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Superphosphate

January 01, 1970

Superphosphate is a chemical fertiliser first synthesised in the 1840s by reacting bones with sulfuric acid. The process was subsequently improved by reacting phosphate coprolites with sulfuric acid. Subsequently, other phosphate-rich deposits such as phosphorite were discovered and used. Soluble phosphate is an essential nutrient for all plants, and the availability of superphosphate revolutionised agricultural productivity.

History edit

The earliest phosphate-rich fertilisers were made from guano, animal manure, or crushed bones.[1] So valuable were these resources during the Industrial Revolution that graveyards and catacombs across Europe were pillaged for human bones to satisfy demand.[1]

In 1842, the Reverend John Stevens Henslow found coprolites – fossilised dinosaur dung – in the cliffs of south Suffolk in England. He was aware of previous research in Dorset by William Buckland which showed that coprolites were rich in phosphate that could be made available for plants by dissolution in sulfuric acid. John Bennet Lawes, who farmed in Hertfordshire, learnt of these discoveries and conducted his own research at his farm at Rothamsted (later an agricultural research station), naming the resultant product "super phosphate of lime".[2] He patented the discovery, and in 1842, started producing superphosphate from fossilised dinosaur dung on an industrial scale; this was the first chemical manure produced in the world.[1]

Edward Packard, recognising the significance of Lawes' work, converted a mill in Ipswich to produce this new fertiliser from coprolites excavated in the village of Kirton. He moved his operation in the 1850s to Bramford next to a similar new factory operated by Joseph Fisons. These operations were destined to form part of the Fisons fertiliser company. The street where the original mill stood is still called Coprolite Street.[3]

Agricultural significance edit

All plants and animals need phosphorus compounds to carry out their normal metabolism even though in the case of plants it may constitute as little as 2% of their dry matter.[4] The phosphorus can be in the form of soluble inorganic phosphates or organic compounds containing phosphorus. In the living cell, energy is accumulated or expended using a complex range of biochemical processes which involve the transformation of adenosine triphosphate to adenosine diphosphate when energy is being expended and the reverse when energy is being accumulated as in photosynthesis.[5]

Superphosphate is relatively cheap[6] compared to other available sources of phosphate. The lower price contributes to its widespread adoption, particularly in developing regions where the costs of agricultural inputs are a significant consideration.[7]

The fate of phosphates in soil is complicated as they readily form complexes with other minerals such as clays, and aluminium and iron salts,[4] and may be generally unavailable to plants except by weathering and through the action of bacterial and the soil microbiome.[4] The advantage of superphosphate fertilisers is that a significant proportion of the phosphate content is soluble and is immediately available to plants. It thus provides a very quick boost to plant growth. However, the complex soil dynamics tend to immobilize phosphate in mineral complexes or organic ligands reducing the availability to plants. Phosphates are also lost to the soil and plant environment when crops are harvested or consumed by animals or otherwise lost to the local system. Phosphates tend to be tightly bound to fine sediments in the soil.[8] Leaching of sediments from soil can lead to elevated phosphate concentrations in the receiving watercourse.[9]

The addition of phosphorus as super-phosphate enables much greater crop yields.[4] Although there is some replenishment of soil phosphorus from mineral sources and release from soil complexes by physical and biological mechanisms, the rate of re-solubilisation is too low to support modern agricultural productivity. Organic phosphorus contained within plant or animal matter is much more readily re-solubilised as the material decomposes through microbial action.[4]

However, the key quality that made superphosphate so attractive—the solubility of the phosphate—also created an ongoing demand for the product as the soluble phosphorus salts and phosphate bound to fine sediments are eluted from fields into rivers and streams where they became lost to agriculture[10] but help to encourage unwelcome eutrophication.[5]

Manufacture edit

Superphosphates are manufactured in all the main industrial centres of the world, including Europe, China and the US.[11] In 2021, about 689,916 tonnes of superphosphate were produced with more than half from Poland and substantial amounts from Indonesia, Bangladesh, China and Japan.[12]

Formulations edit

All formulations of superphosphate contain a significant proportion of soluble and available phosphate ions which is the key quality that has made them essential for modern agriculture.[7]

Single superphosphate edit

Single superphosphate is produced using the traditional method of extraction of phosphate rock with sulfuric acid, an approximate 1:1 mixture of Ca(H2PO4)2 and CaSO4.[13]

Double superphosphate edit

The term, "double superphosphate", refers to a mixture of triple and single superphosphate, resulting from the extraction of phosphate rock with a mixture of phosphoric and sulfuric acids.[13]

Triple superphosphate edit

Triple superphosphate is a component of many proprietary fertilisers. It primarily consists of monocalcium phosphate, Ca(H2PO4)2. It is obtained by treating phosphate rock with phosphoric acid. Many proprietary fertilisers are derived from triple superphosphate, for example by blending with ammonium sulfate and potassium chloride. Typical fertiliser-grade triple superphosphate contains 45% P2O5eq, single superphosphate 20% P2O5eq.[13]

Adverse impacts of superphosphate edit

Continuous use of superphosphate can lead to soil acidification, particularly on poorly buffered soils, altering pH levels and potentially limiting nutrient availability.[14] This necessitates careful monitoring and management of soil pH to prevent long-term soil degradation.[15]

Production and transport produce significant quantities of CO2 amounting in some estimates to 1.2kg/kg for the manufacture of superphosphate and 238 g/kg for transport.[16] Other sources note that assuming all the sulfur for the sulfuric acid is recovered from oil and gas sweetening,[17] and the reaction to produce superphosphate is exothermic: provided that the heat generated is fully re-used, the whole cycle may have a negative carbon footprint as low as -518 g/kg for production alone.[16]

While superphosphate enriches soil with phosphorus, excessive or imbalanced application can disrupt nutrient ratios, leading to deficiencies or toxicities in plants. Evidence is emerging that elevated levels may be associated with deadly infections by Phytophthora cinnamomi.[18] Sustainable fertilisation practices, including soil testing and targeted applications, are essential to mitigate this risk.[19]

The availability of suitable phosphate-rich rocks is limited and estimates of "peak phosphorus" vary between 30 years from 2022,[20] or somewhere between 2051 and 2092.[21] As the human population increases and the demand for food increases, the availability of superphosphate fertilisers in the future may be less secure, suggesting that alternative sources of phosphate may need to be developed.[10]

A significant number of plants, especially those that evolved in Gondwanaland, have a sensitivity to excess phosphorus,[18] getting all that they need from associations with Arbuscular mycorrhiza. Examples of plants that are intolerant of the application of superphosphate include Hakea prostrata and Grevillea crithmifolia. Many terrestrial orchids which rely on mycorrhizal associations may have similar sensitivities to elevated phosphate levels[22] and populations may be suppressed by applications of superphosphate containing fertiliser.[23]

Eutrophication of rivers, lakes and the sea has a very well-documented link to increasing phosphate concentrations. However, teasing out the contribution made to this problem by the use of superphosphate is difficult because of the wide range of other sources of phosphorus compounds in both human and animal waste streams. Recent issues on the River Wye have been traced back to intensive poultry rearing with the excess phosphate coming from poorly-managed chicken manure.[24][25]

References edit

  1. ^ a b c O'Connor, Bernard (2005). (PDF). Mining History: The Bulletin of the Peak District Historical Society. 14 (5). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-02-02. Retrieved 27 March 2024.
  2. ^ Ivell, David M. (2012). "Phosphate Fertilizer Production – From the 1830's to 2011 and Beyond". Procedia Engineering. 46: 166–171. doi:10.1016/j.proeng.2012.09.461. from the original on 26 April 2024. Retrieved 28 March 2024.
  3. ^ "The Story of Corpolite Street". Ipswich Maritime Trust. 26 October 2019. from the original on 17 May 2020. Retrieved 28 March 2024.
  4. ^ a b c d e "Phosphorus Basics: Understanding Phosphorus Forms and Their Cycling in the Soil". Alabama A&M and Auburn Universities. 19 April 2019. from the original on 28 March 2024. Retrieved 28 March 2024.
  5. ^ a b "Why phosphorus is important". New South Wales Department of Primary Industries. from the original on 28 March 2024. Retrieved 28 March 2024.
  6. ^ "Story: Superphosphate". Encyclopaedia of New Zealand - Teara. 24 November 2008. from the original on 8 April 2024. Retrieved 8 April 2024.
  7. ^ a b "Phosphorus: a finite resource essential for life, critical for agriculture and food security". CSIRO _ Australia's Science Agency. 26 June 2019. from the original on 28 March 2024. Retrieved 28 March 2024.
  8. ^ "Phosphorus". University of Hawaii at Manoa. from the original on 8 April 2024. Retrieved 8 April 2024.
  9. ^ "Phosphorus leaching from soils". Altera Scientific Contributions -Wageningen University. 26 May 2015. from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 8 April 2024.
  10. ^ a b "Phosphorus: Essential to Life—Are We Running Out?". Columbia Climate School. 1 April 2013. from the original on 8 April 2024. Retrieved 8 April 2024.
  11. ^ "Normal superphosphates" (PDF). EPA. (PDF) from the original on 28 March 2024. Retrieved 28 March 2024.
  12. ^ "Superphosphate above 35% - production". Knoema. from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 28 March 2024.
  13. ^ a b c Kongshaug, Gunnar; Brentnall, Bernard A.; Chaney, Keith; Gregersen, Jan-Helge; Stokka, Per; Persson, Bjørn; Kolmeijer, Nick W.; Conradsen, Arne; Legard (2014). "Phosphate Fertilizers". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. pp. 1–49. doi:10.1002/14356007.a19_421.pub2. ISBN 978-3527306732.
  14. ^ Horsnell, LJ (1985). "The growth of improved pastures on acid soils. 1. The effect of superphosphate and lime on soil pH and on the establishment and growth of phalaris and lucerne". Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture. 25. CSIRO: 149. doi:10.1071/ea9850149. from the original on 28 March 2024. Retrieved 28 March 2024.
  15. ^ von Tucher, S.; Hörndl, D.; Schmidhalter, U. (24 November 2017). "Interaction of soil pH and phosphorus efficacy: Long-term effects of P fertilizer and lime applications on wheat, barley, and sugar beet". Ambio. 47 (Suppl 1): 41–49. doi:10.1007/s13280-017-0970-2. PMC 5722739. PMID 29178058.
  16. ^ a b "Table 7: Greenhouse Gas Emission Factors for Phosphate Fertilisers" (PDF). Stanford University. June 2004. (PDF) from the original on 28 March 2024. Retrieved 28 March 2024.
  17. ^ "Mineral Resource of the Month - Sulfur". The American Geological Institute. July 2023. from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 29 March 2024.
  18. ^ a b "Super-sensitive plants" (PDF). University of Western Australia. April 2024. (PDF) from the original on 26 April 2024. Retrieved 28 March 2024.
  19. ^ "Preventing Phytophthora Infestations in Restoration Nurseries". Oregon State University. January 2022. from the original on 8 April 2024. Retrieved 8 April 2024.
  20. ^ "Approaching peak phosphorus". Nature Plants. 8. 15 September 2022. from the original on 27 March 2024. Retrieved 28 March 2024.
  21. ^ Risks and Opportunities in the Global Phosphate Rock Market (PDF). The Hague Centre for Strategic Studies. ISBN 978-94-91040-69-6. (PDF) from the original on 26 April 2024. Retrieved 29 March 2024.
  22. ^ Davis, B.; Lim, W. H.; Lambers, H.; Dixon, K. W.; Read, D. J. (12 May 2022). "Inorganic phosphorus nutrition in green-leaved terrestrial orchid seedlings". Annals of Botany. 129 (6): 669–678. doi:10.1093/aob/mcac030. PMC 9113155. PMID 35247265.
  23. ^ Nouri, E.; Surve, R.; Bapaume, L.; Stumpe, M.; Chen, M.; Zhang, Y.; Ruyter-Spira, C.; Bouwmeester, H.; Glauser, G.; Bruisson, S.; Reinhardt, D. (28 June 2021). "Phosphate Suppression of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Symbiosis Involves Gibberellic Acid Signaling". Plant and Cell Physiology. 62 (6). National Library of Medicine: 959–970. doi:10.1093/pcp/pcab063. PMC 8504448. PMID 34037236.
  24. ^ "Analysis: A watershed moment for phosphates and the river Wye". MA Agriculture. 20 February 2023. from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 29 March 2024.
  25. ^ "River Wye: Pollution not caused by farming, says NFU". BBC News. 14 August 2023. from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 29 March 2024.

January 01, 1970
superphosphate, chemical, fertiliser, first, synthesised, 1840s, reacting, bones, with, sulfuric, acid, process, subsequently, improved, reacting, phosphate, coprolites, with, sulfuric, acid, subsequently, other, phosphate, rich, deposits, such, phosphorite, w. Superphosphate is a chemical fertiliser first synthesised in the 1840s by reacting bones with sulfuric acid The process was subsequently improved by reacting phosphate coprolites with sulfuric acid Subsequently other phosphate rich deposits such as phosphorite were discovered and used Soluble phosphate is an essential nutrient for all plants and the availability of superphosphate revolutionised agricultural productivity Contents 1 History 2 Agricultural significance 3 Manufacture 4 Formulations 4 1 Single superphosphate 4 2 Double superphosphate 4 3 Triple superphosphate 5 Adverse impacts of superphosphate 6 ReferencesHistory editThe earliest phosphate rich fertilisers were made from guano animal manure or crushed bones 1 So valuable were these resources during the Industrial Revolution that graveyards and catacombs across Europe were pillaged for human bones to satisfy demand 1 In 1842 the Reverend John Stevens Henslow found coprolites fossilised dinosaur dung in the cliffs of south Suffolk in England He was aware of previous research in Dorset by William Buckland which showed that coprolites were rich in phosphate that could be made available for plants by dissolution in sulfuric acid John Bennet Lawes who farmed in Hertfordshire learnt of these discoveries and conducted his own research at his farm at Rothamsted later an agricultural research station naming the resultant product super phosphate of lime 2 He patented the discovery and in 1842 started producing superphosphate from fossilised dinosaur dung on an industrial scale this was the first chemical manure produced in the world 1 Edward Packard recognising the significance of Lawes work converted a mill in Ipswich to produce this new fertiliser from coprolites excavated in the village of Kirton He moved his operation in the 1850s to Bramford next to a similar new factory operated by Joseph Fisons These operations were destined to form part of the Fisons fertiliser company The street where the original mill stood is still called Coprolite Street 3 Agricultural significance editAll plants and animals need phosphorus compounds to carry out their normal metabolism even though in the case of plants it may constitute as little as 2 of their dry matter 4 The phosphorus can be in the form of soluble inorganic phosphates or organic compounds containing phosphorus In the living cell energy is accumulated or expended using a complex range of biochemical processes which involve the transformation of adenosine triphosphate to adenosine diphosphate when energy is being expended and the reverse when energy is being accumulated as in photosynthesis 5 Superphosphate is relatively cheap 6 compared to other available sources of phosphate The lower price contributes to its widespread adoption particularly in developing regions where the costs of agricultural inputs are a significant consideration 7 The fate of phosphates in soil is complicated as they readily form complexes with other minerals such as clays and aluminium and iron salts 4 and may be generally unavailable to plants except by weathering and through the action of bacterial and the soil microbiome 4 The advantage of superphosphate fertilisers is that a significant proportion of the phosphate content is soluble and is immediately available to plants It thus provides a very quick boost to plant growth However the complex soil dynamics tend to immobilize phosphate in mineral complexes or organic ligands reducing the availability to plants Phosphates are also lost to the soil and plant environment when crops are harvested or consumed by animals or otherwise lost to the local system Phosphates tend to be tightly bound to fine sediments in the soil 8 Leaching of sediments from soil can lead to elevated phosphate concentrations in the receiving watercourse 9 The addition of phosphorus as super phosphate enables much greater crop yields 4 Although there is some replenishment of soil phosphorus from mineral sources and release from soil complexes by physical and biological mechanisms the rate of re solubilisation is too low to support modern agricultural productivity Organic phosphorus contained within plant or animal matter is much more readily re solubilised as the material decomposes through microbial action 4 However the key quality that made superphosphate so attractive the solubility of the phosphate also created an ongoing demand for the product as the soluble phosphorus salts and phosphate bound to fine sediments are eluted from fields into rivers and streams where they became lost to agriculture 10 but help to encourage unwelcome eutrophication 5 Manufacture editSuperphosphates are manufactured in all the main industrial centres of the world including Europe China and the US 11 In 2021 about 689 916 tonnes of superphosphate were produced with more than half from Poland and substantial amounts from Indonesia Bangladesh China and Japan 12 Formulations editAll formulations of superphosphate contain a significant proportion of soluble and available phosphate ions which is the key quality that has made them essential for modern agriculture 7 Single superphosphate edit Single superphosphate is produced using the traditional method of extraction of phosphate rock with sulfuric acid an approximate 1 1 mixture of Ca H2PO4 2 and CaSO4 13 Double superphosphate edit The term double superphosphate refers to a mixture of triple and single superphosphate resulting from the extraction of phosphate rock with a mixture of phosphoric and sulfuric acids 13 Triple superphosphate edit Triple superphosphate is a component of many proprietary fertilisers It primarily consists of monocalcium phosphate Ca H2PO4 2 It is obtained by treating phosphate rock with phosphoric acid Many proprietary fertilisers are derived from triple superphosphate for example by blending with ammonium sulfate and potassium chloride Typical fertiliser grade triple superphosphate contains 45 P2O5 eq single superphosphate 20 P2O5 eq 13 Adverse impacts of superphosphate editContinuous use of superphosphate can lead to soil acidification particularly on poorly buffered soils altering pH levels and potentially limiting nutrient availability 14 This necessitates careful monitoring and management of soil pH to prevent long term soil degradation 15 Production and transport produce significant quantities of CO2 amounting in some estimates to 1 2kg kg for the manufacture of superphosphate and 238 g kg for transport 16 Other sources note that assuming all the sulfur for the sulfuric acid is recovered from oil and gas sweetening 17 and the reaction to produce superphosphate is exothermic provided that the heat generated is fully re used the whole cycle may have a negative carbon footprint as low as 518 g kg for production alone 16 While superphosphate enriches soil with phosphorus excessive or imbalanced application can disrupt nutrient ratios leading to deficiencies or toxicities in plants Evidence is emerging that elevated levels may be associated with deadly infections by Phytophthora cinnamomi 18 Sustainable fertilisation practices including soil testing and targeted applications are essential to mitigate this risk 19 The availability of suitable phosphate rich rocks is limited and estimates of peak phosphorus vary between 30 years from 2022 20 or somewhere between 2051 and 2092 21 As the human population increases and the demand for food increases the availability of superphosphate fertilisers in the future may be less secure suggesting that alternative sources of phosphate may need to be developed 10 A significant number of plants especially those that evolved in Gondwanaland have a sensitivity to excess phosphorus 18 getting all that they need from associations with Arbuscular mycorrhiza Examples of plants that are intolerant of the application of superphosphate include Hakea prostrata and Grevillea crithmifolia Many terrestrial orchids which rely on mycorrhizal associations may have similar sensitivities to elevated phosphate levels 22 and populations may be suppressed by applications of superphosphate containing fertiliser 23 Eutrophication of rivers lakes and the sea has a very well documented link to increasing phosphate concentrations However teasing out the contribution made to this problem by the use of superphosphate is difficult because of the wide range of other sources of phosphorus compounds in both human and animal waste streams Recent issues on the River Wye have been traced back to intensive poultry rearing with the excess phosphate coming from poorly managed chicken manure 24 25 References edit a b c O Connor Bernard 2005 The Origins and Developments of the British Coprolite industry PDF Mining History The Bulletin of the Peak District Historical Society 14 5 Archived from the original PDF on 2017 02 02 Retrieved 27 March 2024 Ivell David M 2012 Phosphate Fertilizer Production From the 1830 s to 2011 and Beyond Procedia Engineering 46 166 171 doi 10 1016 j proeng 2012 09 461 Archived from the original on 26 April 2024 Retrieved 28 March 2024 The Story of Corpolite Street Ipswich Maritime Trust 26 October 2019 Archived from the original on 17 May 2020 Retrieved 28 March 2024 a b c d e Phosphorus Basics Understanding Phosphorus Forms and Their Cycling in the Soil Alabama A amp M and Auburn Universities 19 April 2019 Archived from the original on 28 March 2024 Retrieved 28 March 2024 a b Why phosphorus is important New South Wales Department of Primary Industries Archived from the original on 28 March 2024 Retrieved 28 March 2024 Story Superphosphate Encyclopaedia of New Zealand Teara 24 November 2008 Archived from the original on 8 April 2024 Retrieved 8 April 2024 a b Phosphorus a finite resource essential for life critical for agriculture and food security CSIRO Australia s Science Agency 26 June 2019 Archived from the original on 28 March 2024 Retrieved 28 March 2024 Phosphorus University of Hawaii at Manoa Archived from the original on 8 April 2024 Retrieved 8 April 2024 Phosphorus leaching from soils Altera Scientific Contributions Wageningen University 26 May 2015 Archived from the original on 29 March 2024 Retrieved 8 April 2024 a b Phosphorus Essential to Life Are We Running Out Columbia Climate School 1 April 2013 Archived from the original on 8 April 2024 Retrieved 8 April 2024 Normal superphosphates PDF EPA Archived PDF from the original on 28 March 2024 Retrieved 28 March 2024 Superphosphate above 35 production Knoema Archived from the original on 29 March 2024 Retrieved 28 March 2024 a b c Kongshaug Gunnar Brentnall Bernard A Chaney Keith Gregersen Jan Helge Stokka Per Persson Bjorn Kolmeijer Nick W Conradsen Arne Legard 2014 Phosphate Fertilizers Ullmann s Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry Weinheim Wiley VCH pp 1 49 doi 10 1002 14356007 a19 421 pub2 ISBN 978 3527306732 Horsnell LJ 1985 The growth of improved pastures on acid soils 1 The effect of superphosphate and lime on soil pH and on the establishment and growth of phalaris and lucerne Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 25 CSIRO 149 doi 10 1071 ea9850149 Archived from the original on 28 March 2024 Retrieved 28 March 2024 von Tucher S Horndl D Schmidhalter U 24 November 2017 Interaction of soil pH and phosphorus efficacy Long term effects of P fertilizer and lime applications on wheat barley and sugar beet Ambio 47 Suppl 1 41 49 doi 10 1007 s13280 017 0970 2 PMC 5722739 PMID 29178058 a b Table 7 Greenhouse Gas Emission Factors for Phosphate Fertilisers PDF Stanford University June 2004 Archived PDF from the original on 28 March 2024 Retrieved 28 March 2024 Mineral Resource of the Month Sulfur The American Geological Institute July 2023 Archived from the original on 29 March 2024 Retrieved 29 March 2024 a b Super sensitive plants PDF University of Western Australia April 2024 Archived PDF from the original on 26 April 2024 Retrieved 28 March 2024 Preventing Phytophthora Infestations in Restoration Nurseries Oregon State University January 2022 Archived from the original on 8 April 2024 Retrieved 8 April 2024 Approaching peak phosphorus Nature Plants 8 15 September 2022 Archived from the original on 27 March 2024 Retrieved 28 March 2024 Risks and Opportunities in the Global Phosphate Rock Market PDF The Hague Centre for Strategic Studies ISBN 978 94 91040 69 6 Archived PDF from the original on 26 April 2024 Retrieved 29 March 2024 Davis B Lim W H Lambers H Dixon K W Read D J 12 May 2022 Inorganic phosphorus nutrition in green leaved terrestrial orchid seedlings Annals of Botany 129 6 669 678 doi 10 1093 aob mcac030 PMC 9113155 PMID 35247265 Nouri E Surve R Bapaume L Stumpe M Chen M Zhang Y Ruyter Spira C Bouwmeester H Glauser G Bruisson S Reinhardt D 28 June 2021 Phosphate Suppression of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Symbiosis Involves Gibberellic Acid Signaling Plant and Cell Physiology 62 6 National Library of Medicine 959 970 doi 10 1093 pcp pcab063 PMC 8504448 PMID 34037236 Analysis A watershed moment for phosphates and the river Wye MA Agriculture 20 February 2023 Archived from the original on 29 March 2024 Retrieved 29 March 2024 River Wye Pollution not caused by farming says NFU BBC News 14 August 2023 Archived from the original on 29 March 2024 Retrieved 29 March 2024 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Superphosphate amp oldid 1221115810, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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