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Sea spray

January 31, 2023

For other uses, see seaspray (disambiguation).
"salt air" redirects here. For other uses, see saltair (disambiguation).

Sea spray are aerosol particles formed from the ocean, mostly by ejection into Earth's atmosphere by bursting bubbles at the air-sea interface.[1] Sea spray contains both organic matter and inorganic salts that form sea salt aerosol (SSA).[2] SSA has the ability to form cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) and remove anthropogenic aerosol pollutants from the atmosphere.[3] Coarse sea spray has also been found to inhibit the development of lightning in storm clouds.[4]

Sea spray generated by breaking surface waves

Sea spray is directly (and indirectly, through SSA) responsible for a significant degree of the heat and moisture fluxes between the atmosphere and the ocean,[5][6] affecting global climate patterns and tropical storm intensity.[7] Sea spray also influences plant growth and species distribution in coastal ecosystems[8] and increases corrosion of building materials in coastal areas.[9]

Generation

See also: Sea surface microlayer

Formation

 
Connection between sea foam and sea spray formation. The dark orange line indicates processes common to the formation of both sea spray and sea foam.

When wind, whitecaps, and breaking waves mix air into the sea surface, the air regroups to form bubbles, floats to the surface, and bursts at the air-sea interface.[10] When they burst, they release up to a thousand particles of sea spray,[10][11] which range in size from nanometers to micrometers and can be expelled up to 20 cm from the sea surface.[10] Film droplets make up the majority of the smaller particles created by the initial burst, while jet droplets are generated by a collapse of the bubble cavity and are ejected from the sea surface in the form of a vertical jet.[12][11] In windy conditions, water droplets are mechanically torn off from crests of breaking waves. Sea spray droplets generated via such a mechanism are called spume droplets [11] and are typically larger in size and have less residence time in air. Impingement of plunging waves on sea surface also generates sea spray in the form of splash droplets [11][13]. The composition of the sea spray depends primarily on the composition of the water from which it is produced, but broadly speaking is a mixture of salts and organic matter. Several factors determine the production flux of sea spray, especially wind speed, swell height, swell period, humidity, and temperature differential between the atmosphere and the surface water.[14] Production and size distribution rate of SSAs are thus sensitive to the mixing state.[15] A lesser studied area of sea spray generation is the formation of sea spray as a result of rain drop impact on the sea surface .[11]

Spatial variation

In addition to the local conditions that influence sea spray formation, there are also consistent spatial patterns in sea spray production and composition. Because sea spray is generated when air is mixed into the ocean, formation gradients are established by turbulence of the surface water.[14] Wave action along coastal shorelines is generally where turbulence is greatest, so this is where sea spray production is the highest. Particles generated in turbulent coastal areas can travel horizontally up to 25 km within the planetary boundary layer.[14] As distance from shore decreases, sea spray production declines to a level sustained almost exclusively by white caps.[14] The proportion of the ocean surface area that is turbulent enough to produce significant sea spray is called the white cap fraction.[10] The only other production mechanism of sea spray in the open ocean is through direct wind action, where strong winds actually break the surface tension of the water and lift particles into the air.[10] However, particles of seawater generated in this way are often too heavy to remain suspended in the atmosphere and usually are deposited back to the sea within a few dozen meters of transport.[10]

Temporal variation

During winter months, the ocean typically experiences stormy, windy conditions that generate more air inundation into the sea and therefore more sea spray.[16] Calmer summer months result in lower overall production of sea spray.[16] During peak primary productivity in the summer, increased organic matter in the surface ocean drives subsequent increases in sea spray. Given that sea spray retains the properties of the water from which it was produced, the composition of sea spray experiences extreme seasonal variation. During the summer, dissolved organic carbon (DOC) can constitute 60-90% of sea spray mass.[16] Even though much more sea spray is produced during the stormy winter season, the composition is nearly all salt because of the low primary production.[16]

Organic matter

The organic matter in sea spray consists of dissolved organic carbon[17] (DOC) and even microbes themselves, like bacteria and viruses.[18] The amount of organic matter in sea spray depends on microbiological processes,[19] though the total effect of these processes is still unknown.[20][21] Chlorophyll-a is often used as a proxy for primary production and organic matter content in sea spray, but its reliability for estimating dissolved organic carbon concentrations is controversial.[21] Biomass often enters sea spray through the death and lysis of algal cells, often caused by viral infections.[20] Cells are broken apart into the dissolved organic carbon that is propelled into the atmosphere when surface bubbles pop. When primary productivity peaks during the summer, algal blooms can generate an enormous amount of organic matter that is eventually incorporated into sea spray.[16][20] In the right conditions, aggregation of the dissolved organic carbon can also form surfactant or sea foam.

Climate interactions

At high winds the droplet evaporation layer (DEL) influences the surface energy heat exchange of the ocean.[22] The latent heat flux of sea spray generated at the droplet evaporation layer has been cited as an important addition to climate modeling efforts, particularly in simulations assessing air/sea heat balance as related to hurricanes and cyclones formed during high wind events.[6] During the formation of whitecaps, sea spray droplets exhibit the same properties as the ocean surface, but rapidly adapt to surrounding air. Some sea spray droplets immediately reabsorb into the sea while others evaporate entirely and contribute salt particles like dimethyl sulfide (DMS) to the atmosphere where they can be transported via turbulence to cloud layers and serve as cloud condensation nuclei.[15] The formation of these cloud condensation nuclei like dimethyl sulfide have climate implications as well, due to their influence on cloud formation and interaction with solar radiation.[15] Additionally, the contribution of sea spray DMS to the atmosphere is linked to the global sulfur cycle.[23] Understanding total forcing from natural sources like sea spray can illuminate critical constraints posed by anthropogenic influence and can be coupled with ocean chemistry, biology and physics to predict future ocean and atmospheric variability.[15]

The proportion of organic matter in sea spray can impact reflectance, determine the overall cooling effect of SSAs,[20] and slightly alter the capacity for SSAs to form cloud condensation nuclei (17). Even small changes in SSA levels can affect the global radiation budget leading to implications for global climate.[20] SSA has a low albedo, but its presence overlaid on the darker ocean surface affects absorption and reflectance of incoming solar radiation.[20]

Enthalpy flux

The influence of sea spray on the surface heat and moisture exchange peaks during times of greatest difference between air and sea temperatures.[22] When air temperature is low, sea spray sensible heat flux can be nearly as great as the spray latent heat flux at high latitudes.[6] In addition, sea spray enhances the air/sea enthalpy flux during high winds as a result of temperature and humidity redistribution in the marine boundary layer.[7] Sea spray droplets injected into the air thermally equilibrate ~1% of their mass. This leads to the addition of sensible heat prior to ocean reentry, enhancing their potential for significant enthalpy input.[7]

Dynamic effects

The effects of sea spray transport in the atmospheric boundary layer is not yet completely understood.[11] Sea spray droplets alter the air-sea momentum fluxes by being accelerated and decelerated by the winds.[11] In hurricane-force winds, it is observed that there is some reduction in the air/sea momentum flux.[10] This reduction in momentum flux manifests as saturation of air/sea drag coefficient. Some studies have identified spray effects as one of the potential reasons for the air/sea drag coefficient saturation.[24][25][26] It has been shown through several numerical and theoretical studies that sea spray, if present in significant amounts in the atmospheric boundary layer, leads to saturation of air-sea drag coefficients.[27][28]

Ecology

See also: Ocean surface ecosystem

Coastal ecosystems

Main article: Marine coastal ecosystems

Salt deposition from sea spray is the primary factor influencing distribution of plant communities in coastal ecosystems.[29] Ion concentrations of sea spray deposited on land generally mirror their concentrations in the ocean, except that potassium is often higher in sea spray.[8] Deposition of salts on land generally decreases with distance from the ocean but increases with increasing wind speed.[8] Salt deposition from sea spray is correlated with a decrease in plant height and significant scarring, shoot reduction, stem height decrease, and tissue death on the windward side of shrubs and trees.[30][31] Variation in salt deposition also influences competition between plants and establishes gradients of salt tolerance.[30]

While the salts within sea spray can severely inhibit plant growth in coastal ecosystems, selecting for salt-tolerant species, sea spray can also bring vital nutrients to these habitats. For example, one study showed that sea spray in Wales, UK delivers roughly 32 kg of potassium per hectare to coastal sand dunes each year.[10] Because dune soils leach nutrients very quickly, sea spray fertilization could be very influential to dune ecosystems, especially for plants that are less competitive in nutrient-limited environments.

Microbial communities

 
Sea spray containing marine microorganisms can be swept high into the atmosphere where they become aeroplankton. These airborne microorganisms may travel the globe before falling back to earth.

Viruses, bacteria, and plankton are ubiquitous in sea water, and this biodiversity is reflected in the composition of sea spray.[14] Generally speaking, sea spray has slightly lower concentrations of microbes than the water it is produced from. However, the microbial community in sea spray is often distinct from nearby water and sandy beaches, suggesting that some species are more biased towards SSA transportation than others. Sea spray from one beach can contain thousands of operational taxonomic units (OTUs).[14] Nearly 10,000 different OTUs have been discovered in sea spray just between San Francisco, CA and Monterey, CA, with only 11% of them found ubiquitously.[14] This suggests that sea spray in every coastal region likely has its own unique assemblage of microbial diversity, with thousands of new OTUs yet to be discovered. Many of the more common OTUs have been identified to the following taxa: Cryptophyta (order), Stramenopiles (order) and OM60 (family).[14] Many have even been identified to genus: Persicirhabdus, Fluviicola, Synecococcus, Vibrio, and Enterococcus.[14]

Scientists have conjectured a stream of airborne microorganisms circles the planet above weather systems but below commercial air lanes.[32] Some of these peripatetic microorganisms are swept up from terrestrial dust storms, but most originate from the marine microorganisms in sea spray. In 2018 a team of scientists reported that hundreds of millions of viruses and tens of millions of bacteria are deposited daily on every square meter around the planet.[33][34]

Chemical resistance

Sea spray is largely responsible for corrosion of metallic objects near the coastline, as the salts accelerate the corrosion process in the presence of abundant atmospheric oxygen and moisture.[9] Salts do not dissolve in air directly, but are suspended as fine particulates, or dissolved in microscopic airborne water droplets.[35]

The salt spray test is a measure of material endurance or resistance to corrosion, particularly if the material will be used outdoors and must perform in a mechanical load bearing or otherwise critical role. These results are often of great interest to marine industries, whose products may suffer extreme acceleration of corrosion and subsequent failure due to salt water exposure.[36]

See also

References

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  2. ^ Gantt, Brett; Meskhidze, Nicholas (2013). "The physical and chemical characteristics of marine primary organic aerosol: a review". Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics. 13 (8): 3979–3996. Bibcode:2013ACP....13.3979G. doi:10.5194/acp-13-3979-2013.
  3. ^ Rosenfeld, Daniel; Lahav, Ronen; Khain, Alexander; Pinsky, Mark (2002-09-06). "The Role of Sea Spray in Cleansing Air Pollution over Ocean via Cloud Processes". Science. 297 (5587): 1667–1670. Bibcode:2002Sci...297.1667R. doi:10.1126/science.1073869. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 12183635. S2CID 11897318.
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  18. ^ Blanchard, D.C.; Syzdek, L.D. (1972). "Concentration of Bacteria in Jet Drops from Bursting Bubbles". J. Geophys. Res. 77 (27): 5087. Bibcode:1972JGR....77.5087B. doi:10.1029/jc077i027p05087.
  19. ^ O'Dowd, C.D.; Facchini, M.C.; Cavalli, F.; Ceburnis, D.; Mircea, M.; Decesari, S.; Fuzzi, S.; Yoon, Y.J.; Putaud, J.P. (2004). "Biogenically driven organic contribution to marine aerosol". Nature. 431 (7009): 676–680. Bibcode:2004Natur.431..676O. doi:10.1038/nature02959. PMID 15470425. S2CID 4388791.
  20. ^ a b c d e f Clayton, James L. (1972). "Salt Spray and Mineral Cycling in Two California Coastal Ecosystems". Ecology. 53 (1): 74–81. doi:10.2307/1935711. JSTOR 1935711.
  21. ^ a b Quinn, Patricia K.; Bates, Timothy S.; Schulz, Kristen S.; Coffman, D. J.; Frossard, A. A.; Russell, L. M.; Keene, W. C.; Kieber, D. J. (March 2014). "Contribution of sea surface carbon pool to organic matter enrichment in sea spray aerosol". Nature Geoscience. 7 (3): 228–232. Bibcode:2014NatGe...7..228Q. doi:10.1038/ngeo2092. ISSN 1752-0894.
  22. ^ a b Andreas, Edgar L; Edson, James B.; Monahan, Edward C.; Rouault, Mathieu P.; Smith, Stuart D. (January 1995). "The spray contribution to net evaporation from the sea: A review of recent progress". Boundary-Layer Meteorology. 72 (1–2): 3–52. Bibcode:1995BoLMe..72....3A. doi:10.1007/BF00712389. ISSN 0006-8314. S2CID 121476167.
  23. ^ Eriksson, Erik (1963-07-01). "The yearly circulation of sulfur in nature". Journal of Geophysical Research. 68 (13): 4001–4008. Bibcode:1963JGR....68.4001E. doi:10.1029/jz068i013p04001. ISSN 0148-0227.
  24. ^ Bell, Michael M.; Montgomery, Michael T.; Emanuel, Kerry A. (November 2012). "Air–Sea Enthalpy and Momentum Exchange at Major Hurricane Wind Speeds Observed during CBLAST" (PDF). Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences. 69 (11): 3197–3222. Bibcode:2012JAtS...69.3197B. doi:10.1175/jas-d-11-0276.1. hdl:10945/36906. ISSN 0022-4928. S2CID 17840178.
  25. ^ Donelan, M. A. (2004). "On the limiting aerodynamic roughness of the ocean in very strong winds". Geophysical Research Letters. 31 (18): L18306. Bibcode:2004GeoRL..3118306D. doi:10.1029/2004gl019460. ISSN 0094-8276. S2CID 36629423.
  26. ^ Powell, Mark D.; Vickery, Peter J.; Reinhold, Timothy A. (March 2003). "Reduced drag coefficient for high wind speeds in tropical cyclones". Nature. 422 (6929): 279–283. Bibcode:2003Natur.422..279P. doi:10.1038/nature01481. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 12646913. S2CID 4424285.
  27. ^ Bye, John A. T.; Jenkins, Alastair D. (2006). "Drag coefficient reduction at very high wind speeds". Journal of Geophysical Research. 111 (C3): C03024. Bibcode:2006JGRC..111.3024B. doi:10.1029/2005jc003114. hdl:1956/1152. ISSN 0148-0227.
  28. ^ Liu, Bin; Guan, Changlong; Xie, Lian (2012-07-03). "The wave state and sea spray related parameterization of wind stress applicable from low to extreme winds". Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans. 117 (C11): n/a. Bibcode:2012JGRC..117.0J22L. doi:10.1029/2011jc007786. ISSN 0148-0227.
  29. ^ MALLOCH, A. J. C. (November 1971). "Vegetation of the Maritime Cliff-Tops of the Lizard and Land's End Peninsulas, West Cornwall". New Phytologist. 70 (6): 1155–1197. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8137.1971.tb04597.x. ISSN 0028-646X.
  30. ^ a b Goldsmith, F. B. (1973). "The Vegetation of Exposed Sea Cliffs at South Stack, Anglesey: II. Experimental Studies". Journal of Ecology. 61 (3): 819–829. doi:10.2307/2258652. JSTOR 2258652.
  31. ^ B., Goldsmith, F. (1967). Some aspects of the vegetation of sea cliffs. OCLC 23928269.
  32. ^ Living Bacteria Are Riding Earth’s Air Currents Smithsonian Magazine, 11 January 2016.
  33. ^ Robbins, Jim (13 April 2018). "Trillions Upon Trillions of Viruses Fall From the Sky Each Day". The New York Times. Retrieved 14 April 2018.
  34. ^ Reche, Isabel; D’Orta, Gaetano; Mladenov, Natalie; Winget, Danielle M; Suttle, Curtis A (29 January 2018). "Deposition rates of viruses and bacteria above the atmospheric boundary layer". ISME Journal. 12 (4): 1154–1162. doi:10.1038/s41396-017-0042-4. PMC 5864199. PMID 29379178.
  35. ^ Blanchard, Duncan C.; Woodcock, Alfred H. (May 1980). "The Production, Concentration, and Vertical Distribution of the Sea-Salt Aerosol". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 338 (1 Aerosols): 330–347. Bibcode:1980NYASA.338..330B. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1980.tb17130.x. ISSN 0077-8923. S2CID 83636469.
  36. ^ Dobrzański, L.A.; Brytan, Z.; Grande, M. Actis; Rosso, M. (2007-10-01). "Corrosion resistance of sintered duplex stainless steels in the salt fog spray test". Journal of Materials Processing Technology. 192–193: 443–448. doi:10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2007.04.077. ISSN 0924-0136.

External links

 
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January 31, 2023
spray, other, uses, seaspray, disambiguation, salt, redirects, here, other, uses, saltair, disambiguation, aerosol, particles, formed, from, ocean, mostly, ejection, into, earth, atmosphere, bursting, bubbles, interface, contains, both, organic, matter, inorga. For other uses see seaspray disambiguation salt air redirects here For other uses see saltair disambiguation Sea spray are aerosol particles formed from the ocean mostly by ejection into Earth s atmosphere by bursting bubbles at the air sea interface 1 Sea spray contains both organic matter and inorganic salts that form sea salt aerosol SSA 2 SSA has the ability to form cloud condensation nuclei CCN and remove anthropogenic aerosol pollutants from the atmosphere 3 Coarse sea spray has also been found to inhibit the development of lightning in storm clouds 4 Sea spray generated by breaking surface waves Sea spray is directly and indirectly through SSA responsible for a significant degree of the heat and moisture fluxes between the atmosphere and the ocean 5 6 affecting global climate patterns and tropical storm intensity 7 Sea spray also influences plant growth and species distribution in coastal ecosystems 8 and increases corrosion of building materials in coastal areas 9 Contents 1 Generation 1 1 Formation 1 2 Spatial variation 1 3 Temporal variation 1 4 Organic matter 2 Climate interactions 2 1 Enthalpy flux 2 2 Dynamic effects 3 Ecology 3 1 Coastal ecosystems 3 2 Microbial communities 4 Chemical resistance 5 See also 6 References 7 External linksGeneration EditSee also Sea surface microlayer Formation Edit Connection between sea foam and sea spray formation The dark orange line indicates processes common to the formation of both sea spray and sea foam When wind whitecaps and breaking waves mix air into the sea surface the air regroups to form bubbles floats to the surface and bursts at the air sea interface 10 When they burst they release up to a thousand particles of sea spray 10 11 which range in size from nanometers to micrometers and can be expelled up to 20 cm from the sea surface 10 Film droplets make up the majority of the smaller particles created by the initial burst while jet droplets are generated by a collapse of the bubble cavity and are ejected from the sea surface in the form of a vertical jet 12 11 In windy conditions water droplets are mechanically torn off from crests of breaking waves Sea spray droplets generated via such a mechanism are called spume droplets 11 and are typically larger in size and have less residence time in air Impingement of plunging waves on sea surface also generates sea spray in the form of splash droplets 11 13 The composition of the sea spray depends primarily on the composition of the water from which it is produced but broadly speaking is a mixture of salts and organic matter Several factors determine the production flux of sea spray especially wind speed swell height swell period humidity and temperature differential between the atmosphere and the surface water 14 Production and size distribution rate of SSAs are thus sensitive to the mixing state 15 A lesser studied area of sea spray generation is the formation of sea spray as a result of rain drop impact on the sea surface 11 Spatial variation Edit In addition to the local conditions that influence sea spray formation there are also consistent spatial patterns in sea spray production and composition Because sea spray is generated when air is mixed into the ocean formation gradients are established by turbulence of the surface water 14 Wave action along coastal shorelines is generally where turbulence is greatest so this is where sea spray production is the highest Particles generated in turbulent coastal areas can travel horizontally up to 25 km within the planetary boundary layer 14 As distance from shore decreases sea spray production declines to a level sustained almost exclusively by white caps 14 The proportion of the ocean surface area that is turbulent enough to produce significant sea spray is called the white cap fraction 10 The only other production mechanism of sea spray in the open ocean is through direct wind action where strong winds actually break the surface tension of the water and lift particles into the air 10 However particles of seawater generated in this way are often too heavy to remain suspended in the atmosphere and usually are deposited back to the sea within a few dozen meters of transport 10 Temporal variation Edit During winter months the ocean typically experiences stormy windy conditions that generate more air inundation into the sea and therefore more sea spray 16 Calmer summer months result in lower overall production of sea spray 16 During peak primary productivity in the summer increased organic matter in the surface ocean drives subsequent increases in sea spray Given that sea spray retains the properties of the water from which it was produced the composition of sea spray experiences extreme seasonal variation During the summer dissolved organic carbon DOC can constitute 60 90 of sea spray mass 16 Even though much more sea spray is produced during the stormy winter season the composition is nearly all salt because of the low primary production 16 Organic matter Edit The organic matter in sea spray consists of dissolved organic carbon 17 DOC and even microbes themselves like bacteria and viruses 18 The amount of organic matter in sea spray depends on microbiological processes 19 though the total effect of these processes is still unknown 20 21 Chlorophyll a is often used as a proxy for primary production and organic matter content in sea spray but its reliability for estimating dissolved organic carbon concentrations is controversial 21 Biomass often enters sea spray through the death and lysis of algal cells often caused by viral infections 20 Cells are broken apart into the dissolved organic carbon that is propelled into the atmosphere when surface bubbles pop When primary productivity peaks during the summer algal blooms can generate an enormous amount of organic matter that is eventually incorporated into sea spray 16 20 In the right conditions aggregation of the dissolved organic carbon can also form surfactant or sea foam Climate interactions EditAt high winds the droplet evaporation layer DEL influences the surface energy heat exchange of the ocean 22 The latent heat flux of sea spray generated at the droplet evaporation layer has been cited as an important addition to climate modeling efforts particularly in simulations assessing air sea heat balance as related to hurricanes and cyclones formed during high wind events 6 During the formation of whitecaps sea spray droplets exhibit the same properties as the ocean surface but rapidly adapt to surrounding air Some sea spray droplets immediately reabsorb into the sea while others evaporate entirely and contribute salt particles like dimethyl sulfide DMS to the atmosphere where they can be transported via turbulence to cloud layers and serve as cloud condensation nuclei 15 The formation of these cloud condensation nuclei like dimethyl sulfide have climate implications as well due to their influence on cloud formation and interaction with solar radiation 15 Additionally the contribution of sea spray DMS to the atmosphere is linked to the global sulfur cycle 23 Understanding total forcing from natural sources like sea spray can illuminate critical constraints posed by anthropogenic influence and can be coupled with ocean chemistry biology and physics to predict future ocean and atmospheric variability 15 The proportion of organic matter in sea spray can impact reflectance determine the overall cooling effect of SSAs 20 and slightly alter the capacity for SSAs to form cloud condensation nuclei 17 Even small changes in SSA levels can affect the global radiation budget leading to implications for global climate 20 SSA has a low albedo but its presence overlaid on the darker ocean surface affects absorption and reflectance of incoming solar radiation 20 Enthalpy flux Edit The influence of sea spray on the surface heat and moisture exchange peaks during times of greatest difference between air and sea temperatures 22 When air temperature is low sea spray sensible heat flux can be nearly as great as the spray latent heat flux at high latitudes 6 In addition sea spray enhances the air sea enthalpy flux during high winds as a result of temperature and humidity redistribution in the marine boundary layer 7 Sea spray droplets injected into the air thermally equilibrate 1 of their mass This leads to the addition of sensible heat prior to ocean reentry enhancing their potential for significant enthalpy input 7 Dynamic effects Edit The effects of sea spray transport in the atmospheric boundary layer is not yet completely understood 11 Sea spray droplets alter the air sea momentum fluxes by being accelerated and decelerated by the winds 11 In hurricane force winds it is observed that there is some reduction in the air sea momentum flux 10 This reduction in momentum flux manifests as saturation of air sea drag coefficient Some studies have identified spray effects as one of the potential reasons for the air sea drag coefficient saturation 24 25 26 It has been shown through several numerical and theoretical studies that sea spray if present in significant amounts in the atmospheric boundary layer leads to saturation of air sea drag coefficients 27 28 Ecology EditSee also Ocean surface ecosystem Coastal ecosystems Edit Main article Marine coastal ecosystems Salt deposition from sea spray is the primary factor influencing distribution of plant communities in coastal ecosystems 29 Ion concentrations of sea spray deposited on land generally mirror their concentrations in the ocean except that potassium is often higher in sea spray 8 Deposition of salts on land generally decreases with distance from the ocean but increases with increasing wind speed 8 Salt deposition from sea spray is correlated with a decrease in plant height and significant scarring shoot reduction stem height decrease and tissue death on the windward side of shrubs and trees 30 31 Variation in salt deposition also influences competition between plants and establishes gradients of salt tolerance 30 While the salts within sea spray can severely inhibit plant growth in coastal ecosystems selecting for salt tolerant species sea spray can also bring vital nutrients to these habitats For example one study showed that sea spray in Wales UK delivers roughly 32 kg of potassium per hectare to coastal sand dunes each year 10 Because dune soils leach nutrients very quickly sea spray fertilization could be very influential to dune ecosystems especially for plants that are less competitive in nutrient limited environments Microbial communities Edit Sea spray containing marine microorganisms can be swept high into the atmosphere where they become aeroplankton These airborne microorganisms may travel the globe before falling back to earth Viruses bacteria and plankton are ubiquitous in sea water and this biodiversity is reflected in the composition of sea spray 14 Generally speaking sea spray has slightly lower concentrations of microbes than the water it is produced from However the microbial community in sea spray is often distinct from nearby water and sandy beaches suggesting that some species are more biased towards SSA transportation than others Sea spray from one beach can contain thousands of operational taxonomic units OTUs 14 Nearly 10 000 different OTUs have been discovered in sea spray just between San Francisco CA and Monterey CA with only 11 of them found ubiquitously 14 This suggests that sea spray in every coastal region likely has its own unique assemblage of microbial diversity with thousands of new OTUs yet to be discovered Many of the more common OTUs have been identified to the following taxa Cryptophyta order Stramenopiles order and OM60 family 14 Many have even been identified to genus Persicirhabdus Fluviicola Synecococcus Vibrio and Enterococcus 14 Scientists have conjectured a stream of airborne microorganisms circles the planet above weather systems but below commercial air lanes 32 Some of these peripatetic microorganisms are swept up from terrestrial dust storms but most originate from the marine microorganisms in sea spray In 2018 a team of scientists reported that hundreds of millions of viruses and tens of millions of bacteria are deposited daily on every square meter around the planet 33 34 Chemical resistance EditSea spray is largely responsible for corrosion of metallic objects near the coastline as the salts accelerate the corrosion process in the presence of abundant atmospheric oxygen and moisture 9 Salts do not dissolve in air directly but are suspended as fine particulates or dissolved in microscopic airborne water droplets 35 The salt spray test is a measure of material endurance or resistance to corrosion particularly if the material will be used outdoors and must perform in a mechanical load bearing or otherwise critical role These results are often of great interest to marine industries whose products may suffer extreme acceleration of corrosion and subsequent failure due to salt water exposure 36 See also EditCoastal erosion Cloud reflectivity modification Sea air Saltwater intrusion Wind waveReferences Edit Lewis Ernie 2004 Sea salt aerosol production mechanisms methods measurements and models a critical review Washington DC American Geophysical Union ISBN 978 1 118 66605 0 OCLC 646872726 Gantt Brett Meskhidze Nicholas 2013 The physical and chemical characteristics of marine primary organic aerosol a review Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 13 8 3979 3996 Bibcode 2013ACP 13 3979G doi 10 5194 acp 13 3979 2013 Rosenfeld Daniel Lahav Ronen Khain Alexander Pinsky Mark 2002 09 06 The Role of Sea Spray in Cleansing Air Pollution over Ocean via Cloud Processes Science 297 5587 1667 1670 Bibcode 2002Sci 297 1667R doi 10 1126 science 1073869 ISSN 0036 8075 PMID 12183635 S2CID 11897318 Pan Zengxin Mao Feiyue Rosenfeld Daniel Zhu Yannian Zang Lin Lu Xin Thornton Joel A Holzworth Robert H Yin Jianhua Efraim Avichay Gong Wei 2 August 2022 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2307 2258044 JSTOR 2258044 a b Schindelholz E Risteen B E Kelly R G 2014 01 01 Effect of Relative Humidity on Corrosion of Steel under Sea Salt Aerosol Proxies I NaCl Journal of the Electrochemical Society 161 10 C450 C459 doi 10 1149 2 0221410jes ISSN 0013 4651 a b c d e f g h de Leeuw Gerrit Andreas Edgar L Anguelova Magdalena D Fairall C W Lewis Ernie R O Dowd Colin Schulz Michael Schwartz Stephen E 2011 05 07 Production flux of sea spray aerosol Reviews of Geophysics 49 2 RG2001 Bibcode 2011RvGeo 49 2001D doi 10 1029 2010rg000349 ISSN 8755 1209 a b c d e f g Veron Fabrice 2015 01 03 Ocean Spray Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics 47 1 507 538 Bibcode 2015AnRFM 47 507V doi 10 1146 annurev fluid 010814 014651 ISSN 0066 4189 MacIntyre Ferren 1972 09 20 Flow patterns in breaking bubbles Journal of Geophysical Research 77 27 5211 5228 Bibcode 1972JGR 77 5211M doi 10 1029 jc077i027p05211 ISSN 0148 0227 Andreas Edgar L 2002 09 30 The Impact of Sea Spray on Air Sea Fluxes in Coupled 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Coastal Ecosystems Ecology 53 1 74 81 doi 10 2307 1935711 JSTOR 1935711 a b Quinn Patricia K Bates Timothy S Schulz Kristen S Coffman D J Frossard A A Russell L M Keene W C Kieber D J March 2014 Contribution of sea surface carbon pool to organic matter enrichment in sea spray aerosol Nature Geoscience 7 3 228 232 Bibcode 2014NatGe 7 228Q doi 10 1038 ngeo2092 ISSN 1752 0894 a b Andreas Edgar L Edson James B Monahan Edward C Rouault Mathieu P Smith Stuart D January 1995 The spray contribution to net evaporation from the sea A review of recent progress Boundary Layer Meteorology 72 1 2 3 52 Bibcode 1995BoLMe 72 3A doi 10 1007 BF00712389 ISSN 0006 8314 S2CID 121476167 Eriksson Erik 1963 07 01 The yearly circulation of sulfur in nature Journal of Geophysical Research 68 13 4001 4008 Bibcode 1963JGR 68 4001E doi 10 1029 jz068i013p04001 ISSN 0148 0227 Bell Michael M Montgomery Michael T Emanuel Kerry A November 2012 Air Sea Enthalpy and Momentum Exchange at Major Hurricane Wind Speeds Observed during CBLAST PDF Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 69 11 3197 3222 Bibcode 2012JAtS 69 3197B doi 10 1175 jas d 11 0276 1 hdl 10945 36906 ISSN 0022 4928 S2CID 17840178 Donelan M A 2004 On the limiting aerodynamic roughness of the ocean in very strong winds Geophysical Research Letters 31 18 L18306 Bibcode 2004GeoRL 3118306D doi 10 1029 2004gl019460 ISSN 0094 8276 S2CID 36629423 Powell Mark D Vickery Peter J Reinhold Timothy A March 2003 Reduced drag coefficient for high wind speeds in tropical cyclones Nature 422 6929 279 283 Bibcode 2003Natur 422 279P doi 10 1038 nature01481 ISSN 0028 0836 PMID 12646913 S2CID 4424285 Bye John A T Jenkins Alastair D 2006 Drag coefficient reduction at very high wind speeds Journal of Geophysical Research 111 C3 C03024 Bibcode 2006JGRC 111 3024B doi 10 1029 2005jc003114 hdl 1956 1152 ISSN 0148 0227 Liu Bin Guan Changlong Xie Lian 2012 07 03 The wave state and sea spray related parameterization of wind stress applicable from low to extreme winds Journal of Geophysical Research Oceans 117 C11 n a Bibcode 2012JGRC 117 0J22L doi 10 1029 2011jc007786 ISSN 0148 0227 MALLOCH A J C November 1971 Vegetation of the Maritime Cliff Tops of the Lizard and Land s End Peninsulas West Cornwall New Phytologist 70 6 1155 1197 doi 10 1111 j 1469 8137 1971 tb04597 x ISSN 0028 646X a b Goldsmith F B 1973 The Vegetation of Exposed Sea Cliffs at South Stack Anglesey II Experimental Studies Journal of Ecology 61 3 819 829 doi 10 2307 2258652 JSTOR 2258652 B Goldsmith F 1967 Some aspects of the vegetation of sea cliffs OCLC 23928269 Living Bacteria Are Riding Earth s Air Currents Smithsonian Magazine 11 January 2016 Robbins Jim 13 April 2018 Trillions Upon Trillions of Viruses Fall From the Sky Each Day The New York Times Retrieved 14 April 2018 Reche Isabel D Orta Gaetano Mladenov Natalie Winget Danielle M Suttle Curtis A 29 January 2018 Deposition rates of viruses and bacteria above the atmospheric boundary layer ISME Journal 12 4 1154 1162 doi 10 1038 s41396 017 0042 4 PMC 5864199 PMID 29379178 Blanchard Duncan C Woodcock Alfred H May 1980 The Production Concentration and Vertical Distribution of the Sea Salt Aerosol Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 338 1 Aerosols 330 347 Bibcode 1980NYASA 338 330B doi 10 1111 j 1749 6632 1980 tb17130 x ISSN 0077 8923 S2CID 83636469 Dobrzanski L A Brytan Z Grande M Actis Rosso M 2007 10 01 Corrosion resistance of sintered duplex stainless steels in the salt fog spray test Journal of Materials Processing Technology 192 193 443 448 doi 10 1016 j jmatprotec 2007 04 077 ISSN 0924 0136 External links Edit Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sea spray Look up seaspray in Wiktionary the free dictionary Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Sea spray amp oldid 1136125554, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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