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Strawberry poison-dart frog

March 13, 2024

The strawberry poison frog, strawberry poison-dart frog or blue jeans poison frog (Oophaga pumilio, formerly Dendrobates pumilio) is a species of small poison dart frog found in Central America.[2] It is common throughout its range, which extends from eastern central Nicaragua through Costa Rica and northwestern Panamá. The species is often found in humid lowlands and premontane forest, but large populations are also found in disturbed areas such as plantations.[3] The strawberry poison frog is perhaps most famous for its widespread variation in coloration, comprising approximately 15–30 color morphs, most of which are presumed to be true-breeding.[4] O. pumilio, while not the most poisonous of the dendrobatids, is the most toxic member of its genus.[citation needed]

Strawberry poison-dart frog
Scientific classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Amphibia
Order: Anura
Family: Dendrobatidae
Genus: Oophaga
Species:
O. pumilio
Binomial name
Oophaga pumilio
(Schmidt, 1857)
Synonyms

Dendrobates pumilio Schmidt, 1857

Diet edit

The diet of O. pumilio causes the skin of the amphibian to become toxic in nature when certain subspecies of mites and ants are ingested very similar to many other poison dart frogs.[5][6] Alkaloid toxins are organic in nature and contain nitrogenous bases that react with carbon and hydrogen groups.[7] Pumiliotoxin 251D is the specialized toxin that is sequestered by this species of frog. This toxin has a negative stimulating effect on cardiac function and is a severe disruptor of the sodium potassium ion channels within cells. Upon ingestion of Pumiliotoxin 251D, organisms preying on O. pumilio experience convulsions, paralysis, and death.[7]

It has been found that once O.pumilio reaches sexual maturity, their granular glands significantly increase in size and their diet shifts. In females, it is common to find about 53% more alkaloids than adult males.[8]

Oribatida mites belonging to the glandulate suborder Brachypylina are an important origin of pumiliotoxins in O. pumilio. Hexane-extraction techniques indicate presence of alkaloid toxins in Brachypylina.[9] Toxins appear to be biosynthesized in adult mites, as nymph and larval stages of the arachnid do not carry the toxins. Experimental analysis of this species of mite show alkaloid toxins are found almost exclusively in the opisthonotal glands of mites of the Scheloribatidae.[10] Oil glands of the mite contain the toxins and are then released internally as the amphibian digests the arthropod.

O. pumilio can also attribute its cutaneous toxicity to its rich diet of formicinae ants.[6] Species of the formicine genus Brachymyrmex contain pumiliotoxins which the frogs incorporate and accumulate poison from.[11] There is a variability of alkaloid profiles among populations and individuals of O. pumilio, which is indicative of varying levels of available prey within their infraspecific habitats.[12] Research and physical analysis reveal that maternally derived alkaloids exist in young tadpoles.[13] The increase in alkaloids in tadpoles suggests that the females are providing more chemical defenses to their more vulnerable young. This being one of the first found examples of provisioning that occurs after hatching.[8] During tadpole-rearing, mother frogs feed their young an unfertilized egg from their ovaries after dropping each individual tadpole into a repository of water usually found in a bromeliad.[14] Tadpoles lacking the obligate nutritive egg diet do not contain the alkaloid.[13] This step is crucial for the tadpoles to sequester the alkaloid from their mother; without such, young tadpoles become susceptible to predation by arthropods and other frogs.

Behavior edit

Oophaga pumilio is diurnal and primarily terrestrial, and can often be found in leaf litter in both forested and disturbed areas. Studies have shown that the optimal habitat is determined by the male, considering the resource benefits and defense costs. Males tend to expend more energy defending smaller but higher quality areas.[15] There has also been evidence that the better competitors and fighters are the males guarding smaller sites with higher female density. In most Anura the louder the vocalization when competing usually means they are larger in size and in better health. However, in the O. pumilio species researchers have determined that these frogs call out at a lower rate to limit their energetic expenditures.[15] Females, on the other hand, simply distribute themselves according to tadpole rearing sites.[15]

Though brightly colored and toxic, these frogs are relatively small, growing to approximately 17.5–22 mm (0.69–0.87 in) in standard length.[3]

 
Listen to a pumilio call
Male advertisement call
Problems playing this file? See media help.

Reproduction and parental care edit

Oophaga pumilio is an external breeder, and other species of the genus Oophaga are notable in the amphibian world for exhibiting a high degree of parental care.[16] The strawberry poison frog has dual parental care.[17] The males defend and water the nests, and the females feed the oophagous tadpoles their unfertilized eggs. Although both male and female contribute to parental care, females invest more heavily in terms of energy expenditure, time investment, and loss of potential reproduction.[17] When choosing a partner for mating, females will choose the closest calling male rather than the highest quality male.[18] Females provide energetically costly eggs to the tadpoles for 6–8 weeks (until metamorphosis), remain sexually inactive during tadpole rearing, and care for only one clutch of four to six tadpoles at a time.[17] The males contribute via the relatively "cheap" (in terms of energy) act of watering and protecting the eggs for a relatively short period (10–12 days), and can care for multiple nests at one time.[17] The extreme maternal investment in their offspring is believed to be the result of high egg mortality. Only 5–12% of the clutch develops into tadpoles, so the female's fitness may be best increased by making sure those few eggs that form tadpoles survive.[19]

 
The la gruta morph from Colón Province, Panama

After mating, the female lays three to five eggs on a leaf or bromeliad axil. The male then ensures the eggs are kept hydrated by transporting water in his cloaca. After about 10 days, the eggs hatch and the female transports the tadpoles on her back to some water-filled location.[20] In captivity, on rare occasions, the male is observed transporting the tadpoles, though whether this is intentional, or the tadpoles simply hitch a ride, is unknown. Bromeliad axils are frequently used tadpole deposition sites, but anything suitable can be used, such as knots in trees, small puddles, or human trash such as aluminum cans.

Tadpoles are deposited singly at each location. Once this has been done, the female will come to each tadpole every few days and deposit several unfertilized food eggs.[3] In captivity, tadpoles have been raised on a variety of diets, ranging from algae to the eggs of other dart frogs, but with minimal success. O. pumilio tadpoles are considered obligate egg feeders, as they are unable to accept any other form of nutrition.

After about a month, the tadpole will metamorphose into a small froglet. Generally, it stays near its water source for a few days for protection as it absorbs the rest of its tail.

Taxonomy edit

Oophaga pumilio belongs to the genus Oophaga,[16] although the name Dendrobates pumilio is still sometimes used. There is evidence that the species of Oophaga (previously classified as the "female parental care group" of Dendrobates[21]) are a monophyletic evolutionary group. Due to the low level of genetic divergence between the species analyzed in this genus, it is estimated that they speciated relatively recently, after the formation of the current Panamanian land bridge in the Pliocene (3–5 million years ago).[22] Oophaga pumilio is believed to be most closely related to Oophaga arborea[23] and Oophaga sylvatica.[16]

Evolution edit

Strawberry poison frog, O. pumilio, shows extreme variation in color and pattern between populations that have been geographically isolated for more than 10,000 years.[24] When populations are separated by geographic distances and landscape barriers, they frequently experience restricted gene flow, which can enable phenotypic divergence between populations through selection or drift.[25] Their variety in warning coloration is used for their visibility, toxicity and resistance to predators. When divergent phenotypes are mostly restricted to separate islands, the biogeography of color polymorphism suggests a major role for neutral process. However, Summers et al. (1997)[26] provide evidence that neutral divergence alone is unlikely to have caused the variation in color patterns. As shown by Lande, rapid evolution in sexually selecting species is led by the interaction of random genetic drift with natural and sexual selection such as random genetic drift in female mating preferences.[27] Color is known to play a role in male–female signaling, mate attraction, and male–male signaling in anurans. Based on Tazzyman and Iwasa's study that involved collections of samples from main islands in the Bocas del Toro archipelago, its results proved that female preference on male calls led to call divergence and therefore divergence was driven by sexual selection. Mate choice plays a critical role in generating and maintaining biodiversity.[28] Furthermore, spatial variation in predators or habitat features could exert divergent natural selection on coloration in response to its subjection to predator selection.[24] It is still unclear to what extent sexual selection has driven the evolution of color morphs rather than reinforcing the reproductive isolation of morphs.[29] In an aposematic organism such as O. pumilio, phylogenetic signal of selection cannot be attributed to female mate choice alone but is quite possible that genetic drift would interact with female color preferences to trigger divergence[24] Researchers Maan and Cummings had also found that in some cases female O. pumilio preferred male mates that had very different coloration than their own phenotype.[30] In nature, the equality of color through evolution is very unlikely considering the various sensory biases of predators and the different background colors of the environments these frogs inhabit. Due to this variability in color evolution, it is unlikely to say there is superiority of aposematic purpose of color selection in Oophaga. Species such as O. pumilio have been known to thrive and compete very well on disturbed and converted land. With temperatures rising in many different biomes, the success of many species is going to be determined by its ability to acclimate and adapt. In a study done by Rivera and Nowakowski, they discovered that in many cases O. pumilio is experiencing greater temperature stress in converted habitats than forests.[30]

Habitat niche edit

This frog species utilizes scattered structures throughout disturbed lands to relieve some thermal stress. However, O. pumilio is still warmer than any other species in the forested areas, being exposed to temperatures up to 27 degrees Celsius. These findings suggest that this species of dart frog acts as an ecological buffer and will be more successful than other species as land use changes and temperatures rise.[31]

Captivity edit

Oophaga pumilio is a popular frog in captivity, due to its striking colors and unique life cycle. They have been imported in vast quantities to the United States and Europe since the early 1990s, when they would typically be available for around US$75 each. However, these shipments have since stopped, and O. pumilio is much less common and available in reduced diversity. A select number of hobbyists and breeders are successfully reproducing these frogs in captivity, and healthy, captive-bred individuals have become much easier to find (in the 21st century).

In Europe, O. pumilio is much more diverse due to an increased frequency of smuggling and the resulting offspring of smuggled animals. Smuggling of dart frogs is less common elsewhere, but is still a large problem as it kills large numbers of animals and often degrades or destroys viable habitat.[citation needed]

 
"Blue jeans" color morph

Recently, O. pumilio has been exported from Central America again in small numbers from frog farms. Because of this, they have seen a huge increase in numbers in the dart frog community and are regularly available.

Common color morphs in captivity edit

One example of a color morph is the blue jeans morph. It is most common throughout the species range, but is relatively rare in the United States pet trade. Most of these animals came from imports during the 1990s, or are their descendants.[32] As of 2003, it was observed that this morph could be found throughout Costa Rica, as well as mainland Panamá.[4][24][25][26][27][28][29]

References edit

  1. ^ IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group (2015). "Oophaga pumilio". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2015: e.T55196A3025630. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-4.RLTS.T55196A3025630.en. Retrieved 19 November 2021.
  2. ^ Frost, Darrel R. (2014). "Oophaga pumilio (Schmidt, 1857)". Amphibian Species of the World: an Online Reference. Version 6.0. American Museum of Natural History. Retrieved 12 September 2014.
  3. ^ a b c Savage, J. M. 2002. The Amphibians and Reptiles of Costa Rica. University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London.
  4. ^ a b Summers, K.; Cronin, T. W.; Kennedy, T. (2003). "Variation in spectral reflectance among population of Dendrobates pumilio, the strawberry poison frog, in the Bocas del Toro Archipelago, Panama". Journal of Biogeography. 30: 35–53. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2699.2003.00795.x. hdl:11603/13558. S2CID 33860218.
  5. ^ Saporito, Ralph; Donnelly, Maureen; Norton, Roy; Garraffo, Martin; Spande, Thomas; Daly, John (2007). "Oribatid Mites as a Major Dietary Source for Alkaloids in Poison Frogs". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 104 (21): 8885–8890. Bibcode:2007PNAS..104.8885S. doi:10.1073/pnas.0702851104. PMC 1885597. PMID 17502597.
  6. ^ a b Saporito, Ralph; Garraffo, Martin; Donnelly, Maureen; Edwards, Adam; Longino, John; Daly, John (2004). "Formicine ants: an arthropod aource for the pumiliotoxin alkaloids of dendrobatid poison frogs". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 101 (21): 8045–8050. Bibcode:2004PNAS..101.8045S. doi:10.1073/pnas.0402365101. PMC 419554. PMID 15128938.
  7. ^ a b Vandendriessche, T.; Abdel-Mottaleb, Y.; Maertens, C.; Cuypers, E.; Sudau, A.; Nubbemeyer, U.; Mebs, D.; Tytgat, J. (2008). "Modulation of voltage-gated Na+ and K+ channels by pumiliotoxin 251D: A "joint venture" alkaloid from arthropods and amphibians". Toxicon. 51 (3): 334–344. doi:10.1016/j.toxicon.2007.10.011. PMID 18061227.
  8. ^ a b Stynoski, Jennifer L.; Torres-Mendoza, Yaritbel; Sasa-Marin, Mahmood; Saporito, Ralph A. (March 2014). "Evidence of maternal provisioning of alkaloid-based chemical defenses in the strawberry poison frogOophaga pumilio". Ecology. 95 (3): 587–593. doi:10.1890/13-0927.1. hdl:10669/76946. ISSN 0012-9658. PMID 24804437. S2CID 4094179.
  9. ^ Takada, W.; Sakata, T.; Shimano, S.; Enami, Y.; Mori, N.; Nishida, R. & Kuwahara, Y. (2005). "Scheloribatid mites as the source of pumiliotoxins in dendrobatid frogs". Journal of Chemical Ecology. 31 (10): 2403–2415. doi:10.1007/s10886-005-7109-9. PMID 16195851. S2CID 535250.
  10. ^ Raspotnig, G.; Norton, R. A.; Heethoff, M. (2011). "Oribatid mites and skin alkaloids in poison frogs". Biology Letters. 7 (4): 555–556. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2010.1113. PMC 3130211. PMID 21345855.
  11. ^ Staudt, K.; Meneses, O.; S., Mebs; D., Proehl, H. (2010). "Foraging behaviour and territoriality of the strawberry poison frog (Oophaga pumilio) in dependence of the presence of ants". Amphibia-Reptilia. 31 (2): 217–227. doi:10.1163/156853810791069100.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  12. ^ Mebs, D.; Pogoda, W.; Batista, A.; Ponce, M.; Koelher, G.; Kauert, G. (2008). "Variability of alkaloid profiles in Oophaga pumilio (Amphibia: Anura: Dendrobatidae) from Western Panama and Southern Nicaragua". Salamandra. 44 (4): 241–247.
  13. ^ a b Stynoski, J. L.; Torres-Mendoza, Y.; Sasa-Marin, M.; Saporito, R. A. (2014). "Evidence of maternal provisioning of alkaloid-based chemical defenses in the strawberry poison frog Oophaga pumilio" (PDF). Ecology. 95 (3): 587–593. doi:10.1890/13-0927.1. PMID 24804437.
  14. ^ Forsyth, A., Fogden, M., Fogden, P., Wilson, E. O., 2008. Nature of the Rainforest: Costa Rica and Beyond. Cornell University Press. Ithaca, New York, USA.
  15. ^ a b c Meuche, Ivonne; Linsenmair, K. Eduard; Pröhl, Heike (2012-01-04). "Intrasexual competition, territoriality and acoustic communication in male strawberry poison frogs (Oophaga pumilio)". Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 66 (4): 613–621. doi:10.1007/s00265-011-1309-9. ISSN 0340-5443. S2CID 9380176.
  16. ^ a b c Grant, T.; Frost, D. R.; Caldwell, J. P.; Gagliardo, R.; Haddad, C. F. B.; Kok, P. J. R.; Means, D. B.; Noonan, B. P.; Schargel, W. E. & Wheeler, W. C. (2006). "Phylogenetic systematics of dart-poison frogs and their relatives (Amphibia: Athesphatanura: Dendrobatidae)" (PDF). Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History. 299: 1–262. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.693.8392. doi:10.1206/0003-0090(2006)299[1:PSODFA]2.0.CO;2. hdl:2246/5803. S2CID 82263880.
  17. ^ a b c d Haase, A.; Prohl, H. (2002). "Female activity patterns and aggressiveness in the strawberry poison frog Dendrobates pumilio (Anura: Dendrobatidae)". Amphibia-Reptilia. 23 (2): 129–140. doi:10.1163/156853802760061778.
  18. ^ Meuche, Ivonne; Brusa, Oscar; Linsenmair, K Eduard; Keller, Alexander; Pröhl, Heike (2013-05-20). "Only distance matters – non-choosy females in a poison frog population". Frontiers in Zoology. 10 (1): 29. doi:10.1186/1742-9994-10-29. ISSN 1742-9994. PMC 3665588. PMID 23688371.
  19. ^ Prohl, H. & Hodl, W. (1999). "Parental investment, potential reproductive rates, and mating system in the strawberry dart-poison frog, Dendrobates pumilio". Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 46 (4): 215–220. doi:10.1007/s002650050612. S2CID 41934325.
  20. ^ Limerick, S (1980). "Courtship behavior and oviposition of the poison-arrow frog Dendrobates pumilio". Herpetologica. 36: 69–71.
  21. ^ Zimmermann, H. & Zimmermann, E. (1988). "Etho-Taxonomie und zoogeographische Artengruppenbildung bei Pfeilgiftfröschen (Anura: Dendrobatidae)". Salamandra. 24: 125–160.
  22. ^ Summers, K.; Weigt, L. A.; Boag, P.; Bermingham, E. (1999). "The evolution of female parental care in poison frogs of the genus Dendrobates: Evidence from mitochondrial DNA sequences". Herpetologica. 55 (2): 254–270.
  23. ^ Roberts, J. L.; Brown, J. L.; von May, R.; Arizabal, W.; Presar, A.; Symula, R.; Schulte, R. & Summers, K. (2006). "Phylogenetic relationships among poison frogs of the genus Dendrobates (Dendrobatidae): A molecular perspective from increased taxon sampling". Herpetological Journal. 16: 377–385.
  24. ^ a b c d Brown, J.; Maan, M.; Cummings, M.; Summers, K. (2010). "Evidence for selection on coloration in a Panamanian poison frog: a coalescent-based approach". Journal of Biogeography. 37 (5): 891–901. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2699.2009.02260.x. S2CID 49231830.
  25. ^ a b Wang, I.; Summers, K. (2010). "Genetic structure is correlated with phenotypic divergence rather than geographic isolation in the highly polymorphic strawberry poison-dart frog". Molecular Ecology. 19 (3): 447–458. doi:10.1111/j.1365-294x.2009.04465.x. PMID 20025652. S2CID 205362447.
  26. ^ a b Summers, K.; Bermingham, E.; Weigt, L.; McCafferty, S.; Dahlstrom, L. (1997). "Phenotypic and genetic divergence in three species of dart-poison frogs with contrasting parental behavior". The Journal of Heredity. 88 (1): 8–13. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.jhered.a023065. PMID 9048443.
  27. ^ a b Tazzyman, I.; Iwasa, Y. (2010). "Sexual selection can increase the effect of random genetic drift—a quantitative genetic model of polymorphism in Oophaga pumilio, the strawberry poison-dart frog". Evolution. 64 (6): 1719–1728. doi:10.1111/j.1558-5646.2009.00923.x. PMID 20015236. S2CID 37757687.
  28. ^ a b Reynolds, R.; Fitzpatrick, B. (2007). "Assortative mating in poison-dart frogs based on an ecologically important trait". Evolution. 61 (9): 2253–2259. doi:10.1111/j.1558-5646.2007.00174.x. PMID 17767594. S2CID 673233.
  29. ^ a b Wang, I; Shaffer, H (2008). "Rapid color evolution in an aposematic species: a phylogenetic analysis of color variation in the strikingly polymorphic strawberry poison-dart frog". Evolution. 62 (11): 2742–2759. doi:10.1111/j.1558-5646.2008.00507.x. PMID 18764916. S2CID 6439333.
  30. ^ a b Tazzyman, Samuel J.; Iwasa, Yoh (2009-12-10). "Sexual Selection Can Increase the Effect of Random Genetic Drift-A Quantitative Genetic Model of Polymorphism in Oophaga Pumilio, the Strawberry Poison-Dart Frog". Evolution. 64 (6): 1719–1728. doi:10.1111/j.1558-5646.2009.00923.x. ISSN 0014-3820. PMID 20015236. S2CID 37757687.
  31. ^ Rivera‐Ordonez, Juana M.; Justin Nowakowski, A.; Manansala, Adrian; Thompson, Michelle E.; Todd, Brian D. (2019-08-02). "Thermal niche variation among individuals of the poison frog, Oophaga pumilio , in forest and converted habitats". Biotropica. 51 (5): 747–756. doi:10.1111/btp.12691. ISSN 0006-3606.
  32. ^ Sheppard, Lisa. "Study finds ethical and illicit sources of poison frogs in the U.S. pet trade". blogs.illinois.edu. Retrieved 2022-11-15.

External links edit

 
Wikispecies has information related to Oophaga pumilio.
 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Oophaga pumilio.
  • Ask Questions and get answers from experts : Dart Frog Experts
  • Amphibiaweb, Amphibiaweb entry for Oophaga pumilio
  • Dendrobates.org, Information site for poison frogs

Media edit

  • Oophaga pumilio at CalPhotos

March 13, 2024
strawberry, poison, dart, frog, strawberry, poison, frog, strawberry, poison, dart, frog, blue, jeans, poison, frog, oophaga, pumilio, formerly, dendrobates, pumilio, species, small, poison, dart, frog, found, central, america, common, throughout, range, which. The strawberry poison frog strawberry poison dart frog or blue jeans poison frog Oophaga pumilio formerly Dendrobates pumilio is a species of small poison dart frog found in Central America 2 It is common throughout its range which extends from eastern central Nicaragua through Costa Rica and northwestern Panama The species is often found in humid lowlands and premontane forest but large populations are also found in disturbed areas such as plantations 3 The strawberry poison frog is perhaps most famous for its widespread variation in coloration comprising approximately 15 30 color morphs most of which are presumed to be true breeding 4 O pumilio while not the most poisonous of the dendrobatids is the most toxic member of its genus citation needed Strawberry poison dart frogConservation statusLeast Concern IUCN 3 1 1 Scientific classificationDomain EukaryotaKingdom AnimaliaPhylum ChordataClass AmphibiaOrder AnuraFamily DendrobatidaeGenus OophagaSpecies O pumilioBinomial nameOophaga pumilio Schmidt 1857 SynonymsDendrobates pumilio Schmidt 1857 Contents 1 Diet 2 Behavior 3 Reproduction and parental care 4 Taxonomy 5 Evolution 6 Habitat niche 7 Captivity 7 1 Common color morphs in captivity 8 References 9 External links 9 1 MediaDiet editThe diet of O pumilio causes the skin of the amphibian to become toxic in nature when certain subspecies of mites and ants are ingested very similar to many other poison dart frogs 5 6 Alkaloid toxins are organic in nature and contain nitrogenous bases that react with carbon and hydrogen groups 7 Pumiliotoxin 251D is the specialized toxin that is sequestered by this species of frog This toxin has a negative stimulating effect on cardiac function and is a severe disruptor of the sodium potassium ion channels within cells Upon ingestion of Pumiliotoxin 251D organisms preying on O pumilio experience convulsions paralysis and death 7 It has been found that once O pumilio reaches sexual maturity their granular glands significantly increase in size and their diet shifts In females it is common to find about 53 more alkaloids than adult males 8 Oribatida mites belonging to the glandulate suborder Brachypylina are an important origin of pumiliotoxins in O pumilio Hexane extraction techniques indicate presence of alkaloid toxins in Brachypylina 9 Toxins appear to be biosynthesized in adult mites as nymph and larval stages of the arachnid do not carry the toxins Experimental analysis of this species of mite show alkaloid toxins are found almost exclusively in the opisthonotal glands of mites of the Scheloribatidae 10 Oil glands of the mite contain the toxins and are then released internally as the amphibian digests the arthropod O pumilio can also attribute its cutaneous toxicity to its rich diet of formicinae ants 6 Species of the formicine genus Brachymyrmex contain pumiliotoxins which the frogs incorporate and accumulate poison from 11 There is a variability of alkaloid profiles among populations and individuals of O pumilio which is indicative of varying levels of available prey within their infraspecific habitats 12 Research and physical analysis reveal that maternally derived alkaloids exist in young tadpoles 13 The increase in alkaloids in tadpoles suggests that the females are providing more chemical defenses to their more vulnerable young This being one of the first found examples of provisioning that occurs after hatching 8 During tadpole rearing mother frogs feed their young an unfertilized egg from their ovaries after dropping each individual tadpole into a repository of water usually found in a bromeliad 14 Tadpoles lacking the obligate nutritive egg diet do not contain the alkaloid 13 This step is crucial for the tadpoles to sequester the alkaloid from their mother without such young tadpoles become susceptible to predation by arthropods and other frogs Behavior editOophaga pumilio is diurnal and primarily terrestrial and can often be found in leaf litter in both forested and disturbed areas Studies have shown that the optimal habitat is determined by the male considering the resource benefits and defense costs Males tend to expend more energy defending smaller but higher quality areas 15 There has also been evidence that the better competitors and fighters are the males guarding smaller sites with higher female density In most Anura the louder the vocalization when competing usually means they are larger in size and in better health However in the O pumilio species researchers have determined that these frogs call out at a lower rate to limit their energetic expenditures 15 Females on the other hand simply distribute themselves according to tadpole rearing sites 15 Though brightly colored and toxic these frogs are relatively small growing to approximately 17 5 22 mm 0 69 0 87 in in standard length 3 nbsp Listen to a pumilio call source source Male advertisement call Problems playing this file See media help Reproduction and parental care editOophaga pumilio is an external breeder and other species of the genus Oophaga are notable in the amphibian world for exhibiting a high degree of parental care 16 The strawberry poison frog has dual parental care 17 The males defend and water the nests and the females feed the oophagous tadpoles their unfertilized eggs Although both male and female contribute to parental care females invest more heavily in terms of energy expenditure time investment and loss of potential reproduction 17 When choosing a partner for mating females will choose the closest calling male rather than the highest quality male 18 Females provide energetically costly eggs to the tadpoles for 6 8 weeks until metamorphosis remain sexually inactive during tadpole rearing and care for only one clutch of four to six tadpoles at a time 17 The males contribute via the relatively cheap in terms of energy act of watering and protecting the eggs for a relatively short period 10 12 days and can care for multiple nests at one time 17 The extreme maternal investment in their offspring is believed to be the result of high egg mortality Only 5 12 of the clutch develops into tadpoles so the female s fitness may be best increased by making sure those few eggs that form tadpoles survive 19 nbsp The la gruta morph from Colon Province PanamaAfter mating the female lays three to five eggs on a leaf or bromeliad axil The male then ensures the eggs are kept hydrated by transporting water in his cloaca After about 10 days the eggs hatch and the female transports the tadpoles on her back to some water filled location 20 In captivity on rare occasions the male is observed transporting the tadpoles though whether this is intentional or the tadpoles simply hitch a ride is unknown Bromeliad axils are frequently used tadpole deposition sites but anything suitable can be used such as knots in trees small puddles or human trash such as aluminum cans Tadpoles are deposited singly at each location Once this has been done the female will come to each tadpole every few days and deposit several unfertilized food eggs 3 In captivity tadpoles have been raised on a variety of diets ranging from algae to the eggs of other dart frogs but with minimal success O pumilio tadpoles are considered obligate egg feeders as they are unable to accept any other form of nutrition After about a month the tadpole will metamorphose into a small froglet Generally it stays near its water source for a few days for protection as it absorbs the rest of its tail Taxonomy editOophaga pumilio belongs to the genus Oophaga 16 although the name Dendrobates pumilio is still sometimes used There is evidence that the species of Oophaga previously classified as the female parental care group of Dendrobates 21 are a monophyletic evolutionary group Due to the low level of genetic divergence between the species analyzed in this genus it is estimated that they speciated relatively recently after the formation of the current Panamanian land bridge in the Pliocene 3 5 million years ago 22 Oophaga pumilio is believed to be most closely related to Oophaga arborea 23 and Oophaga sylvatica 16 Evolution editStrawberry poison frog O pumilio shows extreme variation in color and pattern between populations that have been geographically isolated for more than 10 000 years 24 When populations are separated by geographic distances and landscape barriers they frequently experience restricted gene flow which can enable phenotypic divergence between populations through selection or drift 25 Their variety in warning coloration is used for their visibility toxicity and resistance to predators When divergent phenotypes are mostly restricted to separate islands the biogeography of color polymorphism suggests a major role for neutral process However Summers et al 1997 26 provide evidence that neutral divergence alone is unlikely to have caused the variation in color patterns As shown by Lande rapid evolution in sexually selecting species is led by the interaction of random genetic drift with natural and sexual selection such as random genetic drift in female mating preferences 27 Color is known to play a role in male female signaling mate attraction and male male signaling in anurans Based on Tazzyman and Iwasa s study that involved collections of samples from main islands in the Bocas del Toro archipelago its results proved that female preference on male calls led to call divergence and therefore divergence was driven by sexual selection Mate choice plays a critical role in generating and maintaining biodiversity 28 Furthermore spatial variation in predators or habitat features could exert divergent natural selection on coloration in response to its subjection to predator selection 24 It is still unclear to what extent sexual selection has driven the evolution of color morphs rather than reinforcing the reproductive isolation of morphs 29 In an aposematic organism such as O pumilio phylogenetic signal of selection cannot be attributed to female mate choice alone but is quite possible that genetic drift would interact with female color preferences to trigger divergence 24 Researchers Maan and Cummings had also found that in some cases female O pumilio preferred male mates that had very different coloration than their own phenotype 30 In nature the equality of color through evolution is very unlikely considering the various sensory biases of predators and the different background colors of the environments these frogs inhabit Due to this variability in color evolution it is unlikely to say there is superiority of aposematic purpose of color selection in Oophaga Species such as O pumilio have been known to thrive and compete very well on disturbed and converted land With temperatures rising in many different biomes the success of many species is going to be determined by its ability to acclimate and adapt In a study done by Rivera and Nowakowski they discovered that in many cases O pumilio is experiencing greater temperature stress in converted habitats than forests 30 Habitat niche editThis frog species utilizes scattered structures throughout disturbed lands to relieve some thermal stress However O pumilio is still warmer than any other species in the forested areas being exposed to temperatures up to 27 degrees Celsius These findings suggest that this species of dart frog acts as an ecological buffer and will be more successful than other species as land use changes and temperatures rise 31 Captivity editThis section does not cite any sources Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed November 2013 Learn how and when to remove this template message Oophaga pumilio is a popular frog in captivity due to its striking colors and unique life cycle They have been imported in vast quantities to the United States and Europe since the early 1990s when they would typically be available for around US 75 each However these shipments have since stopped and O pumilio is much less common and available in reduced diversity A select number of hobbyists and breeders are successfully reproducing these frogs in captivity and healthy captive bred individuals have become much easier to find in the 21st century In Europe O pumilio is much more diverse due to an increased frequency of smuggling and the resulting offspring of smuggled animals Smuggling of dart frogs is less common elsewhere but is still a large problem as it kills large numbers of animals and often degrades or destroys viable habitat citation needed nbsp Blue jeans color morphRecently O pumilio has been exported from Central America again in small numbers from frog farms Because of this they have seen a huge increase in numbers in the dart frog community and are regularly available Common color morphs in captivity edit One example of a color morph is the blue jeans morph It is most common throughout the species range but is relatively rare in the United States pet trade Most of these animals came from imports during the 1990s or are their descendants 32 As of 2003 it was observed that this morph could be found throughout Costa Rica as well as mainland Panama 4 24 25 26 27 28 29 References edit IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group 2015 Oophaga pumilio IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2015 e T55196A3025630 doi 10 2305 IUCN UK 2015 4 RLTS T55196A3025630 en Retrieved 19 November 2021 Frost Darrel R 2014 Oophaga pumilio Schmidt 1857 Amphibian Species of the World an Online Reference Version 6 0 American Museum of Natural History Retrieved 12 September 2014 a b c Savage J M 2002 The Amphibians and Reptiles of Costa Rica University of Chicago Press Chicago and London a b Summers K Cronin T W Kennedy T 2003 Variation in spectral reflectance among population of Dendrobates pumilio the strawberry poison frog in the Bocas del Toro Archipelago Panama Journal of Biogeography 30 35 53 doi 10 1046 j 1365 2699 2003 00795 x hdl 11603 13558 S2CID 33860218 Saporito Ralph Donnelly Maureen Norton Roy Garraffo Martin Spande Thomas Daly John 2007 Oribatid Mites as a Major Dietary Source for Alkaloids in Poison Frogs Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 104 21 8885 8890 Bibcode 2007PNAS 104 8885S doi 10 1073 pnas 0702851104 PMC 1885597 PMID 17502597 a b Saporito Ralph Garraffo Martin Donnelly Maureen Edwards Adam Longino John Daly John 2004 Formicine ants an arthropod aource for the pumiliotoxin alkaloids of dendrobatid poison frogs Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 101 21 8045 8050 Bibcode 2004PNAS 101 8045S doi 10 1073 pnas 0402365101 PMC 419554 PMID 15128938 a b Vandendriessche T Abdel Mottaleb Y Maertens C Cuypers E Sudau A Nubbemeyer U Mebs D Tytgat J 2008 Modulation of voltage gated Na and K channels by pumiliotoxin 251D A joint venture alkaloid from arthropods and amphibians Toxicon 51 3 334 344 doi 10 1016 j toxicon 2007 10 011 PMID 18061227 a b Stynoski Jennifer L Torres Mendoza Yaritbel Sasa Marin Mahmood Saporito Ralph A March 2014 Evidence of maternal provisioning of alkaloid based chemical defenses in the strawberry poison frogOophaga pumilio Ecology 95 3 587 593 doi 10 1890 13 0927 1 hdl 10669 76946 ISSN 0012 9658 PMID 24804437 S2CID 4094179 Takada W Sakata T Shimano S Enami Y Mori N Nishida R amp Kuwahara Y 2005 Scheloribatid mites as the source of pumiliotoxins in dendrobatid frogs Journal of Chemical Ecology 31 10 2403 2415 doi 10 1007 s10886 005 7109 9 PMID 16195851 S2CID 535250 Raspotnig G Norton R A Heethoff M 2011 Oribatid mites and skin alkaloids in poison frogs Biology Letters 7 4 555 556 doi 10 1098 rsbl 2010 1113 PMC 3130211 PMID 21345855 Staudt K Meneses O S Mebs D Proehl H 2010 Foraging behaviour and territoriality of the strawberry poison frog Oophaga pumilio in dependence of the presence of ants Amphibia Reptilia 31 2 217 227 doi 10 1163 156853810791069100 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Mebs D Pogoda W Batista A Ponce M Koelher G Kauert G 2008 Variability of alkaloid profiles in Oophaga pumilio Amphibia Anura Dendrobatidae from Western Panama and Southern Nicaragua Salamandra 44 4 241 247 a b Stynoski J L Torres Mendoza Y Sasa Marin M Saporito R A 2014 Evidence of maternal provisioning of alkaloid based chemical defenses in the strawberry poison frog Oophaga pumilio PDF Ecology 95 3 587 593 doi 10 1890 13 0927 1 PMID 24804437 Forsyth A Fogden M Fogden P Wilson E O 2008 Nature of the Rainforest Costa Rica and Beyond Cornell University Press Ithaca New York USA a b c Meuche Ivonne Linsenmair K Eduard Prohl Heike 2012 01 04 Intrasexual competition territoriality and acoustic communication in male strawberry poison frogs Oophaga pumilio Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 66 4 613 621 doi 10 1007 s00265 011 1309 9 ISSN 0340 5443 S2CID 9380176 a b c Grant T Frost D R Caldwell J P Gagliardo R Haddad C F B Kok P J R Means D B Noonan B P Schargel W E amp Wheeler W C 2006 Phylogenetic systematics of dart poison frogs and their relatives Amphibia Athesphatanura Dendrobatidae PDF Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 299 1 262 CiteSeerX 10 1 1 693 8392 doi 10 1206 0003 0090 2006 299 1 PSODFA 2 0 CO 2 hdl 2246 5803 S2CID 82263880 a b c d Haase A Prohl H 2002 Female activity patterns and aggressiveness in the strawberry poison frog Dendrobates pumilio Anura Dendrobatidae Amphibia Reptilia 23 2 129 140 doi 10 1163 156853802760061778 Meuche Ivonne Brusa Oscar Linsenmair K Eduard Keller Alexander Prohl Heike 2013 05 20 Only distance matters non choosy females in a poison frog population Frontiers in Zoology 10 1 29 doi 10 1186 1742 9994 10 29 ISSN 1742 9994 PMC 3665588 PMID 23688371 Prohl H amp Hodl W 1999 Parental investment potential reproductive rates and mating system in the strawberry dart poison frog Dendrobates pumilio Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 46 4 215 220 doi 10 1007 s002650050612 S2CID 41934325 Limerick S 1980 Courtship behavior and oviposition of the poison arrow frog Dendrobates pumilio Herpetologica 36 69 71 Zimmermann H amp Zimmermann E 1988 Etho Taxonomie und zoogeographische Artengruppenbildung bei Pfeilgiftfroschen Anura Dendrobatidae Salamandra 24 125 160 Summers K Weigt L A Boag P Bermingham E 1999 The evolution of female parental care in poison frogs of the genus Dendrobates Evidence from mitochondrial DNA sequences Herpetologica 55 2 254 270 Roberts J L Brown J L von May R Arizabal W Presar A Symula R Schulte R amp Summers K 2006 Phylogenetic relationships among poison frogs of the genus Dendrobates Dendrobatidae A molecular perspective from increased taxon sampling Herpetological Journal 16 377 385 a b c d Brown J Maan M Cummings M Summers K 2010 Evidence for selection on coloration in a Panamanian poison frog a coalescent based approach Journal of Biogeography 37 5 891 901 doi 10 1111 j 1365 2699 2009 02260 x S2CID 49231830 a b Wang I Summers K 2010 Genetic structure is correlated with phenotypic divergence rather than geographic isolation in the highly polymorphic strawberry poison dart frog Molecular Ecology 19 3 447 458 doi 10 1111 j 1365 294x 2009 04465 x PMID 20025652 S2CID 205362447 a b Summers K Bermingham E Weigt L McCafferty S Dahlstrom L 1997 Phenotypic and genetic divergence in three species of dart poison frogs with contrasting parental behavior The Journal of Heredity 88 1 8 13 doi 10 1093 oxfordjournals jhered a023065 PMID 9048443 a b Tazzyman I Iwasa Y 2010 Sexual selection can increase the effect of random genetic drift a quantitative genetic model of polymorphism in Oophaga pumilio the strawberry poison dart frog Evolution 64 6 1719 1728 doi 10 1111 j 1558 5646 2009 00923 x PMID 20015236 S2CID 37757687 a b Reynolds R Fitzpatrick B 2007 Assortative mating in poison dart frogs based on an ecologically important trait Evolution 61 9 2253 2259 doi 10 1111 j 1558 5646 2007 00174 x PMID 17767594 S2CID 673233 a b Wang I Shaffer H 2008 Rapid color evolution in an aposematic species a phylogenetic analysis of color variation in the strikingly polymorphic strawberry poison dart frog Evolution 62 11 2742 2759 doi 10 1111 j 1558 5646 2008 00507 x PMID 18764916 S2CID 6439333 a b Tazzyman Samuel J Iwasa Yoh 2009 12 10 Sexual Selection Can Increase the Effect of Random Genetic Drift A Quantitative Genetic Model of Polymorphism in Oophaga Pumilio the Strawberry Poison Dart Frog Evolution 64 6 1719 1728 doi 10 1111 j 1558 5646 2009 00923 x ISSN 0014 3820 PMID 20015236 S2CID 37757687 Rivera Ordonez Juana M Justin Nowakowski A Manansala Adrian Thompson Michelle E Todd Brian D 2019 08 02 Thermal niche variation among individuals of the poison frog Oophaga pumilio in forest and converted habitats Biotropica 51 5 747 756 doi 10 1111 btp 12691 ISSN 0006 3606 Sheppard Lisa Study finds ethical and illicit sources of poison frogs in the U S pet trade blogs illinois edu Retrieved 2022 11 15 External links edit nbsp Wikispecies has information related to Oophaga pumilio nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to Oophaga pumilio Ask Questions and get answers from experts Dart Frog Experts Amphibiaweb Amphibiaweb entry for Oophaga pumilio Dendrobates org Information site for poison frogsMedia edit Oophaga pumilio at CalPhotosPortal nbsp Frogs Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Strawberry poison dart frog amp oldid 1188088299, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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