on the tradition's history and doctrines, and the life and work of the tradition's gurus.[209]

Types of Swaminarayan temples

 
Swaminarayan Akshardham, New Delhi

Swaminarayan followers conduct their worship in various types of mandirs. The homes of Swaminarayan devotees contain ghar mandirs, or home shrines, which serve as spaces for the daily performance of worship and ritual activities such as arti, thal, and reading sermons or scripture.[210]

The majority of freestanding public Swaminarayan mandirs are hari mandirs, whose architectural style and consecration rituals are adopted to the means available to the local congregation.[195]

As a means of expressing their devotion to Swaminarayan and their guru, some congregations elect to construct stone, shikharbaddha mandirs following Hindu architectural scriptures.[211] In addition to being an expression of devotion, congregants strengthen their sense of community by cooperatively volunteering to construct these mandirs.[212]

A fourth type of mandir, called a mahamandiram (mahāmandiram) can be found in India, in New Delhi and Gandhinagar, Gujarat.[213][214][215] These mahamandirs are the largest type of mandir constructed and they contain exhibits which present the life of Swaminarayan and the history of Hinduism in various formats with the goal of inspiring introspection and self-improvement.[216]

Scriptural tradition

 
The Vachanamrut

In addition to Swaminarayan's acceptance of perennial Hindu texts such as the four Vedas, Vedanta-sutras, and the Bhagavad Gita, Swaminarayan encouraged the creation of a scriptural tradition specific to the Swaminarayan Sampradaya,[15][16] as part of the institutionalization of his charisma.[3] Along with theological texts with revelatory status, the genres of textual production in the Swaminarayan Sampradaya include sacred biographies, ethical precepts, commentaries, and philosophical treatises.[217][218]

Vachanamrut

Main article: Vachanamrut

The Vachanamrut, literally the 'immortalizing ambrosia in the form of words', is the fundamental text for the Swaminarayan Sampradaya, containing Swaminarayan's interpretations of the classical Hindu texts.[111][219] The text is a compilation of 273 discourses, with each discourse within the collection also called a Vachanamrut.[220] Swaminarayan delivered these discourses in Gujarati between the years of 1819–1829, and his senior disciples noted his teachings while they were delivered and compiled them during Swaminarayan's lifetime.[221] In this scripture, Swaminarayan gives his interpretation of the classical Hindu texts, which includes five eternal entities: jiva, ishwar, maya, Aksharbrahman, Parabrahman.[222][172] He also describes the ultimate goal of life, moksha (mokṣa), a spiritual state of ultimate liberation from the cycle of births and deaths and characterized by eternal bliss and devotion to God.[223][113] To attain this state, Swaminarayan states that the jiva needs to follow the four-fold practice of ekantik dharma[note 29] to transcend maya[224][note 30] and become brahmarup[126] and reside in the service of God.[225][226]

As followers believe Swaminarayan to be God, the Vachanamrut is considered a direct revelation of God and thus the most precise interpretation of the Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita, and other important Hindu scriptures.[111][219] This scripture is read by followers regularly and discourses are conducted daily in Swaminarayan temples around the world.[227]

Shikshapatri

 
An illustration of Swaminarayan writing the Shiskhapatri
Main article: Shikshapatri

The Shikshapatri is a composition of 212 Sanskrit verses believed to be authored by Swaminarayan and completed in 1826.[39][16] As an 'epistle of precepts,' the verses primarily communicate the Swaminarayan Sampradaya's moral injunctions for devotees which should be read daily.[228][229][note 31] Swaminarayan states that the Shikshapatri is not merely his words but his personified form and merits worship in its own right.[230][231]

Sacred biographies

The Swaminarayan Sampradaya has produced voluminous biographical literature on Swaminarayan. The Satsangi Jivan, a five volume Sanskrit sacred biography of Swaminarayan, consists of 17,627 verses written by Shatananda Muni that also incorporates some of Swaminarayan's teachings.[232] The Bhaktachintamani is a sacred biography of Swaminarayan composed by Nishkulanand Swami. Consisting of 8,536 couplets, this biography serves as a record of Swaminarayan's life and teachings.[233] The Harililamrut is a longer biographical text in verse written by Dalpatram and published in 1907.[234] The Harilila Kalpataru a 33,000-verse Sanskrit biographical text, was written by Achintyanand Brahmachari, at the suggestion of Gunatitanand Swami.[232][235] These and many other sacred biographies complement the theological texts, insofar as their incidents serve as practical applications of the theology.[15]

Swamini Vato

Main article: Swamini Vato

The Swamini Vato is a compilation of teachings delivered by Gunatitanand Swami over the course of his forty-year ministry,[228] which is valued by the BAPS.[93] He was one of Swaminarayan's foremost disciple,[236][228] and according to the BAPS and some denominations of the Swaminarayan Sampradaya, he was the first manifestation of Swaminarayan in a lineage of Aksharbrahman Gurus.[237][104] Similarly to the Vachanamrut, Gunatitanand Swami's followers recorded his teachings, which were compiled in his lifetime and reviewed by Gunatitanand Swami himself.[228] These teachings were first published by Balmukund Swami in 5 chapters and then 7 chapters by Krishnaji Ada.[web 17] The text consists of approximately 1,478 excerpts taken from Gunatitanand Swami's sermons.[238] In his teachings, he reflects on the nature of human experience and offers thoughts on how one ought to frame the intentions with which they act in this world, while also elaborating on Swaminarayan's supremacy, the importance of the sadhu, and the means for attaining liberation.[239] Often, Gunatitanand Swami elaborates upon topics or passages from the Vachanamrut, which lends the text to be considered a 'natural commentary' on the Vachanamrut within the Swaminarayan Sampradaya. In addition, he often made references to other Hindu texts, parables, and occurrences in daily life in order not only to explain spiritual concepts, but also to provide guidance on how to live them.[240]

Vedanta commentaries

 
Swaminarayan Bhashyam

Early commentaries

From its early history, the Swaminarayan Sampradaya has also been involved in the practice of producing Sanskrit commentarial work as a way of engaging with the broader scholastic community. The classical Vedanta school of philosophy and theology is of particular import for the Swaminarayan Sampradaya, which has produced exegetical work on the three canonical Vedanta texts—the Upanishads, Brahmasutras, and the Bhagavad Gita.[241] While Swaminarayan himself did not author a commentary on these texts, he engaged with them and their interpretations in the Vachanamrut. The earliest Vedanta commentarial literature in the Swaminarayan Sampradaya reflects a heavy dependence on the Vedanta systems of Ramanuja and Vallabha. Although authorship of these nineteenth-century and early twentieth-century texts[242] are attributed to two of Swaminarayan's eminent disciples, Muktanand Swami and Gopalanand Swami,[66]

Swaminarayan Bhashyam

The most comprehensive commentarial work on Vedanta in the Swaminarayan Sampradaya is the Swaminarayan Bhashyam authored by Bhadreshdas Swami, an ordained monk of BAPS. It is a five-volume work written in Sanskrit and published between 2009 and 2012. The format and style of exegesis and argument conform with the classical tradition of Vedanta commentarial writing. In more than two thousand pages, the commentator Bhadreshdas Swami, offers detailed interpretations of the principal ten Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, and the Brahmasutras (Vedanta Sutras) that articulate Swaminarayan's ideas and interpretations.[243]

The Swaminarayan Bhashyam has led to some recognition for Swaminarayan's Akshar-Purushottam distinction as a distinct view within Vedanta. The Shri Kashi Vidvat Parishad, an authoritative council of scholars of Vedic dharma and philosophy throughout India, stated in a meeting in Varanasi on 31 July 2017 that it is "appropriate to identify Sri Svāminārāyaṇa's Vedānta by the title: Akṣarapuruṣottama Darśana,"[note 32] and that his siddhanta ("view," "doctrine") on the Akshar-Purushottam distinction is "distinct from Advaita, Viśiṣṭādvaita, and all other doctrines."[web 5][web 18] Swaminarayan's Akshar-Purushottam darshan was also acclaimed as a distinct view within Vedanta in 2018 by professor Ashok Aklujkar, at the 17th World Sanskrit Conference, stating that the Swaminarayan Bhashyam "very clearly and effectively explains that Akshar is distinct from Purushottam."[web 4][note 33][244]

Influence on society

Humanitarian Service

In addition to his efforts in social reform, Swaminarayan was instrumental in providing humanitarian aid to the people of Gujarat during turbulent times of famine.[245] When given the opportunity to receive two boons from his guru, Swaminarayan asked to receive any miseries destined for followers and to bear any scarcities of food or clothing in place of any followers.[246] In the initial years of the sampradaya, Swaminaryan maintained almshouses throughout Gujarat and directed swamis to maintain the almshouses even under the threat of physical injury by opponents.[247] During a particularly harsh famine in 1813–14, Swaminarayan himself collected and distributed grains to those who were suffering, and he had step wells and water reservoirs dug in various villages.[245] He codified devotees' engagement with humanitarian service in the Shikshapatri, instructing followers to help the poor and those in need during natural disasters, to establish schools, and to serve the ill, according to their ability.[248]

Consequently, various denominations of the Swaminarayan Sampradaya currently engage in humanitarian service at a global scale. ISSO Seva, a subsidiary of the Ahmedabad diocese, is involved in disaster relief, food and blood donation drives in the United States and providing accessible healthcare in Africa.[web 19][better source needed] BAPS Charities, a humanitarian services wing of the Baps, engages in medical, educational, and disaster relief efforts.[249][250] The Gunatit Samaj also hosts medical camps, provides educational services, healthcare, and other social services in India.[web 20] The Swaminarayan Gadi (Maninagar) diocese primarily hosts health camps and other social services in the UK, Africa and North America.[web 21] SVG Charity, a subsidiary of the Laxmi Narayan Dev Gadi, is involved in disaster relief, food and medicine donations, blood drives, and organ donation registration drives across the United States, Europe, Canada, and India.[web 22][web 23]

Caste

During Swaminarayan's time, the oppressive nature of caste-based customs, like endogamy, dress codes, and commensality, pervaded many aspects of society.[251] Religious groups and other institutions often regulated membership based on caste,[252] and Swaminarayan too supported the caste system.[253] According to Williams, caste distinctions and inconsistencies between caste theory and practice still exist within the Swaminarayan sampraday. [254]

Dalits or the former untouchables were banned from Swaminarayan temples from the beginning of the sect. There was however one case a separate temple being built at Chhani near Vadodra for the dalits.[255] After the Indian Independence in 1947, in order to be exempted from the Bombay Harijan Temple Entry Act of November 1947, which made it illegal for any temple to bar its doors to the previously outcaste communities, the BAPS went to court to claim that they were not 'Hindus', but members of an entirely different religion. Since the sect was not "Hindu", they argued that the Temple Entry Act did not apply to them. The sect did win the case in 1951, which was later overturned by the Indian Supreme court.[256][web 24]

Swaminarayan demanded a vow from his followers that they would not accept food from members of lower castes,[253] and explicated this in the Shikshapatri, in which Swaminarayan states that his followers should follow rules of the caste system when consuming food and water:[257][258]

None shall receive food and water, which are unacceptable at the hands of some people under scruples of caste system, may the same happen to the sanctified portions of the Shri Krishna, except at Jagannath Puri."[259][260]

BAPS-member Parikh attributes this statement to "deep-rooted rigidities of age-old varna-stratied society," and speculates that "Possibly, Swaminarayan sought to subtly subvert and thereby undermine the traditional social order instead of negating it outright through such prescriptions."[261]

BAPS-sadhu Mangalnidhidas acknowledges that Swaminarayan accepted the caste system, which according to Mangalnidhidas may have been "a strategic accommodation to the entrenched traditions of the various elements in Hindu society,"[262] but acknowledging that this may have had "unintended negative consequences such as the reinforcement of caste identities."[263] Mangalnidhidas states that, in the early years of the Swaminarayan Sampradaya, high-caste Hindus criticized Swaminarayan for his teachings, inclusiveness, and practices that undermined caste-based discrimination,[56][note 34] and argues that, overall, Swaminarayan's followers, practices and teachings helped reduce the oppressive nature of caste-based customs prevalent in that era and drew individuals of lower strata towards the Swaminarayan sampraday.[258]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ a b c d e relation with Vishistadvaita:
    • Shree Swaminarayan Mandir Vadtal: "Swaminarayan propagated a philosophy called Vishistadvaita."[web 6]
    • Brahmbhatt 2016b: "Sahajanand explicitly states that his school of Vedanta is Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita," while "he also states that his system of devotional praxis is based on the Vallabha tradition."
    • Brahmbatt 2016b: "Certain portions of Swaminarayan Vedanta commentaries indicate an affinity for Vishishtadvaita's interpretation of canonical texts; others indicate overlap with Shuddhadvaita School, and yet others are altogether unique interpretations."
    • Williams (2018, p. 38): "They are not Shrivaishnavas, but they do propagate a theology that developed in relation to the modified nondualism of Ramanuja and they follow the devotional path within Vaishnavism"
    • Kim 2005: "The philosophical foundation for Swaminarayan devotionalism is the viśiṣṭādvaita, or qualified non-dualism, of Rāmānuja (1017–1137 ce)."
    • Dwyer 2018, p. 186: "The sect's origin in Vishistadvaita"
    • Beckerlegge 2008: "Swaminarayan theology is largely dependent on Ramanuja's theistic Vedanta and the Vishishtadvaita tradition"
    • Herman 2010, p. 153: "Most certainly, the sect is directly tied to traditional Vishishtadvaita as expounded by Ramanuja in the 12th century.
    • Roshen Dalal (2020), Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide, Penguin Books India:[267] "Swaminarayan's philosophy is said to be similar to Vishistadvaita, with some minor differences."
    • Williams (2018, p. 91): "Ramanuja allowed for some distinction within the ultimate reality, and Sahajanand elaborated on this duality by indicating that two entities, Purushottam and Akshar, are eternal and free from the illusion of maya."
    • Yogi Trivedi (2016), p. 134: "...there were many who followed [after Shankara]: Ramanuja (eleventh–twelfth centuries), Madhva (thirteenth century), Vallabha, and those in Chaitanya's tradition (both fifteenth–sixteenth centuries), to mention four of the most prominent. It is within the Vedantic tradition, particularly as expressed in the thinking of these four bhakti ācāryas (acharyas), that Swaminarayan's doctrine emerged. Swaminarayan was keen to engage with this Vedanta commentarial tradition by presenting his own theological system."
    • Dwyer 2018, p. 185: "While vishistadvaita forms the theological and philosophical basis of the Swamiyaranam sect, there are several significant differences."
  2. ^ The sect has in the past claimed not to belong to Hinduism in order to deny entry to the marginalized or Dalit groups[2]
  3. ^ a b The Swaminarayan mantra is a compound of two Sanskrit words, swami (an initiated ascetic[46][web 7] but here "master, lord"[web 1][web 2]) and Narayan (supreme God, Vishnu).[10] Originally, the name refers to one entity, namely Lord Narayan.[web 6][web 2] Some later branches, including the BAPS, believe that Swami denotes Aksharbrahman (God's ideal devotee), namely Gunatitanand Swami, as identified by Sahajanand Swami, and Narayan denotes Parabrahman (God), a reference to Sahajanand Swami himself.[47][8] The latter interpretation recalls an earlier Vaishnava tradition of the divine companionship between the perfect devotee and God (for example, Radha and Krishna or Lakshmi and Vishnu).[48]
  4. ^ a b c Brahmbhatt (2016): "Sahajanand explicitly states that his school of Vedanta is Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita."
    See Shikshapatri Shlok 121: "Vishishtadvaita is accepted as the Lord's philosophy. From the various philosophies - Advaita, Kevaladvaita, Shuddhadvaita, Vishishtadvaita etc. the Lord accepts Ramanuja's philosophy of Vishishtadvaita (special theory of non-dualism) as accurate."[web 14]
  5. ^ a b c d Shruti Patel (2017): "it is probable that Sahajanand did not possess the means by which to initiate his views and have them or him be seamlessly accepted in western India at the outset of the century. For this reason, first incorporating common and observable aspects of Vaishava culture would have mitigated his appearing unknown, made Sahajanand's aims seem less drastic, and contributed to advancing his local influence in with an aura of rootedness. By identifying with the widely-recognised Pustimarg in the course of worshipping Krsna the Svaminarayan foundation could be related to an identifiable, solidified ethos. Particularly, assimilation would be achieved more effortlessly with the adoption of select Pustimarg symbols. And yet, this would not require the sacrifice of core ideas or independence."[157]
  6. ^ Several years after the establishment of the sampradaya, the 19th-century Hindu reformer Dayananda Saraswati questioned the acceptance of Sahajanand Swami as a manifestation of God in the sect. According to Dayananda, Sahajananda decked himself out as Narayan to gain disciples.[45]
  7. ^ His followers, particularly his ascetics, also faced harassment.[55][52] Swaminarayan's ascetics, who were easily identifiable, had to refrain from retaliation and angry responses. To help them escape such harassment, at 30 June 1807 Swaminarayan ordained 500 swamis into the highest state of asceticism as paramhansas, thereby allowing them to suspend all distinguishing practices, like applying sacred marks.[55][61][10]
  8. ^ Their descendants continue the hereditary line of succession.[10] He formally adopted a son from each of his brothers and appointed him to the office of acharya. Swaminarayan decreed that the office should be hereditary so that acharyas would maintain a direct line of blood descent from his family.[79] Swaminarayan stated to all the devotees and saints to obey both the Acharyas and Gopalanand Swami who was considered as the main pillar and chief ascetic[80] for the sampradaya.[81] Their respective wives, known as the ‘Gadiwala’, are the initiator of all female Satsangis.[82] The current acharya of the Nar Narayan Dev Gadi is Koshalendraprasad Pande, while there is currently an active case regarding the leadership of Vadtal Gadi between Dev paksh, the faction led by Rakeshprasad Pande, and Siddhant paksh, which is led by Ajendraprasad Pande.[web 8] Gujarat high court has stayed the Nadiad court order removing Ajendraprasad until a final verdict is reached. He is restrained from enjoying the rights of acharya during the proceedings.[web 9] Dev paksh, governing the Vadtal temple trust, has appointed Rakeshprasad to act and officiate as acharya.[web 10][83]
  9. ^ Williams 2018, p. 208: "The original Ahmedabad and Vadtal dioceses value the Lekh, where as those groups that emphasis the authority of the sadhus over the acharya and different lineages of gurus downplay or ignore the lekh as simply an administrative document for temporary application and not as sacred scripture. Baps emphasizes the Swamini Vato, which contains the sayings of Gunatitanand."
  10. ^ The lineage of gurus for BAPS begin with Gunatitanand Swami, followed by Bhagatji Maharaj, Shastriji Maharaj, Yogiji Maharaj, Pramukh Swami Maharaj, and presently Mahant Swami.
  11. ^ Swaminarayan Gadi (Maninagar) lineage of gurus begin with Gopalanand Swami, Nirgundas Swami, Abji Bapa, Ishwarcharandas Swami, Muktajivandas Swami, Purushottampriyadasji Maharaj Swami
  12. ^ See Sahajānanda 2015: Gadhada II.50, Gadhada III.39, Kariyani 12.
  13. ^ a b See Sahajānanda 2015: Gadhada II.21, Gadhada III.21, Sarangpur 11
  14. ^ See Sahajānanda 2015: Gadhada I.21, Gadhada II.28, Gadhada II.45, Gadhada II.66, Gadhada III.2, Gadhada III.7, Gadhada III.10, Sarangpur 9.
  15. ^ See Sahajānanda 2015: Sarangpur 11, Gadhada II.21, and Gadhada III.21.
  16. ^ See Sahajānanda 2015: Gadhada II.51.
  17. ^ See Sahajānanda 2015: Gadhada III.34.
  18. ^ See Sahajānanda 2015: Panchala 9.
  19. ^ See Sahajānanda 2015: Gadhada I.7, Gadhada I.39, Gadhada I.42, Gadhada III.10.
  20. ^ Another meaning is the sight of the image of God,[74] a holy person,[175] or the guru as the abode of God.[176]
  21. ^ See Sahajānanda 2015: Gadhada I.71, Loya 4, Kariyani 10, Vartal 19.
  22. ^ In Vachanamrut Gadhada I-63, Swaminarayan emphasizes the need to understand Akshar in order to understand God (Parabrahman) perfectly and completely.[185]
  23. ^ See Sahajānanda 2015: Gadhada I.13, Gadhada III.10, Loya 17.
  24. ^ See Sahajānanda 2015: Loya 10.
  25. ^ See Sahajānanda 2015: Gadhada I.13, Gadhada I.1, Gadhada II.36, Gadhada III.39.
  26. ^ See Sahajānanda 2015: Gadhada II.31, Gadhada II.66, Gadhada III.38, Sarangpur 1, Panchala 4 .
  27. ^ See Sahajānanda 2015: Gadhada II.31, Kariyani 12, Sarangpur 5, Panchala 2.
  28. ^ See Sahajānanda 2015: Gadhada I.21, Gadhada I.44, Gadhada III.22, Gadhada III.39, Jetalpur 2.
  29. ^ See Sahajānanda 2015: Sarangpur 11.
  30. ^ See Sahajānanda 2015: Gadhada III-39.
  31. ^ See Sahajānanda 2015: Gadhada III I-14
  32. ^ "Within philosophy, just as Śrī Śaṅkara's Vedānta is identified as the Advaita Darśana, Śrī Rāmānuja's Vedānta is identified as the Viśiṣṭādvaita Darśana, Śrī Madhva's Vedānta is identified as the Dvaita Darśana, Śrī Vallabha's Vedānta is identified as the Śuddhādvaita Darśana, and others are respectively known; it is in every way appropriate to identify Sri Svāminārāyaṇa's Vedānta by the title: Akṣara-Puruṣottama Darśana."[web 5]
  33. ^ "Professor Ashok Aklujkar said [...] Just as the Kashi Vidvat Parishad acknowledged Swaminarayan Bhagwan's Akshar-Purushottam Darshan as a distinct darshan in the Vedanta tradition, we are honored to do the same from the platform of the World Sanskrit Conference [...] Professor George Cardona [said] "This is a very important classical Sanskrit commentary that very clearly and effectively explains that Akshar is distinct from Purushottam."[web 4]
  34. ^ According to Kishorelal Mashruwala, a Gandhian scholar cited by Mangalnidhidas, "Swaminarayan was the first to bring about religious advancement of Shudras in Gujarat and Kathiawad region [...] And that became the main reason for many to oppose the Sampraday."[262][264] Mangalnidhidas further refers to an 1823 memorandum from a British official in the Asiatic Journal notes that the native upper classes "regret (as Hindus) the levelling nature of [Swaminarayan's] system," accepting people from all castes into the sampradaya, and also Muslims and tribal peoples, resulting in their violent opposition to and frequent merciless beatings of Swaminarayan's disciples.[262][265] Additionally, various historical sources indicate that Swaminarayan himself often ignored caste rules and urged his followers to do the same.[56][261] Numerous historical accounts show that in practice Swaminarayan himself and his followers shared food and openly interacted with everyone without discrimination.[266]

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Further reading

General
  • Raymond Brady Williams (2018), An introduction to Swaminarayan Hinduism. Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-1-108-42114-0, OCLC 1038043717
  • Williams, Raymond Brady; Trivedi, Yogi (eds.) (2016). Swaminarayan Hinduism: tradition, adaptation and identity (1st ed.). New Delhi, India: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-908657-3. OCLC 948338914
BAPS
  • Paramtattvadas, Swami (2017). An introduction to Swaminarayan Hindu theology. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-15867-2. OCLC 964861190.

External links

  • Shri NarNarayan Dev Gadi (Ahmedabad)
  • Shri LaxmiNarayan Dev Gadi (Vadtal)
  • Bochasanwasi Shri Akshar Purushottam Swaminarayan Sanstha (BAPS Swaminarayan Sanstha)
  • Maninagar Shree Swaminarayan Gadi Sansthan Gadi
 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Swaminarayan Sampraday.

August 25, 2023
swaminarayan, sampradaya, more, definitions, swaminarayan, swaminarayan, disambiguation, also, known, swaminarayan, hinduism, swaminarayan, movement, hindu, vaishnava, sampradaya, rooted, ramanuja, vishishtadvaita, note, note, characterized, worship, charismat. For more definitions of Swaminarayan see Swaminarayan disambiguation The Swaminarayan Sampradaya also known as Swaminarayan Hinduism and Swaminarayan movement is a Hindu Vaishnava sampradaya rooted in Ramanuja s Vishishtadvaita note 1 note 2 characterized by the worship of its charismatic 3 founder Sahajanand Swami better known as Swaminarayan 1781 1830 as an avatar of Krishna 4 5 6 or as the highest manifestation of Purushottam the supreme God 5 6 7 8 9 According to the tradition s lore both the religious group and Sahajanand Swami became known as Swaminarayan after the Swaminarayan mantra which is a compound of two Sanskrit words swami master lord web 1 web 2 and Narayan supreme God Vishnu 10 note 3 Swaminarayan SampradayaSwaminarayan founder of the Swaminarayan SampradayaTotal population5 000 000 1 FounderSwaminarayanRegions with significant populationsGujaratReligionsHinduismScripturesShikshapatriVachanamrutSatsangi JivanDesh Vibhag LekhLanguagesSanskritGujaratiDuring his lifetime Swaminarayan institutionalized his charisma and beliefs in various ways 11 He constructed six mandirs to facilitate followers devotional worship of God 12 13 14 and encouraged the creation of a scriptural tradition 15 16 3 In 1826 in a legal document titled the Lekh Swaminarayan created two dioceses the Laxmi Narayan Dev Gadi Vadtal Gadi and Nar Narayan Dev Gadi Ahmedabad Gadi with a hereditary leadership of acharyas and their wives web 3 who were authorized to install statues of deities in temples and to initiate ascetics 3 In Swaminarayan s soteriology the ultimate goal of life is to become Brahmarupa 17 attaining the form rupa of Aksharbrahman in which the jiva is liberated from maya and saṃsara the cycle of births and deaths and enjoys eternal bliss offering sadhya bhakti continuous and pure devotion to God 17 18 While related to Ramanuja s Vishishtadvaita note 1 for which he stated his affinity note 4 and incorporating devotional elements of Vallabha s Pushtimarg 19 20 note 5 Sahajanand Swaminarayan gave his own specific interpretations of the classical Hindu texts note 1 As in Vishishtadvaita God and jiva are forever distinct but a distinction is also made between Parabrahman Purushottam Narayana and Aksharbrahman as two distinct eternal realities 21 web 4 This distinction is emphasized by BAPS swamis as a defining characteristic 21 22 23 and referred to as Akshar Purushottam Darshan to distinguish the Swaminarayan Darshana Swaminarayan s views or teachings from other Vedanta traditions web 5 21 23 In the 20th century due to different interpretations of authentic successorship 24 various denominations split off from the dioceses 25 All groups regard Swaminarayan as God but differ in their theology and the religious leadership they accept 10 22 26 27 10 28 The BAPS split off in 1907 from Vadtal Gadi venerates a lineage of akṣaragurus or living gurus which has been retroactively traced back to Gunatitanand Swami 25 Socially Swaminarayan accepted caste based discrimination within the religious community but inspired followers to engage in humanitarian service activities leading various denominations of the Swaminarayan Sampradaya to currently provide humanitarian service globally Contents 1 Early history 1 1 Origins 1 2 Sahajanand Swami 1 3 Growth and opposition 1 4 Temples 1 5 Vadtal Gadi and Ahmedabad Gadi 1 6 Acharya s 1 7 Death of Swaminarayan 1 8 Schisms 1 8 1 Different interpretations of succession 1 8 2 Bochasanwasi Akshar Purushottam Swaminarayan Sanstha 1 8 2 1 Gunatit Samaj 1 8 3 Swaminarayan Gadi Maninagar 2 Beliefs and practices 2 1 Background 2 2 Soteriology Brahmarup 2 3 Ekantik dharma 2 3 1 Dharma 2 3 2 Gnan jnana 2 3 3 Vairagya 2 3 4 Bhakti 2 4 Manifestation of God 2 5 Akshar Purushottam Darsana 3 Mandir tradition 3 1 Murti puja 3 2 Community building and worship 3 3 Types of Swaminarayan temples 4 Scriptural tradition 4 1 Vachanamrut 4 2 Shikshapatri 4 3 Sacred biographies 4 4 Swamini Vato 4 5 Vedanta commentaries 4 5 1 Early commentaries 4 5 2 Swaminarayan Bhashyam 5 Influence on society 5 1 Humanitarian Service 5 2 Caste 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 Sources 10 Further reading 11 External linksEarly historyOrigins The Swaminarayan Sampradaya developed out of Ramanand Swami s Uddhav Sampraday 29 30 web 6 a Gujarat based Sri Vaishnavism teacher rooted in Ramanuja s Vishishtadvaita 31 It takes its name from Ramanand s successor Sahajanand Swami 32 33 who was a charismatic leader 34 and gained fame as Swaminarayan 9 8 The various branches of the Swaminarayan tradition relate their origin to Sahajanand Swami 25 but an exact modern historical account of his life cannot be reconstructed given the hagiographic nature of the stories preserved among his followers 25 35 Sahajanand Swami Main article Swaminarayan Sahajanand Swami was born on 3 April 1781 in the village of Chhapaiya in present day Uttar Pradesh India and given the name Ghansyam 9 36 37 After his parents death he renounced his home at the age of 11 and traveled for 7 years as a child yogi around India taking the name Neelkanth before settling in the hermitage of Ramanand Swami a Vaishnava religious leader in present day Gujarat 9 38 39 Ramanand Swami initiated him as a Vaishnavite ascetic on 28 October 1800 giving him the name Sahajanand Swami 25 29 According to the Swaminarayan tradition Ramanand appointed Sahajanand to be his successor and the leader of the sampradaya in 1801 shortly before his death 40 39 41 Ramanand Swami died on 17 December 1801 42 and Sahajanand Swami became the new leader of the remains of the Uddhav Sampraday despite considerable opposition 40 web 6 Several members left the group or were expelled by Sahajanand Swami and one group established a new group together with one of the four temples of Ramanand 29 While the Krishna iconography in the original temples as well as the Vachanamritam and the Shikshapatri reflect a belief in Krishna as Purushottam 25 as early as 1804 Sahajanand Swami himself was described as the manifestation of God 29 and over his life he would be worshipped as God by thousands of followers 43 44 Nevertheless according to Kim in the original sampradaya Sahajanand Swami is not necessarily regarded as Purushottam 6 note 6 In time both the leader and the group became known by the name Swaminarayan 8 According to the Swaminarayan origin narrative 25 shortly after his succession Sahajanand Swami directed devotees to chant a new mantra Swaminarayan Svaminarayaṇa 29 10 a compound of two Sanskrit words Swami Svami and Narayan Narayaṇa 10 that is Vishnu c q Purushottam 10 According to the Swaminarayan tradition Narayana was also a second name given to Naharajand when he was initiated as an ascetic 25 29 note 3 Growth and opposition Swaminarayan acharyas and asceticsThe sampradaya grew quickly over the 30 years under Swaminarayan s leadership with British sources estimating at least 100 000 followers by the 1820s 49 9 39 He was a charismatic personality 3 and in the early period of the Swaminarayan movement followers were often induced into a visionary trance state interpreted as samadhi either by direct contact with Swaminarayan or by chanting the Swaminarayan mantra in which they had visions of their chosen deity istadevata 50 51 52 Swaminarayan was criticized for receiving large gifts from his followers after renouncing the world and assuming leadership of the fellowship 53 Swaminarayan responded that he accepts gifts because it was appropriate for the person to give and to satisfy the devotion of his followers but he does not seek it out of personal desire 54 In the first fifteen years of his leadership until the arrival of the British colonizers in Gujarat Swaminarayan s ministry faced great opposition 55 and a number of attempts at his life by both religious and secular powers are reported 55 Swaminarayan accepted people from all castes undermining caste based discrimination which lead to criticism and opposition from high caste Hindus 56 While Sahajanand s ethical reforms have been regarded as a protest against immoral Pushtimarg practices 57 Sahajanand was in fact influenced by and positive towards Vallabha and other Vaisnava traditions 58 and he incorporated elements of Vallabha s Pushtimarg 19 58 popular in Gujarat 59 to gain recognition 19 note 5 His reforms may have been primarily targeted against Tantrics and against practices associated with village and tribal deities 58 According to David Hardiman the lower classes were attracted to Swaminarayan s community because they aspired the same success and merchantile ideology It grew states Hardiman in an era of British colonial rule where land taxes were raised to unprecedented heights lands were snatched from village communities and poverty spread 60 According to Hardiman Sahajanand s pacifist approach to community re organization and reaching out to the lowest classes of his day found support with the British rulers but it also furthered their exploitation by the British the local moneylenders and richer farmers 60 Swaminarayan ordained 3 000 swamis over the span of his leadership 10 9 with 500 of them into the highest state of asceticism as paramhansas thereby allowing them to suspend all distinguishing practices like applying sacred marks 55 61 note 7 Swaminarayan encouraged his swamis to serve others During the devastating famine of 1813 14 in Kathiawar for example the swamis collected alms in unaffected regions of Gujarat to distribute among the afflicted 62 63 As teachers and preachers they were instrumental in spreading Swaminarayan s teachings throughout Guajarat which aided to the rapid growth of the sampradaya 63 25 and they created the sacred literature of the sampradaya authoring scriptural commentaries and composing bhakti poetry 63 64 65 66 Temples Toward the end of his life Swaminarayan institutionalized his charisma in various ways the building of temples to facilitate worship the writing of sacred texts and the creation of a religious organization for the initiation of ascetics 3 He instituted the mandir tradition of the sampradaya to provide followers a space for devotional worship upasana upasana to God 12 13 He constructed six mandirs in the following locations housing images of Krishna 67 which are regarded as representations of Swaminarayan by his followers 67 Swaminarayan Temple Ahmedabad dedicated to Nar Narayan 1822 Swaminarayan Mandir Bhuj dedicated to Nar Narayan 1823 Swaminarayan Mandir Vadtal dedicated to Radha Krishna and Lakshmi Narayan 1824 Shri Swaminarayan Mandir Dholera dedicated to Radha Madan Mohan 1826 Shri Swaminarayan Mandir Junagadh dedicated to Ranchhodrai and Radha Ramandev 1827 Swaminarayan Mandir Gadhada dedicated to Radha Gopinath 1828 68 Swaminarayan installed murtis of various manifestations of Krishna in the temples For example idol of Vishnu was installed with his consort Lakshmi and idol of Krishna was installed with his consort Radha to highlight the representation of God and his ideal devotee in the central shrines of each of these temple 69 He also installed his own image in the form of Harikrishna in a sideshrine at the mandir at Vadtal 67 70 71 72 The BAPS initiated the tradition of installing murtis of God Swaminarayan and his ideal devotee to facilitate his followers pursuit of moksha 73 Vadtal Gadi and Ahmedabad Gadi Acharya Ajendraprasad amp Acharya Koshalendraprasad Main articles Nar Narayan Dev Gadi and Laxmi Narayan Dev Gadi In the early years of the sampradaya Swaminarayan personally directed control of the spiritual and administrative duties 74 Swaminarayan later delegated responsibilities amongst swamis householders and the members of his family 74 Before his death Swaminarayan established two dioceses the Laxmi Narayan Dev Gadi Vadtal Gadi and Nar Narayan Dev Gadi Ahmedabad Gadi as recorded in the Lekh 75 25 76 10 based on the Vadtal and Ahmedabad mandirs respectively Acharya s On 21 November 1825 he appointed two of his nephews as acharyas to administer the two gadis or dioceses adopting them as his own sons and establishing a hereditary line of succession 10 These acharyas came from his immediate family after sending representatives to search them out in Uttar Pradesh 77 They were authorized to administer his temple properties 10 which are distributed among them 75 76 Ayodhyaprasadji son of his elder brother Rampratap became acharya of the Nar Narayan Dev Gadi Ahmedabad diocese and Raghuvirji son of his younger brother Ichcharam became acharya of the Laxmi Narayan Dev Gadi Vadtal diocese 78 75 note 8 Siddhant paksh believes Ajendraprasad is the current acharya of the Vadtal Gadi 84 Due to Swaminarayan s initiation into the Uddhav sampradaya the Vadtal and Ahmedabad branches trace the authority of their acharyas to Ramanuja s guru parampara 85 Death of Swaminarayan Swaminarayan died on 1 June 1830 but the sampradaya continued to grow with British officials counting 287 687 followers by 1872 86 87 By 2001 the number of members had grown to an estimated 5 million followers 1 Schisms Currently the following branches exist Laxmi Narayan Dev Gadi Vadtal Gadi 1825 established by Swaminarayan International Swaminarayan Satsang Mandal ISSM daughter branch USA Laxminarayan Dev Yuvak Mandal LNDYM youth wing Shree Swaminarayan Agyna Upasana Satsang Mandal SSAUSM daughter branch USA Bochasanwasi Akshar Purushottam Swaminarayan Sanstha BAPS split off from Vadtal Gadi in 1907 established by Shastriji Maharaj Gunatit Samaj Yogi Divine Society YDS split off from BAPS in 1966 Several wings YDS The Anoopam Mission and The Gunatit JyotSwaminarayan Gurukul educational institution established in 1947 by Dharmajivandasji Swami in order to spread sadvidya in students around the world 88 dd Nar Narayan Dev Gadi Ahmedabad Gadi 1825 established by Swaminarayan International Swaminarayan Satsang Organisation ISSO daughter branch USA ISSO Seva 2001 charity organisation dd Narnarayan Dev Yuvak Mandal NNDYM youth organisation Swaminarayan Gadi Maninagar split off from Ahmedabad Gadi in the 1940s Swaminarayan Mandir Vasna Sanstha SMVS split off from Swaminarayan Gadi in 1987 dd Different interpretations of succession Swaminarayan temple Ahmedabad 1866In the 20th century due to different interpretations of authentic successorship 89 various branches split off from the diocese 90 the largest being the BAPS 25 All groups regard Swaminarayan as the manifestation of God but differ in their theology and the religious leadership they accept 91 26 92 The Vadtal Gadi and Ahmedabad Gadi are the original institutions with a hereditary leadership in the form of acharyas The succession was established in the Lekh a legal document authored by Swaminarayan 75 It is followed by the Nar Narayan Ahmedabad and Laxmi Narayan Vadtal branches but downplay ed or ignored by other branches that emphasis the authority of the sadhus over the acharya 93 note 9 Williams notes that this important function of the acharya as religious specialist is emphasized in all the Swaminarayan scriptures including the Desh Vibhag Lekh In the Shikshapatri Verse 62 My followers should worship only those images of the lord that are given by the acharya or installed by him In Vachanamrut Vadtal I 18 4 and in other scriptures Swaminarayan signifies the importance of Dharmakul family of Dharmadev Swaminarayan s father and states that those who know him to be their deity and desire moksha shall follow only the Swaminarayan Sampraday under the leadership of the acharyas which he has established and their successors According to the Vadtal branch Gopalanand Swami was the chief ascetic disciple of Sajahanand and the acharyas have the sole authority to initiate sadhus and to install images in the temples 94 According to the BAPS the largest Swaminarayan offshoot Gunatitanand Swami was appointed successor of Sajahanand and the chief ascetics had been given the authority to perform the primary rituals of the group including the initiation of sadhus and this authority had not been revoked when the acharyas were appointed 95 They furthermore argue that those who life a strictly virtuous life are the ones worthy of inheritance According to Williams t he emphasis is on the spiritual lineage rather than the hereditary lineage and the claim is that the one who observes the rules should be the acharya 96 According to the BAPS Swaminarayan established two modes of succession a hereditary administrative mode through the Lekh and a spiritual mode established in the Vachanamrut in which Swaminarayan conveyed his theological doctrines 97 According to the BAPS Swaminarayan described a spiritual mode of succession whose purpose is purely soteriological 97 reflecting his principle that a form of God who lives before one s eyes is necessary for aspirants to attain moksha liberation 98 They venerate a lineage of akṣaragurus or living gurus which has been retroactively traced back to Gunatitanand Swami 25 According to the BAPS Swaminarayan identified Gunatitanand Swami as the first successor in this lineage 91 For the sadhus of the Vadtal diocese the idea that Swaminarayan had appointed Gunatitanand as his spiritual successor was a heretical teaching and they refused to worship what they considered to be a human being 99 Bochasanwasi Akshar Purushottam Swaminarayan Sanstha Mahant Swami Maharaj current guru and president of BAPSMain article Bochasanwasi Akshar Purushottam Swaminarayan Sanstha The Bochasanwasi Akshar Purushottam Swaminarayan Sanstha BAPS was formed in 1907 by Shastriji Maharaj Shastri Yagnapurushdas 100 101 Shastriji Maharaj s separated from the Vadtal diocese and created of BAPS due to his interpretation of Akshar Aksharbrahma and Purushottam 100 102 103 As articulated in the BAPS theology of Akṣara Puruṣottama Upasana web 11 BAPS adherents following Shastriji Maharaj believe that Swaminarayan introduced Gunatitanand Swami as his ideal devotee from which a spiritual lineage of gurus began 104 25 10 reflecting Shastriji Maharaj s idea that a form of God who lives before one s eyes who is to be worshipped is necessary for aspirants to attain moksha liberation 105 note 10 Gunatit Samaj The Yogi Divine Society YDS was established in 1966 by Dadubhai Patel and his brother Babubhai after they were excommunicated from BAPS by Yogiji Maharaj The brothers were expelled after it was discovered that Dadubhai illicitly collected and misappropriated funds and falsely claiming that he was acting on the organization s behalf led a number of young women to renounce their families and join his ashram under his leadership 106 After Dadubhai s death in 1986 an ascetic named Hariprasad Swami became the leader of the Yogi Divine Society Yogi Divine Society became known as the Gunatit Samaj and consists of several wings namely YDS The Anoopam Mission and The Gunatit Jyot 107 Swaminarayan Gadi Maninagar The Swaminarayan Gadi Maninagar was founded in the 1940s by Muktajivandas Swami after he left the Ahmedabad diocese with the belief that Gopalanand Swami a paramhansa from Swaminarayan s time was the spiritual successor to Swaminarayan 108 The current spiritual leader is Jitendrapriyadasji Swami web 12 web 13 note 11 Followers of the Swaminarayan Gadi accept the Rahasyarth Pradeepika Tika a five volume work written by Abji Bapa as an authentic exegesis of the Vachanamrut 109 Beliefs and practicesSwaminarayan s views are found in the Vachanamrut Vacanamṛta the principal theological text of the Swaminarayan Sampradaya 110 As followers believe Swaminarayan to be the manifestation of Parabrahman or Puruṣottama his views are considered a direct revelation of God 111 In the Vachanamrut Swaminarayan describes that the ultimate goal of life is moksha mokṣa a spiritual state of ultimate liberation from the cycle of births and deaths and characterized by eternal bliss and devotion to God 112 113 Background Swaminayaran s siddhanta view doctrine emerged within the Vedanta tradition particularly the Vaishnava tradition as articulated by Ramanuja Madhva Vallabha and Chaitanya 114 115 Swaminarayan s interpretation of the classical Hindu texts has similarities with Ramanuja s Vishistadvaita 116 115 117 25 note 1 for which he stated his affinity note 4 He also incorporated elements of Vallabha s Pushtimarg which belongs to Shuddhadvaita to gain recognition 19 note 5 Yet there are also metaphysical and philosophical divergences between Swaminarayan s and Ramanuja s teachings most notably the distinction between Purushottam and Aksharbrahman 118 20 note 1 referred to by BAPS swamis as the Akshar Purushottam Darshan philosophy and used to set apart Swaminarayan s teachings from other Vedanta traditions 119 While the Vadtal Mandir states that Swaminarayan propagated a philosophy called Vishistadvaita web 6 a number of BAPS swamis argue that Swaminarayan s teachings are a distinct system within the Vedanta tradition 120 23 Soteriology Brahmarup In Swaminarayan s soteriology the ultimate goal of life is to become Brahmarup 17 attaining the form rupa of Aksharbrahman web 15 in which the jiva is liberated from maya and saṃsara the cycle of births and deaths and in which the jiva offers sadhya bhakti continuous and pure devotion to God 17 18 Whereas identification with Purushottam is impossible Brahmarupa as identification with Akshrabrahman is feasible and encouraged 121 though the jiva or ishwar remains distinct from Aksharbrahman 122 123 To become Brahmarup an individual must overcome the ignorance of maya which Swaminarayan describes as self identification with the physical body personal talents and material possessions 124 note 12 Swaminarayan explains in the Vachanamrut that ekantik dharma is a means to earn God s grace and attain liberation 125 126 127 note 13 Ekantik dharma ekantik dharma consists of dharma dharma religious and moral duties gnan jnana realization of the atman and Paramatman vairagya vairagya dispassion for worldly objects and bhakti recognition of Swaminarayan as Purushottam and devotion to him coupled with the understanding of God s greatness 25 128 126 127 note 13 Various branches of the Swaminarayan Sampradaya differ in their belief of how to attain moksha The Narnarayan and Laxminarayan Gadis believe moksha is attained by worshipping the sacred images of Swaminarayan installed by acharyas 129 In the BAPS reading of the Vachanamrut and other scriptures 128 the jiva becomes brahmarup or like Aksharbrahman under the guidance of the manifest form of God 130 131 132 note 14 The Swaminarayan Gadi Maninagar believes that moksha can be attained through the lineage of gurus beginning with Gopalanand Swami 108 Ekantik dharma Boy offering personal worshipEkantik dharma ekantik dharma is an important element of the Swaminarayan Sampradaya and its establishment is one of the reasons why Swaminarayan is believed to have incarnated 133 Ekantik dharma consists of dharma gnan vairagya and bhakti 134 126 127 note 15 Dharma Dharma consists of religious and moral duties according to one s responsibilities and situation 135 All Swaminarayan Hindus who are householders maintain five basic vows abstaining from theft gambling adultery meat and intoxicants like alcohol 136 137 As part of their dharma swamis additionally endeavor to perfect the five virtues of non lust nishkam niṣkama non greed nirlobh nirlobha non attachment nissneh nissneha non taste niswad nissvada and non ego nirman nirmana 138 139 Another aspect of the practice of dharma is the Swaminarayan diet a type of vegetarianism similar to that practiced generally by Vaishnava sampradayas that entails abstaining from animal flesh eggs onions and garlic 136 Gnan jnana Gnan is knowledge of Parabrahman and realizing oneself as the atman Basic practices of gnan include the daily study of scriptures like the Vachanamrut and Shikshapatri and weekly participation in congregational worship services sabha sabha at the mandir temple in which scriptural discourses geared towards personal and spiritual growth occur 140 According to the BAPS in the Vachanamrut Swaminarayan explains that adhering to the Aksharbrahman Guru s commands is commensurate with perfectly embodying gnan that is realizing oneself as the atman 141 note 16 Vairagya Vairagya is dispassion for worldly objects Swaminarayan Hindus cultivate vairagya through practices like fasting on Ekadashi days two of which occur every month and observing extra fasts during the holy months of Chaturmas a period of four months between July and October 142 Vairagya is realized by adhering to the codes of conduct inclusive of these practices serving other devotees physically listening to discourses and engaging in devotion 143 note 17 Bhakti Tilak Chandlo illustratedBhakti involves devotion towards God while understanding God s greatness and identifying one s inner core atman with Aksharbrahman 144 note 18 Adherents believe that they can achieve moksha or freedom from the cycle of birth and death by becoming aksharrup or brahmarup that is by attaining qualities similar to Akshar or Aksharbrahman and worshipping Purushottam or Parabrahman the supreme living entity God 145 Important bhakti rituals for Swaminarayan Hindus include puja puja personal worship of God arti arti the ritual waving of lighted wicks around murtis or images thal thal the offering of food to murtis of God and cheshta ceṣta the singing of devotional songs that celebrate the divine acts and form of Swaminarayan 146 During puja adherents ritually worship Swaminarayan and for the BAPS and some other denominations also the lineage of Aksharbrahman Gurus through whom Swaminarayan is believed to be manifest 147 148 149 At the beginning of the puja ritual men imprint a symbol known as the tilak chandlo on their forehead and women imprint a chandlo 150 The tilak which is a U shaped saffron colored symbol made of sandalwood represents God s feet The chandlo is a red symbol made of kumkum to symbolize Lakshmi the goddess of fortune and prosperity Collectively the two symbolize Lakshmi living in the heart of Swaminarayan 150 web 16 The worship of Swamianarayan is an important element of the swaminarayan religion For the Ahmedabad and Vadtal diocese Swaminarayan is present in his images and in his sacred scriptures 151 For the BAPS Narayan who is Purushottam can only be reached through contact with Purushottam in the form of the guru the abode of god 152 For the BAPS by associating with and understanding that Aksharbrahman guru alternatively referred to as the Satpurush Ekantik Bhakta or Ekantik Sant spiritual seekers can transcend the influences of maya and attain spiritual perfection 153 Other bhakti rituals included in Swaminarayan religious practice are abhishek abhiseka the bathing of a murti of God 154 mahapuja mahapuja a collective worship of God usually performed on auspicious days or festivals 155 and mansi mansi puja worship of God offered mentally 156 In general Swaminarayan was positive about other Vaishnava and Krishnite traditions 58 and Swaminarayan adopted three aspects of Vallabhacharya practice namely the pattern of temple worship fasts and observances of festivals 58 Shruti Patel argues that such a consistency with existing practices notably the Pushtimarg would have aided in sanctioning the novelty of the Swaminarayan Sampradaya 157 note 5 Manifestation of God Swaminarayan s view on god was theanthropic the idea that the most extalted of the manifestations of god are in a divine form in human shape 158 teaching that god s divine form has a human shaped form 159 Most followers believe that Swaminarayan was the manifest form of this supreme God 160 By manifest it is understood that the very same transcendent entity who possesses a divine form in his abode assumes a human form that is still totally divine but accessible to his human devotees 161 Three stances regarding the ontological position of Sahajanand Swami c q Swaminarayan can be found in the tradition and its history as guru as an avatar of Krishna or as a manifestation of God c q Purushottam the highest Godhead himself 4 5 6 According to Williams Some followers hold the position that Sahajanand taught that Krishna was the highest maifestation of Parabrahman or Purushottam and that he was the only appropriate object of devotion and meditation 162 According to Kim in the original sampradaya Sahajanand Swami is not necessarily seen to occupy the space of ultimate reality purna purushottam 6 and the Krishna iconography in the original temples as well as the Vachanamritam and the Shikshapatri reflect a belief in Krishna as Purushottam 25 According to Williams another more accepted idea is that Sahajanand was a manifestation of Krishna 163 an understanding reflected in the Ahmedabad and Vadtal mandirs where statues of NarNarayan and Lakshmi Narayan are enshrined but where Swaminarayan s uniqueness is also emphasized 164 Most followers including the BAPS 5 6 take a third stance that Swaminarayan is the single complete manifestation of Purushottam the supreme god superior to all other manifestations of god including Rama and Krishna 165 He was thus not a manifestation of Krishna as some believed 166 but the full manifestation of Purushottam the supreme person himself 166 These other manifestations of God of which Rama and Krishna are two examples are known as avatars and according to Paramtattvadas Purushottam or God is believed to be metaphysically different 161 from them and their cause the avatarin 161 whom Swaminarayan revealed as himself 161 Akshar Purushottam Darsana Main article Akshar Purushottam Darshan The BAPS puts a strong emphasis on the distinction between Akshar and Purushottam which it sees as a defining difference between Ramanuja s Vishistadvaita and other systems of Vedanta and Swaminarayan s teachings 21 22 23 While his preference for Ramanuja s theology is stated in the sacred text the Shikshapatri Sikṣapatri note 4 in his discourses collected in the Vachanamrut Swaminarayan gave a somewhat different explanation of the classical Hindu texts In Ramanuja s understanding there are three entities Parabrahman maya maya and jiva jiva 167 168 169 170 Throughout the Vachanamrut Swaminarayan identifies five eternal and distinct entities Parabrahman Aksharbrahman Akṣarabrahman also Akshara Akṣara or Brahman maya ishwar isvara and jiva 171 172 173 174 note 19 This distinction between Akshar and Purushottam is referred to by the BAPS as Akshar Purushottam Darshan or Aksarabrahma Parabrahma Darsanam 21 darsana philosophy note 20 and used as an alternate name for Swaminarayan Darshana 21 23 web 5 Swaminarayan s views or teachings This emphasis on the distinction between Akshar and Purushottam is also reflected in its name 73 and the prominent position of Akshar as the living guru 25 177 BAPS theologian Paramtattvadas 2017 and others further elaborate on these five eternal realities God is Parabrahman the all doer karta omniagent possessing an eternal and divine form sakar but transcending all entities sarvopari and forever manifests on Earth to liberate spiritual seekers pragat 178 note 21 Aksharbrahman from akshar अक षर imperishable unalterable and Brahman is the second highest entity and has four forms 1 Parabrahman s divine abode 2 the ideal devotee of Parabrahman eternally residing in that divine abode 3 the sentient substratum pervading and supporting the cosmos chidakash cidakasa and 4 the Aksharbrahman Guru who serves as the manifest form of God on earth In the BAPS the gurus is the ideal devotee and Aksharbrahman Guru through whom God guides aspirants to moksha 179 180 181 This further interpretation of Akshar is one of the features that distinguishes Swaminarayan s theology from others 182 183 184 118 note 22 Maya refers to the universal material source used by Parabrahman to create the world 186 note 23 Maya has three gunas guṇas qualities which are found to varying degrees in everything formed of it serenity sattva passion rajas and darkness tamas 187 note 24 Maya also refers to the ignorance which enshrouds both ishwars and jivas which results in their bondage to the cycle of births and deaths transmigration and subsequently suffering 188 189 190 note 25 Ishwars are sentient beings responsible for the creation sustenance and dissolution of the cosmos at the behest of Parabrahman 187 188 note 26 While they are metaphysically higher than jivas they too are bound by maya and must transcend it to attain moksha 191 192 190 note 27 Jivas also known as atmans are distinct eternal entities composed of consciousness that can reside in bodies animating them The jiva is inherently pure and flawless though under the influence of maya jivas falsely believe themselves to be the bodies they inhabit and remain bound to the cycle of transmigration 193 194 190 note 28 Mandir tradition Murtis of Radha right Krishna center and HariKrishna Maharaj left at Swaminarayan Temple VadtalThe Swaminarayan Sampradaya is well known for its mandirs or Hindu places of worship 195 From Swaminarayan s time through the present mandirs functioned as centers of worship and gathering as well as hubs for cultural and theological education 196 197 They can vary in consecration rituals and architecture which can be adapted to the means of the local congregation 198 Murti puja The Swaminarayan Sampradaya is a bhakti tradition that believes God possesses an eternal divine human like transcendent form 199 Thus Swaminarayan mandirs facilitate devotion to God by housing murtis which are believed to resemble God s divine form 200 The murtis are consecrated through the prana pratishta praṅa pratiṣṭha ceremony after which God is believed to reside in the murtis Consequently the worship practiced in Swaminarayan mandirs is believed to directly reach God 200 After the consecration of a mandir various rituals are regularly performed in it Arti is a ritual which involves singing a devotional song of praise while waving a flame before the murtis Arti is performed five times per day in shikharbaddha mandirs and twice per day in hari mandirs Thal a ritual offering of food to God accompanied by devotional songs is also regularly offered three times per day to the murtis in Swaminarayan mandirs The sanctified food is distributed to devotees after the ritual 201 In all major Swaminarayan temples usually Radha Krishna Lakshmi Narayan Nar Narayan and Swaminarayan idols are worshipped 202 page needed Devotees also engage with the murtis in a Swaminarayan mandir through other worship rituals including darshan dandvat and pradakshina Darshan is the devotional act of viewing the murtis which are adorned with elegant clothing and ornaments 203 Dandvats daṇdavat or prostrations before the murtis symbolize surrendering to God 204 Pradakshina pradakṣiṇa or circumambulations around the murtis express the desire to keep God at the center of the devotees lives 205 Community building and worship Swaminarayan mandirs also serve as hubs for congregational worship and theological and cultural education 206 207 Singing devotional songs delivering katha sermons and performing rituals such as arti all occur daily in Swaminarayan mandirs In addition devotees from the surrounding community gather at least once per week often on a weekend to perform these activities congregationally 208 Cultural and theological instruction is also delivered on this day of weekly congregation Cultural instruction may include Gujarati language instruction training in music and dance and preparation for festival performances 197 Theological instruction includes classes on the tradition s history and doctrines and the life and work of the tradition s gurus 209 Types of Swaminarayan temples Swaminarayan Akshardham New DelhiSwaminarayan followers conduct their worship in various types of mandirs The homes of Swaminarayan devotees contain ghar mandirs or home shrines which serve as spaces for the daily performance of worship and ritual activities such as arti thal and reading sermons or scripture 210 The majority of freestanding public Swaminarayan mandirs are hari mandirs whose architectural style and consecration rituals are adopted to the means available to the local congregation 195 As a means of expressing their devotion to Swaminarayan and their guru some congregations elect to construct stone shikharbaddha mandirs following Hindu architectural scriptures 211 In addition to being an expression of devotion congregants strengthen their sense of community by cooperatively volunteering to construct these mandirs 212 A fourth type of mandir called a mahamandiram mahamandiram can be found in India in New Delhi and Gandhinagar Gujarat 213 214 215 These mahamandirs are the largest type of mandir constructed and they contain exhibits which present the life of Swaminarayan and the history of Hinduism in various formats with the goal of inspiring introspection and self improvement 216 Scriptural tradition The VachanamrutIn addition to Swaminarayan s acceptance of perennial Hindu texts such as the four Vedas Vedanta sutras and the Bhagavad Gita Swaminarayan encouraged the creation of a scriptural tradition specific to the Swaminarayan Sampradaya 15 16 as part of the institutionalization of his charisma 3 Along with theological texts with revelatory status the genres of textual production in the Swaminarayan Sampradaya include sacred biographies ethical precepts commentaries and philosophical treatises 217 218 Vachanamrut Main article Vachanamrut The Vachanamrut literally the immortalizing ambrosia in the form of words is the fundamental text for the Swaminarayan Sampradaya containing Swaminarayan s interpretations of the classical Hindu texts 111 219 The text is a compilation of 273 discourses with each discourse within the collection also called a Vachanamrut 220 Swaminarayan delivered these discourses in Gujarati between the years of 1819 1829 and his senior disciples noted his teachings while they were delivered and compiled them during Swaminarayan s lifetime 221 In this scripture Swaminarayan gives his interpretation of the classical Hindu texts which includes five eternal entities jiva ishwar maya Aksharbrahman Parabrahman 222 172 He also describes the ultimate goal of life moksha mokṣa a spiritual state of ultimate liberation from the cycle of births and deaths and characterized by eternal bliss and devotion to God 223 113 To attain this state Swaminarayan states that the jiva needs to follow the four fold practice of ekantik dharma note 29 to transcend maya 224 note 30 and become brahmarup 126 and reside in the service of God 225 226 As followers believe Swaminarayan to be God the Vachanamrut is considered a direct revelation of God and thus the most precise interpretation of the Upanishads Bhagavad Gita and other important Hindu scriptures 111 219 This scripture is read by followers regularly and discourses are conducted daily in Swaminarayan temples around the world 227 Shikshapatri An illustration of Swaminarayan writing the ShiskhapatriMain article Shikshapatri The Shikshapatri is a composition of 212 Sanskrit verses believed to be authored by Swaminarayan and completed in 1826 39 16 As an epistle of precepts the verses primarily communicate the Swaminarayan Sampradaya s moral injunctions for devotees which should be read daily 228 229 note 31 Swaminarayan states that the Shikshapatri is not merely his words but his personified form and merits worship in its own right 230 231 Sacred biographies The Swaminarayan Sampradaya has produced voluminous biographical literature on Swaminarayan The Satsangi Jivan a five volume Sanskrit sacred biography of Swaminarayan consists of 17 627 verses written by Shatananda Muni that also incorporates some of Swaminarayan s teachings 232 The Bhaktachintamani is a sacred biography of Swaminarayan composed by Nishkulanand Swami Consisting of 8 536 couplets this biography serves as a record of Swaminarayan s life and teachings 233 The Harililamrut is a longer biographical text in verse written by Dalpatram and published in 1907 234 The Harilila Kalpataru a 33 000 verse Sanskrit biographical text was written by Achintyanand Brahmachari at the suggestion of Gunatitanand Swami 232 235 These and many other sacred biographies complement the theological texts insofar as their incidents serve as practical applications of the theology 15 Swamini Vato Main article Swamini Vato The Swamini Vato is a compilation of teachings delivered by Gunatitanand Swami over the course of his forty year ministry 228 which is valued by the BAPS 93 He was one of Swaminarayan s foremost disciple 236 228 and according to the BAPS and some denominations of the Swaminarayan Sampradaya he was the first manifestation of Swaminarayan in a lineage of Aksharbrahman Gurus 237 104 Similarly to the Vachanamrut Gunatitanand Swami s followers recorded his teachings which were compiled in his lifetime and reviewed by Gunatitanand Swami himself 228 These teachings were first published by Balmukund Swami in 5 chapters and then 7 chapters by Krishnaji Ada web 17 The text consists of approximately 1 478 excerpts taken from Gunatitanand Swami s sermons 238 In his teachings he reflects on the nature of human experience and offers thoughts on how one ought to frame the intentions with which they act in this world while also elaborating on Swaminarayan s supremacy the importance of the sadhu and the means for attaining liberation 239 Often Gunatitanand Swami elaborates upon topics or passages from the Vachanamrut which lends the text to be considered a natural commentary on the Vachanamrut within the Swaminarayan Sampradaya In addition he often made references to other Hindu texts parables and occurrences in daily life in order not only to explain spiritual concepts but also to provide guidance on how to live them 240 Vedanta commentaries Swaminarayan BhashyamEarly commentaries From its early history the Swaminarayan Sampradaya has also been involved in the practice of producing Sanskrit commentarial work as a way of engaging with the broader scholastic community The classical Vedanta school of philosophy and theology is of particular import for the Swaminarayan Sampradaya which has produced exegetical work on the three canonical Vedanta texts the Upanishads Brahmasutras and the Bhagavad Gita 241 While Swaminarayan himself did not author a commentary on these texts he engaged with them and their interpretations in the Vachanamrut The earliest Vedanta commentarial literature in the Swaminarayan Sampradaya reflects a heavy dependence on the Vedanta systems of Ramanuja and Vallabha Although authorship of these nineteenth century and early twentieth century texts 242 are attributed to two of Swaminarayan s eminent disciples Muktanand Swami and Gopalanand Swami 66 Swaminarayan Bhashyam The most comprehensive commentarial work on Vedanta in the Swaminarayan Sampradaya is the Swaminarayan Bhashyam authored by Bhadreshdas Swami an ordained monk of BAPS It is a five volume work written in Sanskrit and published between 2009 and 2012 The format and style of exegesis and argument conform with the classical tradition of Vedanta commentarial writing In more than two thousand pages the commentator Bhadreshdas Swami offers detailed interpretations of the principal ten Upanishads the Bhagavad Gita and the Brahmasutras Vedanta Sutras that articulate Swaminarayan s ideas and interpretations 243 The Swaminarayan Bhashyam has led to some recognition for Swaminarayan s Akshar Purushottam distinction as a distinct view within Vedanta The Shri Kashi Vidvat Parishad an authoritative council of scholars of Vedic dharma and philosophy throughout India stated in a meeting in Varanasi on 31 July 2017 that it is appropriate to identify Sri Svaminarayaṇa s Vedanta by the title Akṣarapuruṣottama Darsana note 32 and that his siddhanta view doctrine on the Akshar Purushottam distinction is distinct from Advaita Visiṣṭadvaita and all other doctrines web 5 web 18 Swaminarayan s Akshar Purushottam darshan was also acclaimed as a distinct view within Vedanta in 2018 by professor Ashok Aklujkar at the 17th World Sanskrit Conference stating that the Swaminarayan Bhashyam very clearly and effectively explains that Akshar is distinct from Purushottam web 4 note 33 244 Influence on societyHumanitarian Service This section needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section Unsourced material may be challenged and removed Find sources Swaminarayan Sampradaya news newspapers books scholar JSTOR October 2022 Learn how and when to remove this template message In addition to his efforts in social reform Swaminarayan was instrumental in providing humanitarian aid to the people of Gujarat during turbulent times of famine 245 When given the opportunity to receive two boons from his guru Swaminarayan asked to receive any miseries destined for followers and to bear any scarcities of food or clothing in place of any followers 246 In the initial years of the sampradaya Swaminaryan maintained almshouses throughout Gujarat and directed swamis to maintain the almshouses even under the threat of physical injury by opponents 247 During a particularly harsh famine in 1813 14 Swaminarayan himself collected and distributed grains to those who were suffering and he had step wells and water reservoirs dug in various villages 245 He codified devotees engagement with humanitarian service in the Shikshapatri instructing followers to help the poor and those in need during natural disasters to establish schools and to serve the ill according to their ability 248 Consequently various denominations of the Swaminarayan Sampradaya currently engage in humanitarian service at a global scale ISSO Seva a subsidiary of the Ahmedabad diocese is involved in disaster relief food and blood donation drives in the United States and providing accessible healthcare in Africa web 19 better source needed BAPS Charities a humanitarian services wing of the Baps engages in medical educational and disaster relief efforts 249 250 The Gunatit Samaj also hosts medical camps provides educational services healthcare and other social services in India web 20 The Swaminarayan Gadi Maninagar diocese primarily hosts health camps and other social services in the UK Africa and North America web 21 SVG Charity a subsidiary of the Laxmi Narayan Dev Gadi is involved in disaster relief food and medicine donations blood drives and organ donation registration drives across the United States Europe Canada and India web 22 web 23 Caste During Swaminarayan s time the oppressive nature of caste based customs like endogamy dress codes and commensality pervaded many aspects of society 251 Religious groups and other institutions often regulated membership based on caste 252 and Swaminarayan too supported the caste system 253 According to Williams caste distinctions and inconsistencies between caste theory and practice still exist within the Swaminarayan sampraday 254 Dalits or the former untouchables were banned from Swaminarayan temples from the beginning of the sect There was however one case a separate temple being built at Chhani near Vadodra for the dalits 255 After the Indian Independence in 1947 in order to be exempted from the Bombay Harijan Temple Entry Act of November 1947 which made it illegal for any temple to bar its doors to the previously outcaste communities the BAPS went to court to claim that they were not Hindus but members of an entirely different religion Since the sect was not Hindu they argued that the Temple Entry Act did not apply to them The sect did win the case in 1951 which was later overturned by the Indian Supreme court 256 web 24 Swaminarayan demanded a vow from his followers that they would not accept food from members of lower castes 253 and explicated this in the Shikshapatri in which Swaminarayan states that his followers should follow rules of the caste system when consuming food and water 257 258 None shall receive food and water which are unacceptable at the hands of some people under scruples of caste system may the same happen to the sanctified portions of the Shri Krishna except at Jagannath Puri 259 260 BAPS member Parikh attributes this statement to deep rooted rigidities of age old varna stratied society and speculates that Possibly Swaminarayan sought to subtly subvert and thereby undermine the traditional social order instead of negating it outright through such prescriptions 261 BAPS sadhu Mangalnidhidas acknowledges that Swaminarayan accepted the caste system which according to Mangalnidhidas may have been a strategic accommodation to the entrenched traditions of the various elements in Hindu society 262 but acknowledging that this may have had unintended negative consequences such as the reinforcement of caste identities 263 Mangalnidhidas states that in the early years of the Swaminarayan Sampradaya high caste Hindus criticized Swaminarayan for his teachings inclusiveness and practices that undermined caste based discrimination 56 note 34 and argues that overall Swaminarayan s followers practices and teachings helped reduce the oppressive nature of caste based customs prevalent in that era and drew individuals of lower strata towards the Swaminarayan sampraday 258 See alsoList of 21st century religious leadersNotes a b c d e relation with Vishistadvaita Shree Swaminarayan Mandir Vadtal Swaminarayan propagated a philosophy called Vishistadvaita web 6 Brahmbhatt 2016b Sahajanand explicitly states that his school of Vedanta is Ramanuja s Vishishtadvaita while he also states that his system of devotional praxis is based on the Vallabha tradition Brahmbatt 2016bharvnb error no target CITEREFBrahmbatt2016b help Certain portions of Swaminarayan Vedanta commentaries indicate an affinity for Vishishtadvaita s interpretation of canonical texts others indicate overlap with Shuddhadvaita School and yet others are altogether unique interpretations Williams 2018 p 38 They are not Shrivaishnavas but they do propagate a theology that developed in relation to the modified nondualism of Ramanuja and they follow the devotional path within Vaishnavism Kim 2005 The philosophical foundation for Swaminarayan devotionalism is the visiṣṭadvaita or qualified non dualism of Ramanuja 1017 1137 ce Dwyer 2018 p 186 The sect s origin in Vishistadvaita Beckerlegge 2008 Swaminarayan theology is largely dependent on Ramanuja s theistic Vedanta and the Vishishtadvaita tradition Herman 2010 p 153 Most certainly the sect is directly tied to traditional Vishishtadvaita as expounded by Ramanuja in the 12th century Roshen Dalal 2020 Hinduism An Alphabetical Guide Penguin Books India 267 Swaminarayan s philosophy is said to be similar to Vishistadvaita with some minor differences Williams 2018 p 91 Ramanuja allowed for some distinction within the ultimate reality and Sahajanand elaborated on this duality by indicating that two entities Purushottam and Akshar are eternal and free from the illusion of maya Yogi Trivedi 2016 p 134 there were many who followed after Shankara Ramanuja eleventh twelfth centuries Madhva thirteenth century Vallabha and those in Chaitanya s tradition both fifteenth sixteenth centuries to mention four of the most prominent It is within the Vedantic tradition particularly as expressed in the thinking of these four bhakti acaryas acharyas that Swaminarayan s doctrine emerged Swaminarayan was keen to engage with this Vedanta commentarial tradition by presenting his own theological system Dwyer 2018 p 185 While vishistadvaita forms the theological and philosophical basis of the Swamiyaranam sect there are several significant differences The sect has in the past claimed not to belong to Hinduism in order to deny entry to the marginalized or Dalit groups 2 a b The Swaminarayan mantra is a compound of two Sanskrit words swami an initiated ascetic 46 web 7 but here master lord web 1 web 2 and Narayan supreme God Vishnu 10 Originally the name refers to one entity namely Lord Narayan web 6 web 2 Some later branches including the BAPS believe that Swami denotes Aksharbrahman God s ideal devotee namely Gunatitanand Swami as identified by Sahajanand Swami and Narayan denotes Parabrahman God a reference to Sahajanand Swami himself 47 8 The latter interpretation recalls an earlier Vaishnava tradition of the divine companionship between the perfect devotee and God for example Radha and Krishna or Lakshmi and Vishnu 48 a b c Brahmbhatt 2016 Sahajanand explicitly states that his school of Vedanta is Ramanuja s Vishishtadvaita See Shikshapatri Shlok 121 Vishishtadvaita is accepted as the Lord s philosophy From the various philosophies Advaita Kevaladvaita Shuddhadvaita Vishishtadvaita etc the Lord accepts Ramanuja s philosophy of Vishishtadvaita special theory of non dualism as accurate web 14 a b c d Shruti Patel 2017 it is probable that Sahajanand did not possess the means by which to initiate his views and have them or him be seamlessly accepted in western India at the outset of the century For this reason first incorporating common and observable aspects of Vaishava culture would have mitigated his appearing unknown made Sahajanand s aims seem less drastic and contributed to advancing his local influence in with an aura of rootedness By identifying with the widely recognised Pustimarg in the course of worshipping Krsna the Svaminarayan foundation could be related to an identifiable solidified ethos Particularly assimilation would be achieved more effortlessly with the adoption of select Pustimarg symbols And yet this would not require the sacrifice of core ideas or independence 157 Several years after the establishment of the sampradaya the 19th century Hindu reformer Dayananda Saraswati questioned the acceptance of Sahajanand Swami as a manifestation of God in the sect According to Dayananda Sahajananda decked himself out as Narayan to gain disciples 45 His followers particularly his ascetics also faced harassment 55 52 Swaminarayan s ascetics who were easily identifiable had to refrain from retaliation and angry responses To help them escape such harassment at 30 June 1807 Swaminarayan ordained 500 swamis into the highest state of asceticism as paramhansas thereby allowing them to suspend all distinguishing practices like applying sacred marks 55 61 10 Their descendants continue the hereditary line of succession 10 He formally adopted a son from each of his brothers and appointed him to the office of acharya Swaminarayan decreed that the office should be hereditary so that acharyas would maintain a direct line of blood descent from his family 79 Swaminarayan stated to all the devotees and saints to obey both the Acharyas and Gopalanand Swami who was considered as the main pillar and chief ascetic 80 for the sampradaya 81 Their respective wives known as the Gadiwala are the initiator of all female Satsangis 82 The current acharya of the Nar Narayan Dev Gadi is Koshalendraprasad Pande while there is currently an active case regarding the leadership of Vadtal Gadi between Dev paksh the faction led by Rakeshprasad Pande and Siddhant paksh which is led by Ajendraprasad Pande web 8 Gujarat high court has stayed the Nadiad court order removing Ajendraprasad until a final verdict is reached He is restrained from enjoying the rights of acharya during the proceedings web 9 Dev paksh governing the Vadtal temple trust has appointed Rakeshprasad to act and officiate as acharya web 10 83 Williams 2018 p 208 The original Ahmedabad and Vadtal dioceses value the Lekh where as those groups that emphasis the authority of the sadhus over the acharya and different lineages of gurus downplay or ignore the lekh as simply an administrative document for temporary application and not as sacred scripture Baps emphasizes the Swamini Vato which contains the sayings of Gunatitanand The lineage of gurus for BAPS begin with Gunatitanand Swami followed by Bhagatji Maharaj Shastriji Maharaj Yogiji Maharaj Pramukh Swami Maharaj and presently Mahant Swami Swaminarayan Gadi Maninagar lineage of gurus begin with Gopalanand Swami Nirgundas Swami Abji Bapa Ishwarcharandas Swami Muktajivandas Swami Purushottampriyadasji Maharaj Swami See Sahajananda 2015 Gadhada II 50 Gadhada III 39 Kariyani 12 a b See Sahajananda 2015 Gadhada II 21 Gadhada III 21 Sarangpur 11 See Sahajananda 2015 Gadhada I 21 Gadhada II 28 Gadhada II 45 Gadhada II 66 Gadhada III 2 Gadhada III 7 Gadhada III 10 Sarangpur 9 See Sahajananda 2015 Sarangpur 11 Gadhada II 21 and Gadhada III 21 See Sahajananda 2015 Gadhada II 51 See Sahajananda 2015 Gadhada III 34 See Sahajananda 2015 Panchala 9 See Sahajananda 2015 Gadhada I 7 Gadhada I 39 Gadhada I 42 Gadhada III 10 Another meaning is the sight of the image of God 74 a holy person 175 or the guru as the abode of God 176 See Sahajananda 2015 Gadhada I 71 Loya 4 Kariyani 10 Vartal 19 In Vachanamrut Gadhada I 63 Swaminarayan emphasizes the need to understand Akshar in order to understand God Parabrahman perfectly and completely 185 See Sahajananda 2015 Gadhada I 13 Gadhada III 10 Loya 17 See Sahajananda 2015 Loya 10 See Sahajananda 2015 Gadhada I 13 Gadhada I 1 Gadhada II 36 Gadhada III 39 See Sahajananda 2015 Gadhada II 31 Gadhada II 66 Gadhada III 38 Sarangpur 1 Panchala 4 See Sahajananda 2015 Gadhada II 31 Kariyani 12 Sarangpur 5 Panchala 2 See Sahajananda 2015 Gadhada I 21 Gadhada I 44 Gadhada III 22 Gadhada III 39 Jetalpur 2 See Sahajananda 2015 Sarangpur 11 See Sahajananda 2015 Gadhada III 39 See Sahajananda 2015 Gadhada III I 14 Within philosophy just as Sri Saṅkara s Vedanta is identified as the Advaita Darsana Sri Ramanuja s Vedanta is identified as the Visiṣṭadvaita Darsana Sri Madhva s Vedanta is identified as the Dvaita Darsana Sri Vallabha s Vedanta is identified as the Suddhadvaita Darsana and others are respectively known it is in every way appropriate to identify Sri Svaminarayaṇa s Vedanta by the title Akṣara Puruṣottama Darsana web 5 Professor Ashok Aklujkar said Just as the Kashi Vidvat Parishad acknowledged Swaminarayan Bhagwan s Akshar Purushottam Darshan as a distinct darshan in the Vedanta tradition we are honored to do the same from the platform of the World Sanskrit Conference Professor George Cardona said This is a very important classical Sanskrit commentary that very clearly and effectively explains that Akshar is distinct from Purushottam web 4 According to Kishorelal Mashruwala a Gandhian scholar cited by Mangalnidhidas Swaminarayan was the first to bring about religious advancement of Shudras in Gujarat and Kathiawad region And that became the main reason for many to oppose the Sampraday 262 264 Mangalnidhidas further refers to an 1823 memorandum from a British official in the Asiatic Journal notes that the native upper classes regret as Hindus the levelling nature of Swaminarayan s system accepting people from all castes into the sampradaya and also Muslims and tribal peoples resulting in their violent opposition to and frequent merciless beatings of Swaminarayan s disciples 262 265 Additionally various historical sources indicate that Swaminarayan himself often ignored caste rules and urged his followers to do the same 56 261 Numerous historical accounts show that in practice Swaminarayan himself and his followers shared food and openly interacted with everyone without discrimination 266 References a b Rinehart 2004 p 215 Hardiman D 1988 Class Base of Swaminarayan Sect Economic and Political Weekly 23 37 1907 1912 http www jstor org stable 4379024 a b c d e f Schreiner 2001 a b Williams 2018 p 80 90 a b c d Kim 2014 p 243 a b c d e f Kim 2010 p 362 Williams 2018 p 18 85 a b c d I Patel 2018 p 1 a b c d e f Paramtattvadas 2017 p 1 a b c d e f g h i j k l m n I Patel 2018 p 2 Schteiner 2001 sfn error no target CITEREFSchteiner2001 help a b S Patel 2017 p 65 a b Trivedi 2015 p 353 Hatcher 2020 a b c Paramtattvadas 2017 p 64 a b c Williams 2018 p 200 a b c d Kim 2014 p 240 a b Changela 0000 p 19 6 Concept of Moksha sfn error no target CITEREFChangela0000 help a b c d S Patel 2017 a b Brahmbhatt 2016b a b c d e f Bhadreshdas 2016 sfn error no target CITEREFBhadreshdas2016 help a b c Paramtattvadas 2017 a b c d e Paramtattvadas 2019 I Patel 2018 a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Kim 2005 a b Warrier 2012 p 172 A Patel 2018 p 55 58 Mamtora 2018 a b c d e f Williams 2018 p 18 Burman 2005 p 17 Williams 2018 p 16 Paramtattvadas Sadhu 2017 p 1 sfn error no target CITEREFParamtattvadas Sadhu2017 help Patel 2018 p 1 sfn error no target CITEREFPatel2018 help Schreiner 2001 p 155 158 Williams 2018 p 13 Williams 1984 p 8 9 Williams 2018 p 13 14 Williams 2018 p 15 16 a b c d Brahmbhatt 2016 p 101 a b Williams 2018 p 17 Trivedi 2015 p 126 Dave 2004 p 386 Paramtattvadas 2017 amp 8 13 14 sfn error 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Introduction to Swaminarayan Hinduism Cambridge University Press pp 173 ISBN 9780521654227 Williams 2018 p 37 38 Williams 2001 p 35harvnb error no target CITEREFWilliams2001 help Williams 2001 pp 59harvnb error no target CITEREFWilliams2001 help Dave Ramesh 1978 Sahajanand charitra University of California BAPS pp 199 200 ISBN 978 8175261525 google com books edition Introduction to Swaminarayan Hinduism ODdqDwAAQBAJ hl en amp gbpv 1 amp dq gadiwala amp pg PA261 amp printsec frontcover Williams 2018 p 51 Melton 2020 sfn error no target CITEREFMelton2020 help Williams 2018 p 38 Brahmbhatt 2016 p 102 Williams 2018 p 23 Sansthan Shree Swaminarayan Gurukul Rajkot History Rajkot Gurukul Retrieved 24 August 2022 Patel 2018 sfn error no target CITEREFPatel2018 help Williams 2018 p 49 51 a b Patel 2018 p 2 sfn error no target CITEREFPatel2018 help Patel 2018a p 58 sfn error no target CITEREFPatel2018a help a b Williams 2018 p 208 Williams 2001 p 59 sfn error no target CITEREFWilliams2001 help 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gospel of Bhagwat dharma or God in redemptive action Sri Bhagwat Dharma Mission House Harmony House OCLC 1073620532 Parikh Vibhuti 1 April 2016 The Swaminarayan Ideology and Kolis in Gujarat in Williams Raymond Brady Trivedi Yogi eds Swaminarayan Hinduism Oxford University Press pp 94 114 doi 10 1093 acprof oso 9780199463749 003 0006 ISBN 978 0 19 946374 9 retrieved 7 June 2020 Patel Arti 2018 Secular conflict challenges in the construction of the Chino Hills BAPS Swaminarayan temple Nidan International Journal for Indian Studies 3 55 72 Patel Iva 2018 Swaminarayan in Jain Pankaj Sherma Rita Khanna Madhu eds Hinduism and Tribal Religions Encyclopedia of Indian Religions Dordrecht Springer Netherlands pp 1 6 doi 10 1007 978 94 024 1036 5 541 1 ISBN 978 94 024 1036 5 retrieved 15 August 2020 Patel Shruti 2017 Beyond the Lens of Reform Religious Culture in Modern Gujarat The Journal of Hindu Studies 10 47 85 doi 10 1093 jhs hix005 Rajpurohit Dalpat 2016 Brahmanand and his innovations in 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Hinduism Third ed Cambridge United Kingdom Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 1 108 42114 0 OCLC 1038043717 Williams 2018b Bochasanwasi Shri Akshar Purushottam Swaminarayan Sanstha Brill s Encyclopedia of Hinduism Vol 5 doi 10 1163 1234 5678 beh com 9000000232 Williams Raymond Brady 2019 An introduction to Swaminarayan Hinduism Third paperback ed Cambridge United Kingdom Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 1 108 43151 4 OCLC 1038043717 Web sources a b swami Oxford English Dictionary online ed Oxford University Press 2011 Retrieved 31 August 2011 a b c Shree Swaminarayan Mandir Kalupur Ahmedabad Lord Swaminarayan and His Sampraday When One Million People Believe Your Husband Is a God www vice com Retrieved 25 June 2021 a b c 17th World Sanskrit Conference Recognizes Bhagwan Swaminarayan s Akshar Purushottam Darshan as a Distinct Vedanta Tradition a b c d BAPS Swaminarayan Research Institute HH Mahant Swami Maharaj Inaugurates the Svaminarayaṇasiddhantasudha and Announces Parabrahman Svaminarayaṇa s Darsana as the Akṣara Puruṣottama Darsana Archived 9 July 2021 at the Wayback Machine a b c d e Official Website of Shree Swaminarayan Mandir Vadtal Swaminarayan Sect स त परम पर ब र ग स त क य द धघ ष थ वन द म तरम www jansatta com Retrieved 20 June 2021 Minister mediates between fighting factions of Vadtal Swaminarayan sect DeshGujarat 12 July 2015 Retrieved 26 September 2020 Banerjee Nirupam 3 October 2018 Gujarat High Court provides relief to acharya Ajendraprasad Pande DNA India Retrieved 26 September 2020 Gujarat high court pulls up Swaminarayan sect trust for proxy war The Times of India 15 December 2018 Retrieved 15 August 2020 Swaminarayan sanshta Worship of God with the Guru Akshar Purushottam Philosophy Maninagar Swaminarayan Gadi Sansthan gets new heir Ahmedabad Mirror 12 July 2020 Retrieved 28 July 2020 New head of Maninagar Swaminarayan temple announced The Times of India 13 July 2020 Retrieved 28 July 2020 Shikshapatri Shlok 121 Wisdom Library Brahmarupa Tilak Chandalo www swaminarayan nu Retrieved 1 July 2021 Swamini Vato BAPS Swaminarayan Sanstha Acclamation by th Sri Kasi Vidvat Parisad ISSO Seva issoseva org Retrieved 3 May 2020 Index of activities www anoopam mission org Retrieved 3 May 2020 Sansthan Maninagar Shree Swaminarayan Gadi Maninagar Shree Swaminarayan Gadi swaminarayangadi com Retrieved 3 May 2020 Charity Swaminarayan Vadtal Gadi SVG 20 March 2014 Retrieved 3 May 2020 Golden Book of World Records Largest Number of Eye Donation Registrations in One Hour 29 October 2015 Retrieved 3 May 2020 Hindu Trust Accused of Labour Violations in US Once Filed Case Against Temple Entry for Dalits The Wire 13 may 2021Further readingGeneralRaymond Brady Williams 2018 An introduction to Swaminarayan Hinduism Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 1 108 42114 0 OCLC 1038043717 Williams Raymond Brady Trivedi Yogi eds 2016 Swaminarayan Hinduism tradition adaptation and identity 1st ed New Delhi India Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 908657 3 OCLC 948338914BAPSParamtattvadas Swami 2017 An introduction to Swaminarayan Hindu theology Cambridge United Kingdom Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 1 107 15867 2 OCLC 964861190 External linksShri NarNarayan Dev Gadi Ahmedabad Shri LaxmiNarayan Dev Gadi Vadtal Bochasanwasi Shri Akshar Purushottam Swaminarayan Sanstha BAPS Swaminarayan Sanstha Maninagar Shree Swaminarayan Gadi Sansthan Gadi Wikimedia Commons has media related to Swaminarayan Sampraday Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Swaminarayan Sampradaya amp oldid 1158826670, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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