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School-to-prison pipeline

February 15, 2024

In the United States, the school-to-prison pipeline (SPP), also known as the school-to-prison link, school–prison nexus, or schoolhouse-to-jailhouse track, is the disproportionate tendency of minors and young adults from disadvantaged backgrounds to become incarcerated because of increasingly harsh school and municipal policies. Additionally, this is due to educational inequality in the United States. Many experts have credited factors such as school disturbance laws, zero-tolerance policies and practices, and an increase in police in schools in creating the "pipeline".[1] This has become a hot topic of debate in discussions surrounding educational disciplinary policies as media coverage of youth violence and mass incarceration has grown during the early 21st century.[1][2][3][4]

In recent years,[when?] many[who?] have started using the term school–prison nexus in place of school-to-prison pipeline to challenge the idea of a unidirectional pipeline that begins in schools in order to show that schools work within a web of institutions, policies, and practices that funnel youth into prisons. Moreover, it may no longer operate as a "pathway" to prison but instead as a de facto prison.[5]

The current climate of mass incarceration in the US increases the contact the incarceration system has with the US education system. More specifically, these patterns of criminalization translate into the school context.[1] Specific practices implemented in US schools over the past 10 years[when?] to reduce violence in schools, including zero-tolerance policies and an increase in school resource officers (SROs), have created the environment for criminalization of youth in schools. This results from patterns of discipline in schools mirroring law-enforcement models.

The disciplinary policies and practices that create an environment for the US SPP to occur disproportionately affect disabled, Latino, and Black students, which is later reflected in the rates of incarceration. Between 1999 and 2007, the percentage of Black students being suspended has increased by 12 percent, while the percentage of white students being suspended has declined since the implementation of zero-tolerance policies.[6] Of the total incarcerated population in the US, 61 percent are Black or Latino.[7]

History edit

 
A graph of the incarceration rate under state and federal jurisdiction per 100,000 population 1925–2008 (omits local jail inmates). The male incarceration rate (top line) is roughly 15 times the female rate (bottom line).

For the half-century prior to 1975, the incarceration rate in the US was fairly constant at roughly 0.1 percent of the population, as indicated in the accompanying figure. The overall incarceration rate in the US has grown rapidly and steadily since 1972, rising by six to eight percent per year until 2000. Growth rates declined in the first decade of the 2000s and peaked at 506 per 100,000 in 2007 and 2008. From its peak in 2009 and 2010, the population of state and federal prisoners decreased slightly in 2011 and 2012. However, the incarceration rate, including those in jail, in 2012 was 707 per 100,000 people, which was more than four times the rate in 1972.[8]

Causes edit

See also: Zero-tolerance policies in schools

Exclusionary disciplinary policies, specifically zero-tolerance policies, that remove students from the school environment increase the probability of a youth coming into contact with the incarceration system. Zero-tolerance policies have led to the mistreatment of students' situations and strict disciplinary action which greatly impact the students' future, causing them to go to juvenile detention centers or prison.[citation needed]

Approximately 3.3 million suspensions and over 100,000 expulsions occur each year. This number has nearly doubled since 1974, with rates escalating in the mid-1990s as zero-tolerance policies began to be widely adopted. Rising rates of the use of expulsion and suspension are not connected to higher rates of misbehaviors.[1] Risky behaviors is something suspended students will most likely engage in.[9] Zero-tolerance disciplinary policies have been adopted across the country.[9]

Research is increasingly examining the connections between school failure and later contact with the criminal justice system for minorities.[10] Once a child drops out, they are eight times more likely to be incarcerated than youth who graduate from high school.[11] Studies have found that 68 percent of all males in state and federal prison do not have a high school diploma.[12] Suspensions and expulsions have been shown to correlate with a young person's probability of dropping out and becoming involved with the criminal justice system. According to the American Civil Liberties Union, "Students suspended or expelled for a discretionary violation are nearly 3 times more likely to be in contact with the juvenile justice system the following year."[13] However, it is unclear if the factors determining the risk of dropping out are not wholly or partially the same as the factors determining the risk of incarceration as an individual likely to enter the criminal justice system is also likely to encounter difficulties within the education system.

From 1980 to 2008, the number of people incarcerated in the US quadrupled from roughly 500,000 to 2.3 million people.[7] The graphic to the right shows the uniqueness of this practice in comparison to other countries across the globe, with the US incarcerating a larger portion of its population than any other country in 2008. The US holds 25 percent of the world's prisoners but only has five percent of the world's population.[14]

Disparities edit

See also: Youth incarceration in the United States

School disciplinary policies disproportionately affect Black and Latino youth in the education system. Ultimately, this means that they are more likely to be suspended, expelled, or arrested;[15][16] a practice known as the discipline gap. This discipline gap is also connected to the achievement gap. The US Department of Education Office for Civil Rights issued a brief in 2014 outlining the current disparities. Black students are suspended and expelled at a rate three times greater than white students.[13] The Advancement Project found that "In the 2006-2007 school year, there was no state in which African-American students were not suspended more often than white students."[17] On average, five percent of white students are suspended, compared to 16 percent of Black students.[citation needed][18] Black students represent 16 percent of student enrollment, 27 percent of students referred to law enforcement, and 31 percent of students subjected to a school-related arrest. Combined, 70 percent of students involved in "In-School arrests or referred to law enforcement are Black or Latino."[7][12][19] The majority of these arrests are under zero-tolerance policies.

Disparities were found in the implementation of zero-tolerance policies in relation to minor offenses. In 2010 in North Carolina, Black students were punished for the same minor offenses, specifically cell phone, dress code, disruptive behavior, and display of affection by more than 15 percent for each category of offense than white students. According to the American Civil Liberties Union, "'Zero-tolerance' policies criminalize minor infractions of school rules, while cops in school lead to students being criminalized for behavior that should be handled inside the school. Students of color are especially vulnerable to push-out trends and the discriminatory application of discipline."[13] Additionally, "The Council of State Governments Report found that black students were more likely to be disciplined for less serious 'discretionary' offenses, and that when other factors were controlled for, higher percentages of White students were disciplined on more serious non-discretionary grounds, such as possessing drugs or carrying a weapon."[20]

A 2009 study reported that the racial disparity in rates of school suspensions could not be explained solely by racial differences in rates of delinquent behavior and that this disparity in turn was "strongly associated with similar levels of disproportion in juvenile court referrals".[21][non-primary source needed] Similarly, a 2010 study found that Black students were more likely to be referred to the office than students of other races and that this disparity could be partly, but not completely, explained by student behavior and school-level factors.[22][non-primary source needed] According to Fordham Law Review Online, "In the juvenile justice system, black girls are the fastest growing demographic when it comes to arrest and incarceration."[23] A 2014 study found that, although Black students were more likely to be suspended, this disparity "was completely accounted for by a measure of the prior problem behavior of the student" and concluded that "the use of suspensions by teachers and administrators may not have been as racially biased as some scholars have argued".[24] Another 2015 study using a national high school dataset concluded that "misconduct and deviant attitudes were important factors in predicting the receipt of out-of-school suspensions though results indicated that Black students did not generally misbehave or endorse deviant attitudes more than White students did".[25]

These interdisciplinary policies and practices disproportionately impact students from historically disadvantaged backgrounds such as, Latino and Black. It also been noted that students of minority groups were vulnerable to expulsions and that Black girls are also highly criminalized for being absent from a schooling context. Dorothy E. Hines and Dorinda J. Carter Andrews have argued that increasing rates criminalization of Black girls, disciplinary enforcements such as harsh policies, and bans against "various student offenses" can be illuminated through (a) zero-tolerance policies including various forms of surveillance measures, (b) policing of their bodies as criminals, and (c) penalizing "bad" girl attitudes."[26]

Schools with a higher percentage of Black students are more likely to implement zero-tolerance policies and to use extremely punitive discipline, supporting the racial threat hypothesis.[27]

Current policies maintaining the link edit

Zero-tolerance policies edit

Zero-tolerance policies are school disciplinary policies that set predetermined consequences or punishments for specific offenses. By nature, zero-tolerance policies, as any policy that is "unreasonable rule or policy that is the same for everyone but has an unfair effect on people who share a particular attribute", often become discriminatory.[28][29][30] The zero-tolerance approach was first introduced in the 1980s to reduce drug use in schools. The use of zero-tolerance policies spread more widely in the 1990s. To reduce gun violence, the Gun Free Schools Act of 1994 (GFSA) required that schools receiving federal funding "must 1) have policies to expel for a calendar year any student who brings a firearm to school or to school zone, and 2) report that student to local law enforcement, thereby blurring any distinction between disciplinary infractions at school and the law".[1] During the 1996–1997 schoolyear, 94 percent of schools had zero-tolerance policies for firearms, 87 percent for alcohol, and 79 percent for violence.[31]

Over the past decade,[when?] zero-tolerance policies have expanded to predetermined punishments for a wide degree of rule violations. Zero-tolerance policies do not distinguish between serious and nonserious offenses. All students who commit a given offense receive the same treatment.[32] Behaviors punished by zero-tolerance policies are most often nonserious offense and are punished on the same terms as a student would be for bringing a gun or drugs to school. In 2006, 95 percent of out-of-school suspensions were for nonviolent, minor disruptions such as tardiness.[33] In 2006–2007, "out-of-school suspensions for non-serious, non-violent offenses accounted for 37.2% of suspensions in Maryland, whereas only 6.7% of suspensions were issued for dangerous behaviors".[17] In Chicago, the widespread adoption of zero-tolerance policies in 1994 resulted in a 51 percent increase in student suspensions for the next four years and a 3,000 percent increase in expulsions.[34]

The most direct way these policies increase the probability of a youth coming into contact with the incarceration system is through their exclusionary methods. Suspension, expulsion, and an increased risk of dropping out all contribute to a youth's increased chances of becoming involved with the incarceration system. Suspension removes students from the structure and supervision provided through schooling, providing opportunities for youth to engage in criminal activities while not in the school environment. Other factors may include "increased exposure to peers involved in antisocial behavior, as well as effects on school performance and completion and student attitudes toward antisocial behavior".[35] Suspension can lead to feelings of alienation from the school setting that can lead to students to feel rejected, increasing chances of relationships with antisocial peers. Relationships with peers have strong impacts on student behavior, demonstrated through differential association theory. Students are more than twice as likely to be arrested during months in which they are forcibly removed from school.[36] Students who have been suspended are three times more likely to drop out by the 10th grade than students who have never been suspended. Dropping out makes that student three times more likely to be incarcerated.[19]

Policing in schools edit

Zero tolerance policies increase the number of SROs in schools, which increases the contact a student has with the criminal justice system. Students may be referred by teachers or other administrators but most often zero-tolerance policies are directly enforced by police or SROs.[1] The practice of increasing the number of police in schools contributes to patterns of criminalization.[37] This increase in SROs has led to contemporary school discipline beginning to mirror approaches used in legal and law enforcement. Zero-tolerance policies increase the use of profiling, a very common practice used in law enforcement. This practice is able to identify students who may engage in misbehavior, but the use of profiling is unreliable in ensuring school safety, as this practice over identifies students from minority populations. There were no students involved in the 1990s shootings who were Black or Latino and the 1990s school shootings were the main basis for the increase in presence of police in schools.[38] Data shows that people of color with disabilities are the most affected by the SPP.[39]

A Justice Policy Institute report (2011) found a 38-percent increase in the number of SROs between 1997 and 2007 as a result of the growing implementation of zero-tolerance policies.[11] In 1999, 54 percent of students surveyed reported seeing a security guard or police officer in their school; by 2005, this number increased to 68 percent. The education system has seen a huge increase in the number of students referred to law enforcement. In one city in Georgia, when police officers were introduced into the schools, "school-based referrals to juvenile court in the county increased 600% over a three year period". There was no increase in the number of serious offenses or safety violations during this three-year period.[40] In 2012, 41 states required schools to report students to law enforcement for various misbehaviors on school grounds.[17] This practice increases the use of law enforcement professionals in handling student behavior and decreases the use of in-classroom (nonexclusionary) management of behaviors.

In 2014, the United Nations Human Rights Committee expressed concern with increasing criminalization of students in response to school disciplinary problems and recommended that the US government "promote the use of alternatives to the application of criminal law" to address such issues. The committee also noted its concern with the use of corporal punishment in schools in the US.[41] In the second Universal Periodic Review of the US's human rights record, the government avowed taking "effective measures to help ensure non-discrimination in school discipline policies and practices".[42]

In March 2010, at the Carver Primary School in the lower South Side, Chicago, several first-grade students were handcuffed, and told that they were going to prison and would never see their parents again, after they talked in class.[43][44]

In November 2011, at Orange River Elementary School in Florida, an assistant principal called the police after a girl kissed a boy.[45][46]

In February 2010, the principal of a junior high school in Forest Hills, Queens, New York, called police after a 12-year-old student used a green magic marker to write, "I love my friends Abby and Faith. Lex was here 2/1/10 :)" on a desk. A police officer handcuffed the girl and took her to the police station.[47][48][49]

In October 2010, at Southern Lee High School in Lee County, North Carolina, a 12th grade honors student, who was taking college-level classes, was charged with misdemeanor possession of a weapon on school grounds and suspended for the rest of the school year, after she brought a paring knife to school. The student had mistakenly taken her father's lunch box to school, which looked the same as her own lunch box. The school found the knife while searching the lunch box for illegal drugs, which the student did not have.[50][51]

In 2014, in Lynchburg, Virginia, an 11-year-old Black autistic boy was charged with a misdemeanor disorderly contact for kicking a trash can. Some time later, this same kid was walking to join other students, and the same officer that reprimanded him for the trash can grabbed him, pushed him to the floor, and arrested him. As a result, the officer charged him with felony assault on a police officer.[52]

Robbins v. Lower Merion School District edit

Further information: Robbins v. Lower Merion School District

In Rosemont, Pennsylvania, Harriton High School lent students laptop computers by way of their One-to-One initiative program. Over 2,000 students were given these laptops for school and home usage. Unbeknownst to the students and parents, the school district had webcams installed on each computer that were utilized to take images of students' activities while on the computer. The school district used these photos to attempt to incriminate students. In November 2009, the school's assistant principal falsely accused a student of selling illegal drugs after a school employee saw the student holding Mike and Ike candy while the student was at home.[53][54][55]

Events affecting the SPP edit

  1. A large factor of the SPP is the disproportionate disciplinary actions taken against students of color. In recent years, the media has reported about some of these experiences.
  2. Examples of zero-tolerance policies and its role in SPP statistics.

In early 2018, a 14-year-old Black boy came to school with a new haircut. The haircut featured a design made with a razor. The student was pulled out of class one day at Tenaya Middle School in Fresno, California, because of his haircut, which the school claimed violated their dress code. The child's mother claimed, "The vice principal told my son that he needed to cut his hair because it was distracting and violated the dress code." The child's mother claims she agreed to get her son a new haircut; she also said she was unable to immediately get an appointment due to a lack of Black barbers in her area. When her son arrived at school the next day, according to the child's mother, the school explained to her that he would face in-school suspension after returning with his haircut. The mother claims, "I requested that my son is issued a warning, to allow time to grow out his hair."[56][57]

In early 2018, a Black male student at the Apache Junction High School in Arizona wore a blue bandana to school, which violated the dress code. His teacher called the police on him for not removing his bandana. He was then arrested and suspended for nine days.[58]

In mid-2018, an 11-year-old Black girl, Faith Fennidy, was sent home from a private Roman Catholic school in Louisiana because she had hair extensions. The young girl had been wearing extensions to school for two years before a new policy was added. The policy prohibits extensions, clip-ins, and/or weaves. The child would have to adhere to the policy to attend school. The family chose to withdraw the student from the school; the student was not suspended or expelled.[59]

In 2012, at Creekside Elementary School in Milledgeville, Georgia, a six-year-old student, Salecia Johnson, was crying and flailing on the floor of her principal's office. The principal said she was inconsolable, had thrown various items, and had damaged school property during a tantrum. Salecia was handcuffed and transported to a police station. The child was initially charged as a juvenile with simple battery of a school teacher and criminal damage to property, but it was later decided the girl would not be charged because of her age.[60]

Impact of COVID-19 pandemic edit

On March 11, 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared the COVID-19 disease a global pandemic, resulting in school shutdowns across multiple countries, including the US.[61] Based on a report by UNICEF, approximately 94 percent of all countries enacted forms of remote learning to continue education for children in response to government closures caused by the COVID-19 pandemic.[62][63] Likewise, as a result of the pandemic, in the US, state and federal legislation either closed public schools and transferred to virtual instruction or offered hybrid learning, a mixture of face-to-face instruction and online learning. As school districts in the US encountered difficulty navigating requirements to provide education in remote settings, disciplinary practices continued to reflect aspects of the SPP with zero-tolerance policies just as harmful as those before the COVID-19 pandemic.[62][64] Since the nation's transition to remote learning, punishments including out-of-school suspension, juvenile detention, and police involvement have been enacted for minor infractions that have occurred in virtual learning environments.

  • In May 2020, a 15-year-old Black female student with ADHD in Michigan was sent to a juvenile detention center for not turning in her online homework. The juvenile court concluded that her failure to submit her homework violated her probation and sentenced her to 78 days in juvenile detention.[62][65] She was later released after an adverse reaction from the public.[66]
  • In August 2020, Isaiah Elliot, a 12-year-old Black student with ADHD attending virtual school in Colorado, was punished after being seen on his computer camera picking up a toy Nerf gun. Isaiah was suspended for five days by the school, which later contacted police to conduct a welfare check before notifying his parents.[62][67]

As before the pandemic, the "virtual" SPP continues to disproportionately impact racial minorities, predominantly African-American and Hispanic students from low-income backgrounds, and students with disabilities. There are more than 48,000 youth confined in facilities in the US on any given day.[68] According to a report by the NAACP, as of 2020, "African American children represent 32% of children who are arrested, 42% of children who are detained, and 52% of children whose cases are judicially waived to criminal court."[7] Additionally, students with disabilities account for 8.6 percent of the student population in the US but represent 36 percent of incarcerated youth.[64] Because students of color and students with disabilities are disproportionately incarcerated, they represent a large number of youth at risk for contracting COVID-19 and other infectious diseases. On that note, infectious diseases are severely concentrated in both adult and juvenile correctional facilities. The Marshall Project reported that most juvenile prison facilities have more than 80-percent infection rates.[68] Moreover, approximately "15% of jail inmates and 22% of prisoners—compared to 5% of the general population—are reported having tuberculosis, Hepatitis B and C, HIV/AIDS, or other STDs."[7]

Controversy over efforts to reduce racial disparities edit

In 2014, the Obama administration issued guidance that urged schools to reduce the number of suspensions and expulsions, especially of minority students, thereby stemming the school-to-prison pipeline. During the Trump administration, in December 2018, Secretary of Education Betsy DeVos rescinded these guidelines.[69] In doing so, she cited research by John Paul Wright and four coauthors that purported to show that the disparate rates of suspensions and expulsions were due not to racism but rather to prior poor behavior by Black students.[70][71]

Lead author John Paul Wright has advocated for the fringe view that Black people evolved to be genetically inferior to white people.[72]: 151  In the study cited by DeVos, Wright et al. assumed that teachers' reporting of behavior was accurate and unbiased. They concluded that "the racial gap in suspensions was completely accounted for by a measure of the prior problem behavior of the student—a finding never before reported in the literature".[71] However, other scholars have found implicit bias and racial discrimination in teachers' interpretation of behavior of Black students as more threatening than similar behavior by white students.[73][74][75][76]

Education researcher Francis Huang found other methodological flaws in the study by Wright et al., such as sample bias (comparison between a sample of 4,101 students and a reduced sample of 2,737 students who were not representative of the earlier sample) and their use of the Social Skills Rating Scale as a proxy for evaluating prior behavior.[77][78] Correcting for sample bias in the study by Wright et al. led Huang to conclude that their data confirmed what earlier researchers had found regarding racial disparities in punishment that could not be accounted for by actual differences in behavior.

Alternative approaches edit

Restorative justice edit

The use of restorative justice in schools began in the early 1990s with initiatives in Australia. Restorative justice models are used globally and have recently been introduced to school disciplinary policies in the US as an alternative approach to current punitive models, such as zero tolerance.[17] The focus is on ensuring that students understand and learn from their behavior as well as take responsibility for their actions and participate in steps that aim to repair the harm done to relationships between the student and the school environment. Programs, such as restorative circles, restorative meetings, restorative youth courts, and peer mediation, are being used as alternatives to zero-tolerance policies and harsh disciplinary practices.[79] The idea behind these programs is that students should be encouraged to participate in their punishments and school administration should refrain from using suspensions and expulsions for minor offenses. The goal of restorative programs is to keep students in school and to stop the flow of students from schools to the criminal justice system.[80]

Some challenges to the use of restorative justice in schools are lack of time and community support. It requires balancing the time needed for mediation with the other demands of education in one school day. Scholars acknowledge that, to achieve proper, unbiased mediation, it will require training, support, and review. It is also crucial that an entire community—students, parents, teachers, staff, coaches, etc.—are convinced it is a better alternative and willing to work together.[80]

Steven Teske, a juvenile court judge in Clayton County, Georgia, created the School-Justice Partnership model in 2003, known as the "Clayton County Model" or, informally, "The Teske Model", to reduce the arrests of students involving minor offenses by using a collaborative agreement between schools, law enforcement, and the courts. The model has three main components: identifying minor offenses not subject to referral to the court, defining the roles of school police and school administrators to avoid using police as disciplinarians, and creating restorative practices and education programs in lieu of arrests. It took aim at zero-tolerance policies which do not consider situational context or individual circumstances. The model's application in his county resulted in a 67-percent decline in referrals to juvenile court. Despite concerns by some that a softer approach would yield school safety issues, the data shows an increase in graduation rates of approximately 20 percent and an eight-percent decline in suspensions. The method has spread across the US with some notable cities such as Birmingham, Alabama, and Wichita, Kansas, seeing similar improvements.[81]

Editorial policies of major media edit

See also: United States incarceration rate § Editorial policies of major media

Beginning especially in the 1970s, the mainstream commercial media in the US increased coverage of the police blotter, while reducing coverage of investigative journalism.[citation needed]

Advertising rates are set based on the audience. Because "if it bleeds, it leads", the media were able to accomplish this change without losing its audience.

Beyond this, the growth of private prisons increased the pool of major advertisers who could be offended by honest reporting on incarcerations and the SPP: it makes financial sense to report on this only to the extent that such reporting is needed to maintain an audience.[82][83]

Media constructions have contributed to hysteria over youth violence and mass incarcerations. TV overrepresents violent crime and people of color as offenders. This creates a "culture of fear" and "mean world syndrome" that particularly works against Black or Latino males.[1]

Mental health relating to the SPP edit

Where there are undetected and untreated child mental health concerns, this can lead to unwanted suspensions and expulsions.[84] When teachers include strategies to address the concerns found in students, it leads to students wanting to pursue their own academic achievement and success.

Students with diagnosable mental health problems suffer under zero-tolerance policies. Such policies aim to create safer classrooms by removing potential disruptions, but many in mental health, social services, courts, or other related fields believe they fail in this goal and may result in less safe schools and communities. School is considered a protective factor against "delinquent conduct" and removing students from such an environment harms their ability to succeed.[85]

An American Psychological Association Zero Tolerance Task Force report found that "students with disabilities, especially those with emotional and behavioral disorders, appear to be suspended and expelled at rates disproportionate to the representation in the population".[86]

Zero-tolerance policies also fail to account for neurological development in youths. Studies show that the brain is still "under construction" until about age 21. Youth are more likely to take risks, act impulsively, and exercise poor judgment. When these actions result in their involvement with the criminal justice system, they are punished rather than taught how to develop.

One issue in improving mental health services in school and interrupting the SPP is that schools are unequipped to identify disorders and provide help for them.[85]

See also edit

References edit

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Further reading edit

  • Sneed, Tierney (January 30, 2015). "School Resource Officers: Safety Priority or Part of the Problem?". U.S. News & World Report.
  • Monahan, Kathryn C.; VanDerhei, Susan; Bechtold, Jordan; Cauffman, Elizabeth (February 14, 2014). "From the School Yard to the Squad Car: School Discipline, Truancy, and Arrest". Journal of Youth and Adolescence. 43 (7): 1110–1122. doi:10.1007/s10964-014-0103-1. PMID 24526497. S2CID 207207810.

February 15, 2024
school, prison, pipeline, examples, perspective, this, article, deal, primarily, with, united, states, represent, worldwide, view, subject, improve, this, article, discuss, issue, talk, page, create, article, appropriate, june, 2023, learn, when, remove, this,. The examples and perspective in this article deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject You may improve this article discuss the issue on the talk page or create a new article as appropriate June 2023 Learn how and when to remove this template message In the United States the school to prison pipeline SPP also known as the school to prison link school prison nexus or schoolhouse to jailhouse track is the disproportionate tendency of minors and young adults from disadvantaged backgrounds to become incarcerated because of increasingly harsh school and municipal policies Additionally this is due to educational inequality in the United States Many experts have credited factors such as school disturbance laws zero tolerance policies and practices and an increase in police in schools in creating the pipeline 1 This has become a hot topic of debate in discussions surrounding educational disciplinary policies as media coverage of youth violence and mass incarceration has grown during the early 21st century 1 2 3 4 In recent years when many who have started using the term school prison nexus in place of school to prison pipeline to challenge the idea of a unidirectional pipeline that begins in schools in order to show that schools work within a web of institutions policies and practices that funnel youth into prisons Moreover it may no longer operate as a pathway to prison but instead as a de facto prison 5 The current climate of mass incarceration in the US increases the contact the incarceration system has with the US education system More specifically these patterns of criminalization translate into the school context 1 Specific practices implemented in US schools over the past 10 years when to reduce violence in schools including zero tolerance policies and an increase in school resource officers SROs have created the environment for criminalization of youth in schools This results from patterns of discipline in schools mirroring law enforcement models The disciplinary policies and practices that create an environment for the US SPP to occur disproportionately affect disabled Latino and Black students which is later reflected in the rates of incarceration Between 1999 and 2007 the percentage of Black students being suspended has increased by 12 percent while the percentage of white students being suspended has declined since the implementation of zero tolerance policies 6 Of the total incarcerated population in the US 61 percent are Black or Latino 7 Contents 1 History 2 Causes 3 Disparities 4 Current policies maintaining the link 4 1 Zero tolerance policies 4 2 Policing in schools 5 Robbins v Lower Merion School District 6 Events affecting the SPP 7 Impact of COVID 19 pandemic 8 Controversy over efforts to reduce racial disparities 9 Alternative approaches 9 1 Restorative justice 9 2 Editorial policies of major media 10 Mental health relating to the SPP 11 See also 12 References 13 Further readingHistory edit nbsp A graph of the incarceration rate under state and federal jurisdiction per 100 000 population 1925 2008 omits local jail inmates The male incarceration rate top line is roughly 15 times the female rate bottom line For the half century prior to 1975 the incarceration rate in the US was fairly constant at roughly 0 1 percent of the population as indicated in the accompanying figure The overall incarceration rate in the US has grown rapidly and steadily since 1972 rising by six to eight percent per year until 2000 Growth rates declined in the first decade of the 2000s and peaked at 506 per 100 000 in 2007 and 2008 From its peak in 2009 and 2010 the population of state and federal prisoners decreased slightly in 2011 and 2012 However the incarceration rate including those in jail in 2012 was 707 per 100 000 people which was more than four times the rate in 1972 8 Causes editSee also Zero tolerance policies in schools Exclusionary disciplinary policies specifically zero tolerance policies that remove students from the school environment increase the probability of a youth coming into contact with the incarceration system Zero tolerance policies have led to the mistreatment of students situations and strict disciplinary action which greatly impact the students future causing them to go to juvenile detention centers or prison citation needed Approximately 3 3 million suspensions and over 100 000 expulsions occur each year This number has nearly doubled since 1974 with rates escalating in the mid 1990s as zero tolerance policies began to be widely adopted Rising rates of the use of expulsion and suspension are not connected to higher rates of misbehaviors 1 Risky behaviors is something suspended students will most likely engage in 9 Zero tolerance disciplinary policies have been adopted across the country 9 Research is increasingly examining the connections between school failure and later contact with the criminal justice system for minorities 10 Once a child drops out they are eight times more likely to be incarcerated than youth who graduate from high school 11 Studies have found that 68 percent of all males in state and federal prison do not have a high school diploma 12 Suspensions and expulsions have been shown to correlate with a young person s probability of dropping out and becoming involved with the criminal justice system According to the American Civil Liberties Union Students suspended or expelled for a discretionary violation are nearly 3 times more likely to be in contact with the juvenile justice system the following year 13 However it is unclear if the factors determining the risk of dropping out are not wholly or partially the same as the factors determining the risk of incarceration as an individual likely to enter the criminal justice system is also likely to encounter difficulties within the education system From 1980 to 2008 the number of people incarcerated in the US quadrupled from roughly 500 000 to 2 3 million people 7 The graphic to the right shows the uniqueness of this practice in comparison to other countries across the globe with the US incarcerating a larger portion of its population than any other country in 2008 The US holds 25 percent of the world s prisoners but only has five percent of the world s population 14 Disparities editSee also Youth incarceration in the United States School disciplinary policies disproportionately affect Black and Latino youth in the education system Ultimately this means that they are more likely to be suspended expelled or arrested 15 16 a practice known as the discipline gap This discipline gap is also connected to the achievement gap The US Department of Education Office for Civil Rights issued a brief in 2014 outlining the current disparities Black students are suspended and expelled at a rate three times greater than white students 13 The Advancement Project found that In the 2006 2007 school year there was no state in which African American students were not suspended more often than white students 17 On average five percent of white students are suspended compared to 16 percent of Black students citation needed 18 Black students represent 16 percent of student enrollment 27 percent of students referred to law enforcement and 31 percent of students subjected to a school related arrest Combined 70 percent of students involved in In School arrests or referred to law enforcement are Black or Latino 7 12 19 The majority of these arrests are under zero tolerance policies Disparities were found in the implementation of zero tolerance policies in relation to minor offenses In 2010 in North Carolina Black students were punished for the same minor offenses specifically cell phone dress code disruptive behavior and display of affection by more than 15 percent for each category of offense than white students According to the American Civil Liberties Union Zero tolerance policies criminalize minor infractions of school rules while cops in school lead to students being criminalized for behavior that should be handled inside the school Students of color are especially vulnerable to push out trends and the discriminatory application of discipline 13 Additionally The Council of State Governments Report found that black students were more likely to be disciplined for less serious discretionary offenses and that when other factors were controlled for higher percentages of White students were disciplined on more serious non discretionary grounds such as possessing drugs or carrying a weapon 20 A 2009 study reported that the racial disparity in rates of school suspensions could not be explained solely by racial differences in rates of delinquent behavior and that this disparity in turn was strongly associated with similar levels of disproportion in juvenile court referrals 21 non primary source needed Similarly a 2010 study found that Black students were more likely to be referred to the office than students of other races and that this disparity could be partly but not completely explained by student behavior and school level factors 22 non primary source needed According to Fordham Law Review Online In the juvenile justice system black girls are the fastest growing demographic when it comes to arrest and incarceration 23 A 2014 study found that although Black students were more likely to be suspended this disparity was completely accounted for by a measure of the prior problem behavior of the student and concluded that the use of suspensions by teachers and administrators may not have been as racially biased as some scholars have argued 24 Another 2015 study using a national high school dataset concluded that misconduct and deviant attitudes were important factors in predicting the receipt of out of school suspensions though results indicated that Black students did not generally misbehave or endorse deviant attitudes more than White students did 25 These interdisciplinary policies and practices disproportionately impact students from historically disadvantaged backgrounds such as Latino and Black It also been noted that students of minority groups were vulnerable to expulsions and that Black girls are also highly criminalized for being absent from a schooling context Dorothy E Hines and Dorinda J Carter Andrews have argued that increasing rates criminalization of Black girls disciplinary enforcements such as harsh policies and bans against various student offenses can be illuminated through a zero tolerance policies including various forms of surveillance measures b policing of their bodies as criminals and c penalizing bad girl attitudes 26 Schools with a higher percentage of Black students are more likely to implement zero tolerance policies and to use extremely punitive discipline supporting the racial threat hypothesis 27 Current policies maintaining the link editZero tolerance policies edit Zero tolerance policies are school disciplinary policies that set predetermined consequences or punishments for specific offenses By nature zero tolerance policies as any policy that is unreasonable rule or policy that is the same for everyone but has an unfair effect on people who share a particular attribute often become discriminatory 28 29 30 The zero tolerance approach was first introduced in the 1980s to reduce drug use in schools The use of zero tolerance policies spread more widely in the 1990s To reduce gun violence the Gun Free Schools Act of 1994 GFSA required that schools receiving federal funding must 1 have policies to expel for a calendar year any student who brings a firearm to school or to school zone and 2 report that student to local law enforcement thereby blurring any distinction between disciplinary infractions at school and the law 1 During the 1996 1997 schoolyear 94 percent of schools had zero tolerance policies for firearms 87 percent for alcohol and 79 percent for violence 31 Over the past decade when zero tolerance policies have expanded to predetermined punishments for a wide degree of rule violations Zero tolerance policies do not distinguish between serious and nonserious offenses All students who commit a given offense receive the same treatment 32 Behaviors punished by zero tolerance policies are most often nonserious offense and are punished on the same terms as a student would be for bringing a gun or drugs to school In 2006 95 percent of out of school suspensions were for nonviolent minor disruptions such as tardiness 33 In 2006 2007 out of school suspensions for non serious non violent offenses accounted for 37 2 of suspensions in Maryland whereas only 6 7 of suspensions were issued for dangerous behaviors 17 In Chicago the widespread adoption of zero tolerance policies in 1994 resulted in a 51 percent increase in student suspensions for the next four years and a 3 000 percent increase in expulsions 34 The most direct way these policies increase the probability of a youth coming into contact with the incarceration system is through their exclusionary methods Suspension expulsion and an increased risk of dropping out all contribute to a youth s increased chances of becoming involved with the incarceration system Suspension removes students from the structure and supervision provided through schooling providing opportunities for youth to engage in criminal activities while not in the school environment Other factors may include increased exposure to peers involved in antisocial behavior as well as effects on school performance and completion and student attitudes toward antisocial behavior 35 Suspension can lead to feelings of alienation from the school setting that can lead to students to feel rejected increasing chances of relationships with antisocial peers Relationships with peers have strong impacts on student behavior demonstrated through differential association theory Students are more than twice as likely to be arrested during months in which they are forcibly removed from school 36 Students who have been suspended are three times more likely to drop out by the 10th grade than students who have never been suspended Dropping out makes that student three times more likely to be incarcerated 19 Policing in schools edit Zero tolerance policies increase the number of SROs in schools which increases the contact a student has with the criminal justice system Students may be referred by teachers or other administrators but most often zero tolerance policies are directly enforced by police or SROs 1 The practice of increasing the number of police in schools contributes to patterns of criminalization 37 This increase in SROs has led to contemporary school discipline beginning to mirror approaches used in legal and law enforcement Zero tolerance policies increase the use of profiling a very common practice used in law enforcement This practice is able to identify students who may engage in misbehavior but the use of profiling is unreliable in ensuring school safety as this practice over identifies students from minority populations There were no students involved in the 1990s shootings who were Black or Latino and the 1990s school shootings were the main basis for the increase in presence of police in schools 38 Data shows that people of color with disabilities are the most affected by the SPP 39 A Justice Policy Institute report 2011 found a 38 percent increase in the number of SROs between 1997 and 2007 as a result of the growing implementation of zero tolerance policies 11 In 1999 54 percent of students surveyed reported seeing a security guard or police officer in their school by 2005 this number increased to 68 percent The education system has seen a huge increase in the number of students referred to law enforcement In one city in Georgia when police officers were introduced into the schools school based referrals to juvenile court in the county increased 600 over a three year period There was no increase in the number of serious offenses or safety violations during this three year period 40 In 2012 41 states required schools to report students to law enforcement for various misbehaviors on school grounds 17 This practice increases the use of law enforcement professionals in handling student behavior and decreases the use of in classroom nonexclusionary management of behaviors In 2014 the United Nations Human Rights Committee expressed concern with increasing criminalization of students in response to school disciplinary problems and recommended that the US government promote the use of alternatives to the application of criminal law to address such issues The committee also noted its concern with the use of corporal punishment in schools in the US 41 In the second Universal Periodic Review of the US s human rights record the government avowed taking effective measures to help ensure non discrimination in school discipline policies and practices 42 In March 2010 at the Carver Primary School in the lower South Side Chicago several first grade students were handcuffed and told that they were going to prison and would never see their parents again after they talked in class 43 44 In November 2011 at Orange River Elementary School in Florida an assistant principal called the police after a girl kissed a boy 45 46 In February 2010 the principal of a junior high school in Forest Hills Queens New York called police after a 12 year old student used a green magic marker to write I love my friends Abby and Faith Lex was here 2 1 10 on a desk A police officer handcuffed the girl and took her to the police station 47 48 49 In October 2010 at Southern Lee High School in Lee County North Carolina a 12th grade honors student who was taking college level classes was charged with misdemeanor possession of a weapon on school grounds and suspended for the rest of the school year after she brought a paring knife to school The student had mistakenly taken her father s lunch box to school which looked the same as her own lunch box The school found the knife while searching the lunch box for illegal drugs which the student did not have 50 51 In 2014 in Lynchburg Virginia an 11 year old Black autistic boy was charged with a misdemeanor disorderly contact for kicking a trash can Some time later this same kid was walking to join other students and the same officer that reprimanded him for the trash can grabbed him pushed him to the floor and arrested him As a result the officer charged him with felony assault on a police officer 52 Robbins v Lower Merion School District editFurther information Robbins v Lower Merion School District In Rosemont Pennsylvania Harriton High School lent students laptop computers by way of their One to One initiative program Over 2 000 students were given these laptops for school and home usage Unbeknownst to the students and parents the school district had webcams installed on each computer that were utilized to take images of students activities while on the computer The school district used these photos to attempt to incriminate students In November 2009 the school s assistant principal falsely accused a student of selling illegal drugs after a school employee saw the student holding Mike and Ike candy while the student was at home 53 54 55 Events affecting the SPP editA large factor of the SPP is the disproportionate disciplinary actions taken against students of color In recent years the media has reported about some of these experiences Examples of zero tolerance policies and its role in SPP statistics In early 2018 a 14 year old Black boy came to school with a new haircut The haircut featured a design made with a razor The student was pulled out of class one day at Tenaya Middle School in Fresno California because of his haircut which the school claimed violated their dress code The child s mother claimed The vice principal told my son that he needed to cut his hair because it was distracting and violated the dress code The child s mother claims she agreed to get her son a new haircut she also said she was unable to immediately get an appointment due to a lack of Black barbers in her area When her son arrived at school the next day according to the child s mother the school explained to her that he would face in school suspension after returning with his haircut The mother claims I requested that my son is issued a warning to allow time to grow out his hair 56 57 In early 2018 a Black male student at the Apache Junction High School in Arizona wore a blue bandana to school which violated the dress code His teacher called the police on him for not removing his bandana He was then arrested and suspended for nine days 58 In mid 2018 an 11 year old Black girl Faith Fennidy was sent home from a private Roman Catholic school in Louisiana because she had hair extensions The young girl had been wearing extensions to school for two years before a new policy was added The policy prohibits extensions clip ins and or weaves The child would have to adhere to the policy to attend school The family chose to withdraw the student from the school the student was not suspended or expelled 59 In 2012 at Creekside Elementary School in Milledgeville Georgia a six year old student Salecia Johnson was crying and flailing on the floor of her principal s office The principal said she was inconsolable had thrown various items and had damaged school property during a tantrum Salecia was handcuffed and transported to a police station The child was initially charged as a juvenile with simple battery of a school teacher and criminal damage to property but it was later decided the girl would not be charged because of her age 60 Impact of COVID 19 pandemic editOn March 11 2020 the World Health Organization WHO declared the COVID 19 disease a global pandemic resulting in school shutdowns across multiple countries including the US 61 Based on a report by UNICEF approximately 94 percent of all countries enacted forms of remote learning to continue education for children in response to government closures caused by the COVID 19 pandemic 62 63 Likewise as a result of the pandemic in the US state and federal legislation either closed public schools and transferred to virtual instruction or offered hybrid learning a mixture of face to face instruction and online learning As school districts in the US encountered difficulty navigating requirements to provide education in remote settings disciplinary practices continued to reflect aspects of the SPP with zero tolerance policies just as harmful as those before the COVID 19 pandemic 62 64 Since the nation s transition to remote learning punishments including out of school suspension juvenile detention and police involvement have been enacted for minor infractions that have occurred in virtual learning environments In May 2020 a 15 year old Black female student with ADHD in Michigan was sent to a juvenile detention center for not turning in her online homework The juvenile court concluded that her failure to submit her homework violated her probation and sentenced her to 78 days in juvenile detention 62 65 She was later released after an adverse reaction from the public 66 In August 2020 Isaiah Elliot a 12 year old Black student with ADHD attending virtual school in Colorado was punished after being seen on his computer camera picking up a toy Nerf gun Isaiah was suspended for five days by the school which later contacted police to conduct a welfare check before notifying his parents 62 67 As before the pandemic the virtual SPP continues to disproportionately impact racial minorities predominantly African American and Hispanic students from low income backgrounds and students with disabilities There are more than 48 000 youth confined in facilities in the US on any given day 68 According to a report by the NAACP as of 2020 update African American children represent 32 of children who are arrested 42 of children who are detained and 52 of children whose cases are judicially waived to criminal court 7 Additionally students with disabilities account for 8 6 percent of the student population in the US but represent 36 percent of incarcerated youth 64 Because students of color and students with disabilities are disproportionately incarcerated they represent a large number of youth at risk for contracting COVID 19 and other infectious diseases On that note infectious diseases are severely concentrated in both adult and juvenile correctional facilities The Marshall Project reported that most juvenile prison facilities have more than 80 percent infection rates 68 Moreover approximately 15 of jail inmates and 22 of prisoners compared to 5 of the general population are reported having tuberculosis Hepatitis B and C HIV AIDS or other STDs 7 Controversy over efforts to reduce racial disparities editIn 2014 the Obama administration issued guidance that urged schools to reduce the number of suspensions and expulsions especially of minority students thereby stemming the school to prison pipeline During the Trump administration in December 2018 Secretary of Education Betsy DeVos rescinded these guidelines 69 In doing so she cited research by John Paul Wright and four coauthors that purported to show that the disparate rates of suspensions and expulsions were due not to racism but rather to prior poor behavior by Black students 70 71 Lead author John Paul Wright has advocated for the fringe view that Black people evolved to be genetically inferior to white people 72 151 In the study cited by DeVos Wright et al assumed that teachers reporting of behavior was accurate and unbiased They concluded that the racial gap in suspensions was completely accounted for by a measure of the prior problem behavior of the student a finding never before reported in the literature 71 However other scholars have found implicit bias and racial discrimination in teachers interpretation of behavior of Black students as more threatening than similar behavior by white students 73 74 75 76 Education researcher Francis Huang found other methodological flaws in the study by Wright et al such as sample bias comparison between a sample of 4 101 students and a reduced sample of 2 737 students who were not representative of the earlier sample and their use of the Social Skills Rating Scale as a proxy for evaluating prior behavior 77 78 Correcting for sample bias in the study by Wright et al led Huang to conclude that their data confirmed what earlier researchers had found regarding racial disparities in punishment that could not be accounted for by actual differences in behavior Alternative approaches editThis section needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section Unsourced material may be challenged and removed April 2019 Learn how and when to remove this template message Restorative justice edit The use of restorative justice in schools began in the early 1990s with initiatives in Australia Restorative justice models are used globally and have recently been introduced to school disciplinary policies in the US as an alternative approach to current punitive models such as zero tolerance 17 The focus is on ensuring that students understand and learn from their behavior as well as take responsibility for their actions and participate in steps that aim to repair the harm done to relationships between the student and the school environment Programs such as restorative circles restorative meetings restorative youth courts and peer mediation are being used as alternatives to zero tolerance policies and harsh disciplinary practices 79 The idea behind these programs is that students should be encouraged to participate in their punishments and school administration should refrain from using suspensions and expulsions for minor offenses The goal of restorative programs is to keep students in school and to stop the flow of students from schools to the criminal justice system 80 Some challenges to the use of restorative justice in schools are lack of time and community support It requires balancing the time needed for mediation with the other demands of education in one school day Scholars acknowledge that to achieve proper unbiased mediation it will require training support and review It is also crucial that an entire community students parents teachers staff coaches etc are convinced it is a better alternative and willing to work together 80 Steven Teske a juvenile court judge in Clayton County Georgia created the School Justice Partnership model in 2003 known as the Clayton County Model or informally The Teske Model to reduce the arrests of students involving minor offenses by using a collaborative agreement between schools law enforcement and the courts The model has three main components identifying minor offenses not subject to referral to the court defining the roles of school police and school administrators to avoid using police as disciplinarians and creating restorative practices and education programs in lieu of arrests It took aim at zero tolerance policies which do not consider situational context or individual circumstances The model s application in his county resulted in a 67 percent decline in referrals to juvenile court Despite concerns by some that a softer approach would yield school safety issues the data shows an increase in graduation rates of approximately 20 percent and an eight percent decline in suspensions The method has spread across the US with some notable cities such as Birmingham Alabama and Wichita Kansas seeing similar improvements 81 Editorial policies of major media edit See also United States incarceration rate Editorial policies of major media Beginning especially in the 1970s the mainstream commercial media in the US increased coverage of the police blotter while reducing coverage of investigative journalism citation needed Advertising rates are set based on the audience Because if it bleeds it leads the media were able to accomplish this change without losing its audience Beyond this the growth of private prisons increased the pool of major advertisers who could be offended by honest reporting on incarcerations and the SPP it makes financial sense to report on this only to the extent that such reporting is needed to maintain an audience 82 83 Media constructions have contributed to hysteria over youth violence and mass incarcerations TV overrepresents violent crime and people of color as offenders This creates a culture of fear and mean world syndrome that particularly works against Black or Latino males 1 Mental health relating to the SPP editWhere there are undetected and untreated child mental health concerns this can lead to unwanted suspensions and expulsions 84 When teachers include strategies to address the concerns found in students it leads to students wanting to pursue their own academic achievement and success Students with diagnosable mental health problems suffer under zero tolerance policies Such policies aim to create safer classrooms by removing potential disruptions but many in mental health social services courts or other related fields believe they fail in this goal and may result in less safe schools and communities School is considered a protective factor against delinquent conduct and removing students from such an environment harms their ability to succeed 85 An American Psychological Association Zero Tolerance Task Force report found that students with disabilities especially those with emotional and behavioral disorders appear to be suspended and expelled at rates disproportionate to the representation in the population 86 Zero tolerance policies also fail to account for neurological development in youths Studies show that the brain is still under construction until about age 21 Youth are more likely to take risks act impulsively and exercise poor judgment When these actions result in their involvement with the criminal justice system they are punished rather than taught how to develop One issue in improving mental health services in school and interrupting the SPP is that schools are unequipped to identify disorders and provide help for them 85 See also editList of U S states by incarceration rate List of countries by incarceration rate Prison industrial complex Kids for cash scandalReferences edit a b c d e f g Heitzeg 2009 McGrew Ken June 2016 The Dangers of Pipeline Thinking How the School To Prison Pipeline Metaphor Squeezes Out Complexity Educational Theory 66 3 341 367 doi 10 1111 edth 12173 Richardson John Judge Douglas January 1 2013 The Intergroup Dynamics of a Metaphor The School to Prison Pipeline Journal of Educational Controversy 7 1 Mora Richard Christianakis Mary January 1 2013 Feeding the School to Prison Pipeline The Convergence of Neoliberalism Conservativism and Penal Populism Journal of Educational Controversy 7 1 Annamma Subini Stovall David July 14 2020 Do BlackLivesMatter in schools Why the answer is no The Washington Post Retrieved October 17 2020 Hoffman Stephen September 13 2012 Zero Benefit Educational Policy 28 1 69 95 doi 10 1177 0895904812453999 S2CID 143745629 a b c d e Criminal Justice Fact Sheet NAACP May 24 2021 Read The Growth of Incarceration in the United States Exploring Causes and Consequences at NAP edu 2014 doi 10 17226 18613 ISBN 978 0 309 29801 8 S2CID 155470810 a b Cuellar Alison Markowitz Sara August 1 2015 School suspension and the school to prison pipeline International Review of Law and Economics 43 10 98 106 doi 10 1016 j irle 2015 06 001 Rocque Michael Paternoster Raymond 2011 Understanding the antecedents of the school to jail link The relationship between race and school discipline The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 101 2 633 665 JSTOR 23074048 a b Schept Judah Wall Tyler Brisman Avi 2014 Building Staffing and Insulating An Architecture of Criminological Complicity in the School to Prison Pipeline Social Justice 41 4 96 115 JSTOR 24871277 ProQuest 1713975672 a b Amurao Carla Fact Sheet How Bad Is the School to Prison Pipeline Tavis Smiley PBS Archived from the original on March 24 2013 a b c School to Prison Pipeline Infographic American Civil Liberties Union Retrieved March 26 2019 Porter Tracie 2015 The School to Prison Pipeline The Business Side of Incarcerating Not Educating Students in Public Schools Arkansas Review Heitzeg 2009 p 8 Theriot Matthew T May 2009 School resource officers and the criminalization of student behavior Journal of Criminal Justice 37 3 280 287 doi 10 1016 j jcrimjus 2009 04 008 a b c d Gonzalez Thalia April 2012 Keeping Kids in Schools Restorative Justice Punitive Discipline and the School to Prison Pipeline Journal of Law amp Education 41 2 281 335 SSRN 2658513 ProQuest 1008167526 Civil Rights Data Collection Data Snapshot School Discipline PDF U S Department of Education Office for Civil Rights March 21 2014 Archived PDF from the original on August 4 2023 a b The Impact of School Suspensions and a Demand for Passage of the Student Safety Act New York Civil Liberties Union January 23 2008 Losen Daniel J July 2013 Discipline Policies Successful Schools Racial Justice and the Law Family Court Review 51 3 388 400 doi 10 1111 fcre 12035 Nicholson Crotty Sean Birchmeier Zachary Valentine David December 2009 Exploring the Impact of School Discipline on Racial Disproportion in the Juvenile Justice System Social Science Quarterly 90 4 1003 1018 doi 10 1111 j 1540 6237 2009 00674 x Rocque Michael August 2010 Office Discipline and Student Behavior Does Race Matter American Journal of Education 116 4 557 581 doi 10 1086 653629 S2CID 146677121 Hill Leah March 8 2019 Disturbing Disparities Black Girls and the School to Prison Pipeline Fordham Law Review Online 87 1 Wright John Paul Morgan Mark Alden Coyne Michelle A Beaver Kevin M Barnes J C May 2014 Prior problem behavior accounts for the racial gap in school suspensions Journal of Criminal Justice 42 3 257 266 doi 10 1016 j jcrimjus 2014 01 001 Huang Francis L December 12 2016 Do Black students misbehave more Investigating the differential involvement hypothesis and out of school suspensions The Journal of Educational Research 111 3 284 294 doi 10 1080 00220671 2016 1253538 S2CID 151780912 Hines Datiri Dorothy Carter Andrews Dorinda J February 15 2017 The Effects of Zero Tolerance Policies on Black Girls Urban Education 004208591769020 doi 10 1177 0042085917690204 S2CID 152108747 Welch Kelly Payne Allison Ann February 2010 Racial Threat and Punitive School Discipline Social Problems 57 1 25 48 doi 10 1525 sp 2010 57 1 25 S2CID 34144560 Indirect Discrimination Australian Human Rights Commission Indirect discrimination Citizens Advice Cunneen Chris March 1999 Zero tolerance policing how will it affect indigenous communities Indigenous Law Bulletin 4 19 7 10 Curtis Aaron April 1 2014 Tracing the School to Prison Pipeline from Zero Tolerance Policies to Juvenile Justice Dispositions Georgetown Law Journal 102 4 1251 1277 SSRN 2785848 Roberge Ginette D 2012 From Zero Tolerance to Early Intervention The Evolution of School Anti bullying Policy PDF eJournal of Education Policy S2CID 36087744 EBSCOhost 90374260 Tyner Artika R June 2014 The Emergence of the School to Prison Pipeline GPSolo EReport 3 1 Archived from the original on June 26 2015 Giroux H A September 1 2001 Mis Education and Zero Tolerance Disposable Youth and the Politics of Domestic Militarization Boundary 2 28 3 61 94 doi 10 1215 01903659 28 3 61 S2CID 154129377 Hemphill Sheryl A Herrenkohl Todd I Plenty Stephanie M Toumbourou John W Catalano Richard F McMorris Barbara J April 2012 Pathways From School Suspension to Adolescent Nonviolent Antisocial Behavior in Students in Victoria Australia and Washington State United States Journal of Community Psychology 40 3 301 318 doi 10 1002 jcop 20512 PMC 3774047 PMID 24049218 Healy Cheryl March 26 2014 Discipline and Punishment How School Suspensions Impact the Likelihood of Juvenile Arrest Chicago Policy Review George Janel A 2015 Stereotype and School Pushout Race Gender and Discipline Disparities PDF Arkansas Law Review 68 1 101 129 American Psychological Association Zero Tolerance Task Force December 2008 Are zero tolerance policies effective in the schools An evidentiary review and recommendations American Psychologist 63 9 852 862 doi 10 1037 0003 066X 63 9 852 hdl 2027 42 142342 PMID 19086747 School to Prison Pipeline May 18 2015 Retrieved March 20 2022 Brady Kevin P Balmer Sharon Phenix Deinya June 2007 School Police Partnership Effectiveness in Urban Schools An Analysis of New York City s Impact Schools Initiative Education and Urban Society 39 4 455 478 CiteSeerX 10 1 1 1014 5314 doi 10 1177 0013124507302396 S2CID 144961015 Concluding observations on the fourth periodic report of the United States of America Report United Nations Human Rights Committee CCPR C USA CO 4 April 23 2014 para 17 Report on the Working Group on the Universal Periodic Review United States Addendum Views on conclusions and or recommendations voluntary commitments and replies presented by the State under review Report Human Rights Council United Nations A HRC 30 12 Add 1 September 14 2015 para 18 Lawsuit accuses security guard of handcuffing first graders for talking in class Chicago Tribune August 31 2011 First Graders Handcuffed At Chicago School Told They Were Going To Prison Lawsuit Huffington Post December 6 2017 Police Respond To 12 Year Olds Kissing At School Huffington Post November 22 2011 Cops Summoned To Elementary School After Girl Kisses Boy In Physical Ed Class NBC KHQ November 22 2011 Girl s arrest for doodling raises concerns about zero tolerance CNN February 18 2010 NYC Middle Schooler Alexa Gonzalez Arrested Handcuffed for Doodling CBS News February 8 2010 NYC student arrested for doodling on desk Associated Press February 5 2010 Lunchbox mix up leads to charges for Sanford student WRAL December 30 2010 Honor student won t be allowed to return to school ABC 7 Chicago December 31 2010 Public Integrity reporting leads Virginia to decriminalize its students Center for Public Integrity December 11 2020 Retrieved March 20 2022 Student Sues Over Alleged Webcam Spying NPR February 24 2010 About That Webcam New York Times April 2 2010 FBI Probing School Webcam Spy Case Associated Press February 19 2010 Matera Avery March 21 2018 A Middle School Suspended a Student Because of His Shaved Head Teen Vogue Lee Bonhia March 9 2018 A Fresno honor student got a popular haircut but school officials didn t like it Fresno Bee Sole Elise August 16 2018 Arrested Teen Says His Teacher Called The Police On Him For Wearing A Bandana To School HuffPost Yahoo Lifestyle Rosenblatt Kalhan August 22 2018 Louisiana girl sent home from school over braided hair extensions NBC News Campbell Antoinette April 17 2012 Police handcuff 6 year old student in Georgia CNN WHO Director General s opening remarks at the media briefing on COVID 19 11 March 2020 www who int Retrieved March 24 2022 a b c d Jones Victor M 2021 COVID 19 and the Virtual School to Prison Pipeline Children s Legal Rights Journal 41 105 134 via Hein Online COVID 19 and School Closures Are children able to continue learning UNICEF DATA August 26 2020 Retrieved March 24 2022 a b From Zoom to Jail Covid 19 s Effects on the School to Prison Pipeline American University Journal of Gender Social Policy amp the Law jgspl org Retrieved March 24 2022 Cohen Jodi S July 14 2020 A Teenager Didn t Do Her Online Schoolwork So a Judge Sent Her to Juvenile Detention ProPublica Retrieved March 24 2022 Cohen Jodi S October 31 2020 Out of Jail and Back in School Grace Finds Her Voice ProPublica Retrieved March 24 2022 Jankowicz Mia Colorado school officials called the sheriff and suspended a 12 year old Black boy after he showed a toy gun in his Zoom class Insider Retrieved March 24 2022 a b Rowe William July 2 2020 COVID 19 and Youth in Detention Child amp Youth Services 41 3 310 312 doi 10 1080 0145935X 2020 1835184 ISSN 0145 935X S2CID 229935847 Camera Lauren December 18 2018 White House Scrap Obama Era School Discipline Guidance Retrieved March 2 2021 Camera Lauren March 28 2019 The race research cited by DeVos Retrieved March 2 2021 a b Wright John Paul Morgan Mark Alden Coyne Michelle A Beaver Kevin M Barnes J C May 1 2014 Prior problem behavior accounts for the racial gap in school suspensions Journal of Criminal Justice 42 3 257 266 doi 10 1016 j jcrimjus 2014 01 001 ISSN 0047 2352 Wright John Paul 2009 Inconvenient Truths Science Race and Crime In Walsh Anthony Beaver Kevin M eds Biosocial Criminology New Directions in Theory and Research Routledge pp 137 153 ISBN 9780415989442 Evolution can produce many forms of adaptations but it cannot produce equality Evolution however provides a powerful mechanism to understand the development of human races and the distribution of traits and behaviors within and across races It helps to explain why races would appear and under what conditions races would appear It helps to explain why certain traits would be beneficial and why these traits such as a higher IQ would be unequally distributed across races Moreover evolutionary theory helps to explain why race based patterns of behavior are universal such as black over involvement in crime No other paradigm organizes these patterns better No other paradigm can explain these inconvenient truths McCarthy John D Hoge Dean R 1987 The social construction of school punishment Racial disadvantage out of universalistic process Social Forces 65 4 1101 1120 doi 10 1093 sf 65 4 1101 Gilliam Walter S Maupin Angela N Reyes Chin R Accavitti Maria Shic Frederick 2016 Do early educators implicit biases regarding sex and race relate to behavior expectations and recommendations of preschool expulsions and suspensions Yale University Child Study Center 9 28 Okonofua Jason A Eberhardt Jennifer L 2015 Two strikes Race and the disciplining of young students Psychological Science 26 5 617 624 doi 10 1177 0956797615570365 PMID 25854276 S2CID 206587768 Owens Jayanti McLanahan Sara S 2020 Unpacking the drivers of racial disparities in school suspension and expulsion Social Forces 98 4 1548 1577 doi 10 1093 sf soz095 PMC 8133760 PMID 34017149 Huang Francis L 2018 Do Black students misbehave more Investigating the differential involvement hypothesis and out of school suspensions The Journal of Educational Research 111 3 284 294 doi 10 1080 00220671 2016 1253538 S2CID 151780912 Huang Francis L 2020 Prior problem behaviors do not account for the racial suspension gaps Educational Researcher 49 7 493 502 doi 10 3102 0013189X20932474 S2CID 222111088 Schiff Mara April 6 2018 Can restorative justice disrupt the school to prison pipeline Contemporary Justice Review 21 2 121 139 doi 10 1080 10282580 2018 1455509 S2CID 150107321 a b Hopkins Belinda May 16 2003 Restorative Justice in Schools Support for Learning 17 3 144 149 doi 10 1111 1467 9604 00254 Zausch Nicholas 2018 Spotlight on the Teske Model An Alternative Approach to Zero Tolerance Policies Children s Legal Rights Journal 38 1 1 4 Potter Gary W Kappeler Victor E eds 1998 Constructing Crime Perspectives on Making News and Social Problems Waveland press ISBN 978 0 88133 984 0 page needed Sacco Vincent F 2005 When Crime Waves Sage ISBN 978 0761927839 page needed Emmons Jennifer M Belangee Susan E 2018 Understanding the Discouraged Child Within the School System An Adlerian View of the School to Prison Pipeline The Journal of Individual Psychology 74 1 134 153 doi 10 1353 jip 2018 0008 S2CID 149298907 a b Teske Steven C April 18 2011 A Study of Zero Tolerance Policies in Schools A Multi Integrated Systems Approach to Improve Outcomes for Adolescents Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing 24 2 88 97 doi 10 1111 j 1744 6171 2011 00273 x ISSN 1073 6077 PMID 21501285 Skiba Russell Reynolds Cecil R Graham Sandra Sheras Peter Conoley Jane Close Garcia Vazquez Enedina 2006 Are Zero Tolerance Policies Effective in the Schools An Evidentiary Review and Recommendations PsycEXTRA Dataset doi 10 1037 e516602012 001 Retrieved December 11 2020 Heitzeg Nancy A 2009 Education or Incarceration Zero Tolerance Policies and the School to Prison Pipeline PDF Forum on Public Policy Online 2009 2 ERIC EJ870076 Archived from the original PDF on August 27 2010 Further reading editSneed Tierney January 30 2015 School Resource Officers Safety Priority or Part of the Problem U S News amp World Report Monahan Kathryn C VanDerhei Susan Bechtold Jordan Cauffman Elizabeth February 14 2014 From the School Yard to the Squad Car School Discipline Truancy and Arrest Journal of Youth and Adolescence 43 7 1110 1122 doi 10 1007 s10964 014 0103 1 PMID 24526497 S2CID 207207810 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title School to prison pipeline amp oldid 1203714269, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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