Rodwell–Hoskins mechanism

Rodwell–Hoskins mechanism is a hypothesis about a climatic teleconnection between the Indian/Asian summer monsoon and the climate of the Mediterranean. It stipulates that ascending air in the monsoon region induces atmospheric circulation features named Rossby waves that expand westward and interact with the mean westerly winds of the midlatitudes, eventually inducing descent of the air. Descending air warms and its humidity decreases, thus resulting in a drier climate during the summer months. The interaction of this atmospheric flow with the topography such as the Atlas and Zagros mountains further modifies the effect.

This hypothesis has been advanced to explain the dry climate of the eastern Mediterranean during the summer months, as other explanations involving the Hadley circulation are not plausible during that season. Together with sea and land surface feedbacks it may also explain the existence of deserts and subtropical anticyclones elsewhere in the world, as well as changes in the Mediterranean climate that coincide with variations of the monsoon.

Theory

The existence of the subtropical anticyclones^[1] and of deserts in the subtropics used to be attributed to the descent of air in the Hadley cell, which reduces its humidity. This descent occurs because the air is cooling through radiation and the energy loss is balanced by adiabatic heating. The lack of vegetation due to the dryness increases the albedo of the ground and thus the cooling, acting as a positive feedback.^[2][3] Air-sea coupling, in particular the upwelling of cold waters east of the subtropical anticyclones induced by their winds and the resulting impediment to convection performs the same role over the oceans.^[4]

However, the Hadley cell is weak during the summer months when the anticyclones still exist^[1][3] and dryness often reaches its peak in the deserts, and the latitudes of the Sahara coincide with these of wet climates. Mark J. Rodwell and Brian J. Hoskins in 1996 proposed that instead, a Gill-type response to the Asian monsoon induces a Rossby wave response to the west which triggers descent west of the monsoon.^[5] This involves similar processes as the Hadley cell theory but east–west horizontal advection modifies the energy balance, focusing descent at certain longitudes^[6] unlike in equatorial regions where horizontal advection is less important.^[7] The descending air does not originate in the monsoonal regions, thus it is not a Walker circulation; rather it originates in the mid-latitude westerlies^[8] and descends along atmospheric isentropes. In the Rodwell and Hoskins 1996 simulation the location of the descent is controlled by orography just west of the descending region, which induce anticyclonic (clockwise) flow and thus southward movement of cold air to their east^[9] through the heating over the topography,^[10] although the direction of the mean wind modulates the longitude direction of the forcing.^[11] The Etesian winds over Greece can be interpreted as the southward flow linked to the Rossby wave.^[12] Ossó et al. 2019 showed that coupled sea surface temperature responses are important in inducing the descent west of the eastern Mediterranean as otherwise the Indian monsoon is located too far south to induce a Rossby wave train.^[13]

Later research has indicated that the Rodwell–Hoskins mechanism can be induced by monsoons other than the Indian monsoon, for example the South American monsoon may induce subsidence in the Southeastern Pacific^[14] and western slope of the Andes,^[15] and the North Pacific High may be a product of the North American monsoon. The subtropical anticyclones are subsequently strengthened by cooling over the oceans and cloud feedbacks^[16] and according to Miyasaka and Nakamura 2005 by solar (sensible) heating of the dry landmass under the descent region.^[17] Thus, the Rodwell–Hoskins mechanism may play a role over most of the global subtropics and tropics,^[18] especially over the Mediterranean where the subtropical anticyclones are less influential than in other Mediterranean climates.^[11] It may play a lesser role in Southern Hemisphere anticyclone dynamics according to Seager et al. 2003,^[19] and only a minor role in intensifying the North Pacific High.^[20]

According to Kelly and Mapes 2013, in the Community Atmosphere Model a strong Asian monsoon can extend the Rodwell–Hoskins mechanism to North America, resulting in drying of the western Atlantic.^[21] Smaller scale features such as the Thar Desert may also result from this mechanism.^[22]

Evidence

In June to August, ascent occurs over Africa and Asia, with centres over the northern Bay of Bengal and equatorial Africa. Descent occurs to the west of the Asian monsoon, that is over the Kyzylkum Desert, the eastern Mediterranean including southeastern Europe and eastern Sahara and in the eastern Atlantic.^[5] The longitude of the descent is connected to the underlying orography of the Zagros and Atlas Mountains^[23] and summer precipitation is negligible in the descent areas.^[9] The Rodwell–Hoskins mechanism appears to be less important for the Arabian Desert, where the cooling through radiation and subsequent descent may instead be the key factor.^[24]

The "monsoon-desert" mechanism has been identified both in climate reanalyses, idealized simulations and climate models.^[25] Other phenomena linked to the Rodwell–Hoskins mechanism are oxygen isotope variations in corals of the northern Red Sea which appear to correlate with the intensity of the Indian Monsoon,^[26] the synchrony of Near East atmospheric circulation changes with the monsoon^[10] and fluctuations in the intensity of the African monsoon after the onset of the Indian one which are mediated by dry air intrusions^[27] and include a temporary weakening of precipitation.^[28]

Implications

The intensity of the Rodwell–Hoskins mechanism is a function of the latitude of the monsoon; ascent close to the equator (such as during the pre-monsoon season) does not induce it effectively.^[4] According to Rodwell and Hoskins 2001, the African monsoon being a tropical monsoon does not induce a substantial Rodwell–Hoskins effect.^[29]

The air forced to descend by the Rodwell–Hoskins mechanism can in turn flow into the convergence zones of the monsoon region and alter the monsoon behaviour; this is known as the "interactive Rodwell–Hoskins mechanism"^[30] and it reduces the precipitation in the western sector of a monsoon by importing dry/low energy air into the monsoon region.^[31] It appears to play a role in restricting the westward extent of the North American monsoon, inducing dryness along the West Coast,^[32] and likewise in limiting the southward extent of the South American monsoon.^[33]

Enomoto 2003 recognized that the descent forced by the Rodwell–Hoskins mechanism over the Mediterranean and Aral Sea coincide with the "inlet" region of the Asian jet stream and consequently Rossby waves could enter the jet stream through these regions ("Silk Road pattern"). Enomoto 2004 proposed that the Rossby waves travelling through this jet stream eventually accumulate over Japan and induce the formation of a second anticyclone there – a process they called the "Monsoon-Desert-Jet mechanism"^[34] and which they suggested may induce heat waves in Japan.^[35] This structure of the atmospheric circulation has also been described by other researchers.^[36] Additionally, vorticity anomalies originating directly from the monsoon outflow may enter into the jet stream as Rossby waves.^[37]

Di Capua et al. 2020 noted that La Niña in the Pacific Ocean boosts the monsoon-desert mechanism through a coupling with the Walker circulation.^[38] Wu and Shaw 2016 proposed that the Rodwell–Hoskins mechanism alters the potential temperature of the tropopause by shifting its monsoon-related maxima.^[39]

Paleoclimate

The strength of the Rodwell–Hoskins-induced descent is a function of the strength of the monsoon and climate variability impacting monsoon intensity can thus alter the descent as well.^[40] Through the Rodwell–Hoskins mechanism the development of the Tibetan Plateau during the Cretaceous to Eocene and its effect on the Indian monsoon may have had remote effects on Africa and the Mediterranean,^[41] and the same mechanism may be responsible for the drying of northwestern India between 11–7 million years ago.^[42] The climate effects of the Rodwell-Hoskins mechanism may have influenced oceanic climate during the existence and breakup of Pangea in the last 250 million years.^[43]

During maxima in precession, a key Milankovitch cycle, and minima in global ice area, an intensified Indian monsoon may have induced a more intense summer drought over the eastern Mediterranean, although increased autumn/winter rainfall may have negated the drying.^[44] An anticorrelation between wetter Northern Hemisphere monsoons during the Holocene and drier subtropics may also be explained by the Rodwell–Hoskins effect,^[45] as is drying in Oman and the Near East during the Medieval Climate Anomaly and the Early Holocene.^[46] Conversely, wetter subtropics during the Pliocene may thus relate to decreased rainfall over the eastern Indian Ocean and the Bay of Bengal.^[47]

Climate variability

The Rodwell–Hoskins effect may explain why:

• Teleconnections associated with the Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD),^[48] in particular the development of Rossby wave trains.^[49] A positive IOD would tend to intensify the monsoon and the Rodwell–Hoskins mechanism while a negative IOD would tend to weaken them.^[50]
• During years where the monsoon is unusually wet over Arizona, the Great Plains, Midcontinent and Pacific Northwest are unusually dry.^[51]
• Monsoon breaks in India and the low level temperature inversion over the Arabian Sea.^[52]
• When the Indian monsoon is weaker, e.g. after the 1912 Mount Katmai eruption, cloudiness and precipitation increase over the Mediterranean.^[53]
• Volcanic eruptions resulting in wetter climates over the dry regions.^[54]
• The wet summers 2002^[55] and 2014 in Southern Europe when the Indian monsoon was weaker than normal.^[56]
• Bollasina and Nigam 2011 proposed that the subsidence northwest of the Hindu Kush interacts with the topography to produce the Indo-Pakistani heat low.^[57]
• Yang 2021 proposed that the Sahel drought stemmed from an intensified Rodwell–Hoskins descent over Africa^[58] and ended when warming Atlantic sea surface temperatures decreased the Africa-Asia temperature gradients.^[59]
• Anticorrelations between Middle East precipitation and the Asian monsoon.^[60]
• Maximum temperatures occur in the northern Arabian Peninsula.^[61]
• Dipole-like precipitation biases in certain climate models.^[62]
• The development of tropical upper-tropospheric troughs over the Northern Hemisphere oceans in summer.^[63]
• Increased precipitation in the eastern Mediterranean after sulfate aerosol release.^[64]
• Correlations between monsoon biases on the Indian Ocean and India, and climate biases over Africa.^[65]
• Xiang et al. 2023 suggested that aerosol-driven decreases in the Indian monsoon increase rainfall over the Sahel and central Africa.^[66]
• Increased drought occurrence in the mid-latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere due to increased monsoon activity.^[67]

Atmospheric waves similar to these of the Rodwell–Hoskins mechanism are also found in climate simulations where the monsoons have been modified by vegetation changes induced through man-made carbon dioxide increases^[68] or increased condensational heating.^[69] They may play a role in altering European climate according to Douville et al. 2000^[70] and Gregory, Mitchell and Brady 1997,^[69] such as causing drying in the Mediterranean.^[71] Studying the output of some climate models, Cherchi et al. 2016 found both increased descent and a westward shift of the descent in response to increased monsoon precipitation during the 21st century.^[72]

Alternative processes

Chen et al. 2001 proposed that upstream monsoon heating can induce Rossby waves that generate the subtropical anticyclones^[16] through an eastward-directed forcing, which acts in the opposite direction to the westward-directed Rodwell–Hoskins hypothesis.^[73] According to Chen et al. 2022 however this process does not explain the structure of the summer atmospheric circulation.^[74] A Hadley cell-like interaction between the Mediterranean and the African monsoon intensifies Mediterranean drought.^[75]

Eastward propagating Kelvin waves can induce descent to the east of the monsoon region,^[14] which is important in inducing the North Pacific High in response to the Asian and the South Atlantic High in response of the South American monsoon and are also connected to the low-level inflow of moisture into the monsoons.^[29]

References

1. Rodwell & Hoskins 2001, p. 3194.
2. Rodwell & Hoskins 1996, p. 1385.
3. Tyrlis, Lelieveld & Steil 2013, pp. 1104–1105.
4. Rodwell & Hoskins 2001, p. 3196.
5. Rodwell & Hoskins 1996, p. 1386.
6. Rodwell & Hoskins 1996, p. 1387.
7. Rodwell & Hoskins 1996, p. 1388.
8. Rodwell & Hoskins 1996, p. 1396.
9. Rodwell & Hoskins 1996, p. 1399.
10. Tyrlis, Lelieveld & Steil 2013, p. 1121.
11. Simpson et al. 2015, p. 3.
12. Tyrlis, Lelieveld & Steil 2013, p. 1105.
13. Ossó et al. 2019, p. 5076.
14. Clement, Hall & Broccoli 2004, p. 331.
15. Moraes et al. 2023, p. 980.
16. Miyasaka & Nakamura 2005, p. 5047.
17. Miyasaka & Nakamura 2005, p. 5064.
18. Wang et al. 2017, p. 89.
19. Miyasaka & Nakamura 2010, p. 2116.
20. Miyasaka & Nakamura 2005, p. 5062.
21. Kelly & Mapes 2013, p. 2750.
22. Barros et al. 2004, p. 42.
23. Rodwell & Hoskins 1996, p. 1397.
24. Rodwell & Hoskins 1996, p. 1402.
25. Tyrlis et al. 2015, p. 6777.
26. Felis et al. 2000, p. 690.
27. Flaounas et al. 2012, p. 967.
28. Camberlin et al. 2010, p. 2057.
29. Rodwell & Hoskins 2001, p. 3209.
30. Chou & Neelin 2003, p. 407.
31. Chou 2003, p. 14.
32. Chou & Neelin 2003, p. 416.
33. Chou & Neelin 2001, p. 2436.
34. Enomoto 2004, p. 1020.
35. Enomoto 2004, p. 1033.
36. Wu et al. 2010, p. 5.
37. Liu et al. 2020, p. 7095.
38. Di Capua et al. 2020, p. 532.
39. Wu & Shaw 2016, p. 8695.
40. Clement, Hall & Broccoli 2004, p. 334.
41. Lippert, van Hinsbergen & Dupont-Nivet 2014, p. 17.
42. Molnar & Rajagopalan 2012, p. 1.
43. Han, Hu & Liu 2021, p. EGU21-3690.
44. Tzedakis 2007, p. 2053.
45. Wang et al. 2017, p. 240.
46. Miller et al. 2016, p. 130.
47. Kamae, Ueda & Kitoh 2011, pp. 489–490.
48. Guan, Ashok & Yamagata 2003, p. 548.
49. Takemura & Shimpo 2019, p. 75.
50. Ratna et al. 2017, p. 67.
51. Harrison et al. 2003, p. 665.
52. Wu, Lee & Chiang 2018, p. 239.
53. Oman 2005, p. 9.
54. Zuo, Zhou & Man 2019, p. 13658.
55. Cherchi et al. 2014, p. 6894.
56. Ratna et al. 2017, p. 64.
57. Bollasina & Nigam 2011, p. 969.
58. Yang et al. 2021, p. 321.
59. He, Yang & Li 2017, p. 5.
60. Dogar & Sato 2018, p. 13087.
61. Attada et al. 2019, p. 445.
62. Hanf et al. 2017, p. 4882.
63. Kelly & Mapes 2016, p. 7539.
64. Mitchell & Johns 1997, p. 264.
65. Di Capua et al. 2023, pp. 715–716.
66. Xiang et al. 2023, p. 4.
67. Fan et al. 2022, p. 2.
68. Douville et al. 2000, p. 14857.
69. Gregory, Mitchell & Brady 1997, p. 675.
70. Douville et al. 2000, p. 14859.
71. De Luca et al. 2020, p. 794.
72. Cherchi et al. 2016, p. 2370.
73. Kosaka & Matsuda 2005, p. 482.
74. Chen et al. 2022, p. 1884.
75. Lionello et al. 2006, p. 7-8.

Sources

• Attada, Raju; Dasari, Hari Prasad; Chowdary, Jasti S.; Yadav, Ramesh Kumar; Knio, Omar; Hoteit, Ibrahim (2019). "Surface air temperature variability over the Arabian Peninsula and its links to circulation patterns". International Journal of Climatology. 39 (1): 445–464. Bibcode:2019IJCli..39..445A. doi:10.1002/joc.5821. hdl:10754/628311. ISSN 1097-0088. S2CID 55734303.
• Barros, A. P.; Kim, G.; Williams, E.; Nesbitt, S. W. (1 March 2004). "Probing orographic controls in the Himalayas during the monsoon using satellite imagery". Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences. 4 (1): 29–51. Bibcode:2004NHESS...4...29B. doi:10.5194/nhess-4-29-2004. ISSN 1561-8633.
• Bollasina, Massimo; Nigam, Sumant (September 2011). "The summertime 'heat' low over Pakistan/northwestern India: evolution and origin" (PDF). Climate Dynamics. 37 (5–6): 957–970. Bibcode:2011ClDy...37..957B. doi:10.1007/s00382-010-0879-y. S2CID 16319847.
• Camberlin, P.; Fontaine, B.; Louvet, S.; Oettli, P.; Valimba, P. (15 April 2010). "Climate Adjustments over Africa Accompanying the Indian Monsoon Onset". Journal of Climate. 23 (8): 2047–2064. Bibcode:2010JCli...23.2047C. doi:10.1175/2009JCLI3302.1. ISSN 0894-8755.
• Chen, Hongli; Xu, Haiming; Ma, Jing; Deng, Jiechun (1 September 2022). "Why is the mid-tropospheric North Atlantic subtropical high much stronger than the North Pacific subtropical high in boreal summer?". Climate Dynamics. 59 (5): 1883–1895. doi:10.1007/s00382-021-06074-3. ISSN 1432-0894.
• Cherchi, Annalisa; Annamalai, H.; Masina, Simona; Navarra, Antonio (15 September 2014). "South Asian Summer Monsoon and the Eastern Mediterranean Climate: The Monsoon–Desert Mechanism in CMIP5 Simulations". Journal of Climate. 27 (18): 6877–6903. Bibcode:2014JCli...27.6877C. doi:10.1175/JCLI-D-13-00530.1.
• Cherchi, Annalisa; Annamalai, H.; Masina, Simona; Navarra, Antonio; Alessandri, Andrea (1 October 2016). "Twenty-first century projected summer mean climate in the Mediterranean interpreted through the monsoon-desert mechanism". Climate Dynamics. 47 (7): 2361–2371. Bibcode:2016ClDy...47.2361C. doi:10.1007/s00382-015-2968-4. ISSN 1432-0894. S2CID 130070879.
• Chou, Chia; Neelin, J. David (15 June 2001). "Mechanisms limiting the southward extent of the South American Summer Monsoon". Geophysical Research Letters. 28 (12): 2433–2436. Bibcode:2001GeoRL..28.2433C. doi:10.1029/2000GL012138.
• Chou, C. (1 July 2003). "Land–sea heating contrast in an idealized Asian summer monsoon". Climate Dynamics. 21 (1): 11–25. Bibcode:2003ClDy...21...11C. doi:10.1007/s00382-003-0315-7. ISSN 1432-0894. S2CID 53701462.
• Chou, Chia; Neelin, J. David (1 February 2003). "Mechanisms Limiting the Northward Extent of the Northern Summer Monsoons over North America, Asia, and Africa". Journal of Climate. 16 (3): 406–425. Bibcode:2003JCli...16..406C. doi:10.1175/1520-0442(2003)016<0406:MLTNEO>2.0.CO;2. ISSN 0894-8755.
• Clement, A. C.; Hall, A.; Broccoli, A. J. (1 April 2004). "The importance of precessional signals in the tropical climate". Climate Dynamics. 22 (4): 327–341. Bibcode:2004ClDy...22..327C. doi:10.1007/s00382-003-0375-8. S2CID 16165823.
• De Luca, Paolo; Messori, Gabriele; Faranda, Davide; Ward, Philip J.; Coumou, Dim (28 August 2020). "Compound warm–dry and cold–wet events over the Mediterranean". Earth System Dynamics. 11 (3): 793–805. Bibcode:2020ESD....11..793D. doi:10.5194/esd-11-793-2020. ISSN 2190-4979. S2CID 221474691.
• Di Capua, Giorgia; Runge, Jakob; Donner, Reik V.; van den Hurk, Bart; Turner, Andrew G.; Vellore, Ramesh; Krishnan, Raghavan; Coumou, Dim (15 October 2020). "Dominant patterns of interaction between the tropics and mid-latitudes in boreal summer: causal relationships and the role of timescales". Weather and Climate Dynamics. 1 (2): 519–539. Bibcode:2020WCD.....1..519D. doi:10.5194/wcd-1-519-2020. S2CID 225115654.
• Di Capua, Giorgia; Coumou, Dim; van den Hurk, Bart; Weisheimer, Antje; Turner, Andrew G.; Donner, Reik V. (14 August 2023). "Validation of boreal summer tropical–extratropical causal links in seasonal forecasts". Weather and Climate Dynamics. 4 (3): 701–723. doi:10.5194/wcd-4-701-2023.
• Dogar, Muhammad Mubashar; Sato, Tomonori (16 December 2018). "Analysis of Climate Trends and Leading Modes of Climate Variability for MENA Region". Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres. 123 (23). Bibcode:2018JGRD..12313074D. doi:10.1029/2018JD029003. hdl:10754/629722. S2CID 134855231.
• Douville, H.; Planton, S.; Royer, J.-F.; Stephenson, D. B.; Tyteca, S.; Kergoat, L.; Lafont, S.; Betts, R. A. (2000). "Importance of vegetation feedbacks in doubled-CO2 climate experiments". Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres. 105 (D11): 14841–14861. Bibcode:2000JGR...10514841D. doi:10.1029/1999JD901086. ISSN 2156-2202.
• Enomoto, Takeshi (2004). "Interannual Variability of the Bonin High Associated with the Propagation of Rossby Waves along the Asian Jet". 気象集誌. 第2輯. 82 (4): 1019–1034. Bibcode:2004JMeSJ..82.1019E. doi:10.2151/jmsj.2004.1019.
• Fan, Keke; Zhang, Qiang; Gu, Xihui; Singh, Vijay P.; Xu, Chong-Yu; Shen, Zexi; Wang, Gang (1 July 2022). "Global soil moisture drought identification and responses to natural and anthropogenic forcings". Journal of Hydrology. 610: 127993. doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2022.127993. ISSN 0022-1694.
• Felis, Thomas; Pätzold, Jürgen; Loya, Yossi; Fine, Maoz; Nawar, Ahmed H.; Wefer, Gerold (December 2000). "A coral oxygen isotope record from the northern Red Sea documenting NAO, ENSO, and North Pacific teleconnections on Middle East climate variability since the year 1750". Paleoceanography. 15 (6): 679–694. Bibcode:2000PalOc..15..679F. doi:10.1029/1999PA000477.
• Flaounas, Emmanouil; Janicot, Serge; Bastin, Sophie; Roca, Rémy; Mohino, Elsa (March 2012). "The role of the Indian monsoon onset in the West African monsoon onset: observations and AGCM nudged simulations". Climate Dynamics. 38 (5–6): 965–983. Bibcode:2012ClDy...38..965F. doi:10.1007/s00382-011-1045-x. S2CID 55324416.
• Gregory, J. M.; Mitchell, J. F. B.; Brady, A. J. (1 April 1997). "Summer Drought in Northern Midlatitudes in a Time-Dependent CO2 Climate Experiment". Journal of Climate. 10 (4): 662–686. Bibcode:1997JCli...10..662G. doi:10.1175/1520-0442(1997)010<0662:SDINMI>2.0.CO;2. ISSN 0894-8755.
• Guan, Zhaoyong; Ashok, Karumuri; Yamagata, Toshio (2003). "Summertime Response of the Tropical Atmosphere to the Indian Ocean Dipole Sea Surface Temperature Anomalies". 気象集誌. 第2輯. 81 (3): 533–561. Bibcode:2003JMeSJ..81..533G. doi:10.2151/jmsj.81.533.
• Han, Jing; Hu, Yongyun; Liu, Yonggang (1 April 2021). Evolution of the ocean monsoon regions over the past 250 million years. 23rd EGU General Assembly. pp. EGU21–3690. Bibcode:2021EGUGA..23.3690H.
• Hanf, Franziska S.; Annamalai, H.; Rinke, Annette; Dethloff, Klaus (16 May 2017). "South Asian summer monsoon breaks: Process‐based diagnostics in HIRHAM5". Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres. 122 (9): 4880–4902. Bibcode:2017JGRD..122.4880H. doi:10.1002/2016JD025967. S2CID 132427061.
• Harrison, S. P.; Kutzbach, J. E.; Liu, Z.; Bartlein, P. J.; Otto-Bliesner, B.; Muhs, D.; Prentice, I. C.; Thompson, R. S. (1 May 2003). "Mid-Holocene climates of the Americas: a dynamical response to changed seasonality". Climate Dynamics. 20 (7): 663–688. Bibcode:2003ClDy...20..663H. doi:10.1007/s00382-002-0300-6. ISSN 1432-0894. S2CID 13521648.
• He, Shan; Yang, Song; Li, Zhenning (9 August 2017). "Influence of Latent Heating over the Asian and Western Pacific Monsoon Region on Sahel Summer Rainfall". Scientific Reports. 7 (1): 7680. Bibcode:2017NatSR...7.7680H. doi:10.1038/s41598-017-07971-6. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 5550481. PMID 28794484.
• Kamae, Youichi; Ueda, Hiroaki; Kitoh, Akio (2011). "Hadley and Walker Circulations in the Mid-Pliocene Warm Period Simulated by an Atmospheric General Circulation Model". 気象集誌. 第2輯. 89 (5): 475–493. Bibcode:2011JMeSJ..89..475K. doi:10.2151/jmsj.2011-505. hdl:2241/115282.
• Kelly, Patrick; Mapes, Brian (1 May 2013). "Asian Monsoon Forcing of Subtropical Easterlies in the Community Atmosphere Model: Summer Climate Implications for the Western Atlantic". Journal of Climate. 26 (9): 2741–2755. Bibcode:2013JCli...26.2741K. doi:10.1175/JCLI-D-12-00339.1. ISSN 0894-8755.
• Kelly, Patrick; Mapes, Brian (15 October 2016). "February Drying in Southeastern Brazil and the Australian Monsoon: Global Mechanism for a Regional Rainfall Feature". Journal of Climate. 29 (20): 7529–7546. Bibcode:2016JCli...29.7529K. doi:10.1175/JCLI-D-15-0838.1. ISSN 0894-8755.
• Kosaka, Yosuke; Matsuda, Yoshihisa (2005). "Roles of Rossby and Gravity Waves on Circulation Associated with Tropical and Subtropical Heating". 気象集誌. 第2輯. 83 (4): 481–498. Bibcode:2005JMeSJ..83..481K. doi:10.2151/jmsj.83.481.
• Lionello, P.; Malanotte-Rizzoli, P.; Boscolo, R.; Alpert, P.; Artale, V.; Li, L.; Luterbacher, J.; May, W.; Trigo, R.; Tsimplis, M.; Ulbrich, U.; Xoplaki, E. (2006). "The Mediterranean climate: An overview of the main characteristics and issues". Developments in Earth and Environmental Sciences. 4: 1–26. doi:10.1016/S1571-9197(06)80003-0. ISBN 9780444521705. ISSN 1571-9197.
• Lippert, Peter C.; van Hinsbergen, Douwe J.J.; Dupont-Nivet, Guillaume (2014), "Early Cretaceous to present latitude of the central proto-Tibetan Plateau: A paleomagnetic synthesis with implications for Cenozoic tectonics, paleogeography, and climate of Asia" (PDF), Toward an Improved Understanding of Uplift Mechanisms and the Elevation History of the Tibetan Plateau, Geological Society of America, p. 17, doi:10.1130/2014.2507(01), ISBN 978-0-8137-2507-9, retrieved 2021-09-16
• Liu, Yong; Zhou, Wen; Qu, Xia; Wu, Renguang (15 August 2020). "An Interdecadal Change of the Boreal Summer Silk Road Pattern around the Late 1990s". Journal of Climate. 33 (16): 7083–7100. Bibcode:2020JCli...33.7083L. doi:10.1175/JCLI-D-19-0795.1. ISSN 0894-8755. S2CID 225370685.
• Miller, Charlotte S.; Leroy, Suzanne A.G.; Collins, Philip E.F.; Lahijani, Hamid A.K. (July 2016). "Late Holocene vegetation and ocean variability in the Gulf of Oman". Quaternary Science Reviews. 143: 120–132. Bibcode:2016QSRv..143..120M. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2016.05.010. ISSN 0277-3791.
• Mitchell, J. F. B.; Johns, T. C. (1 February 1997). "On Modification of Global Warming by Sulfate Aerosols". Journal of Climate. 10 (2): 245–267. Bibcode:1997JCli...10..245M. doi:10.1175/1520-0442(1997)010<0245:OMOGWB>2.0.CO;2. ISSN 0894-8755.
• Miyasaka, Takafumi; Nakamura, Hisashi (1 December 2005). "Structure and Formation Mechanisms of the Northern Hemisphere Summertime Subtropical Highs". Journal of Climate. 18 (23): 5046–5065. Bibcode:2005JCli...18.5046M. doi:10.1175/JCLI3599.1. ISSN 0894-8755.
• Miyasaka, Takafumi; Nakamura, Hisashi (15 April 2010). "Structure and Mechanisms of the Southern Hemisphere Summertime Subtropical Anticyclones". Journal of Climate. 23 (8): 2115–2130. Bibcode:2010JCli...23.2115M. doi:10.1175/2009JCLI3008.1. ISSN 0894-8755.
• Molnar, Peter; Rajagopalan, Balaji (May 2012). "Late Miocene upward and outward growth of eastern Tibet and decreasing monsoon rainfall over the northwestern Indian subcontinent since ~10 Ma: MIOCENE TIBET AND MONSOON PRECIPITATION". Geophysical Research Letters. 39 (9): n/a. doi:10.1029/2012GL051305.
• Moraes, André Geraldo de Lima; Watkins, Alec Hale; Brecheisen, Zachary; Bowling, Laura Christine; Pinto Cáceres, José P.; Novoa, Hector Mayol; Cherkauer, Keith Aric (February 2023). "The fast‐changing climate reality of Arequipa, Peru". International Journal of Climatology. 43 (2): 979–995. doi:10.1002/joc.7855. ISSN 0899-8418.
• Oman, Luke (2005). "Climatic response to high-latitude volcanic eruptions". Journal of Geophysical Research. 110 (D13): D13103. Bibcode:2005JGRD..11013103O. doi:10.1029/2004JD005487.
• Ossó, Albert; Shaffrey, Len; Dong, Buwen; Sutton, Rowan (October 2019). "Impact of air–sea coupling on Northern Hemisphere summer climate and the monsoon–desert teleconnection". Climate Dynamics. 53 (7–8): 5063–5078. Bibcode:2019ClDy...53.5063O. doi:10.1007/s00382-019-04846-6. S2CID 189905318.
• Ratna, Satyaban B.; Ratnam, J.V.; Behera, Swadhin K.; Cherchi, Annalisa; Wang, Wanqiu; Yamagata, Toshio (June 2017). "The unusual wet summer (July) of 2014 in Southern Europe". Atmospheric Research. 189: 61–68. Bibcode:2017AtmRe.189...61R. doi:10.1016/j.atmosres.2017.01.017. ISSN 0169-8095.
• Rodwell, Mark J.; Hoskins, Brian J. (1996). "Monsoons and the dynamics of deserts" (PDF). Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society. 122 (534): 1385–1404. Bibcode:1996QJRMS.122.1385R. doi:10.1002/qj.49712253408. ISSN 1477-870X.
• Rodwell, M. J.; Hoskins, B. J. (1 August 2001). "Subtropical Anticyclones and Summer Monsoons". Journal of Climate. 14 (15): 3192–3211. Bibcode:2001JCli...14.3192R. doi:10.1175/1520-0442(2001)014<3192:SAASM>2.0.CO;2. ISSN 0894-8755. S2CID 58891085.
• Simpson, Isla R.; Seager, Richard; Shaw, Tiffany A.; Ting, Mingfang (1 March 2015). "Mediterranean Summer Climate and the Importance of Middle East Topography*". Journal of Climate. 28 (5): 1977–1996. Bibcode:2015JCli...28.1977S. doi:10.1175/JCLI-D-14-00298.1.
• Takemura, Kazuto; Shimpo, Akihiko (2019). "Influence of Positive IOD Events on the Northeastward Extension of the Tibetan High and East Asian Climate Condition in Boreal Summer to Early Autumn". Sola. 15: 75–79. Bibcode:2019SOLA...15...75T. doi:10.2151/sola.2019-015.
• Tyrlis, Evangelos; Lelieveld, Jos; Steil, Benedikt (1 March 2013). "The summer circulation over the eastern Mediterranean and the Middle East: influence of the South Asian monsoon". Climate Dynamics. 40 (5): 1103–1123. Bibcode:2013ClDy...40.1103T. doi:10.1007/s00382-012-1528-4. ISSN 1432-0894.
• Tyrlis, Evangelos; Tymvios, Filippos S.; Giannakopoulos, Christos; Lelieveld, Jos (27 July 2015). "The role of blocking in the summer 2014 collapse of Etesians over the eastern Mediterranean: COLLAPSE OF ETESIANS IN SUMMER 2014". Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres. 120 (14): 6777–6792. doi:10.1002/2015JD023543.
• Tzedakis, P.C. (September 2007). "Seven ambiguities in the Mediterranean palaeoenvironmental narrative". Quaternary Science Reviews. 26 (17–18): 2042–2066. Bibcode:2007QSRv...26.2042T. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2007.03.014. ISSN 0277-3791.
• Wang, Yongbo; Bekeschus, Benjamin; Handorf, Dörthe; Liu, Xingqi; Dallmeyer, Anne; Herzschuh, Ulrike (August 2017). "Coherent tropical-subtropical Holocene see-saw moisture patterns in the Eastern Hemisphere monsoon systems". Quaternary Science Reviews. 169: 231–242. Bibcode:2017QSRv..169..231W. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2017.06.006. ISSN 0277-3791.
• Wang, Pin Xian; Wang, Bin; Cheng, Hai; Fasullo, John; Guo, ZhengTang; Kiefer, Thorsten; Liu, ZhengYu (November 2017). "The global monsoon across time scales: Mechanisms and outstanding issues". Earth-Science Reviews. 174: 84–121. Bibcode:2017ESRv..174...84W. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2017.07.006. ISSN 0012-8252.
• Wu, Renguang; Yang, Song; Liu, Shi; Sun, Li; Lian, Yi; Gao, Zongting (2010). "Changes in the relationship between Northeast China summer temperature and ENSO". Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres. 115 (D21). Bibcode:2010JGRD..11521107W. doi:10.1029/2010JD014422. ISSN 2156-2202.
• Wu, Yutian; Shaw, Tiffany A. (15 December 2016). "The Impact of the Asian Summer Monsoon Circulation on the Tropopause". Journal of Climate. 29 (24): 8689–8701. Bibcode:2016JCli...29.8689W. doi:10.1175/JCLI-D-16-0204.1.
• Wu, Chi-Hua; Lee, Shih-Yu; Chiang, John C.H. (July 2018). "Relative influence of precession and obliquity in the early Holocene: Topographic modulation of subtropical seasonality during the Asian summer monsoon". Quaternary Science Reviews. 191: 238–255. Bibcode:2018QSRv..191..238W. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2018.05.021. ISSN 0277-3791. S2CID 134173278.
• Xiang, Baoqiang; Xie, Shang-Ping; Kang, Sarah M.; Kramer, Ryan J. (30 June 2023). "An emerging Asian aerosol dipole pattern reshapes the Asian summer monsoon and exacerbates northern hemisphere warming". npj Climate and Atmospheric Science. 6 (1): 1–10. doi:10.1038/s41612-023-00400-8. ISSN 2397-3722.
• Yang, Song; Wu, Renguang; Jian, Maoqiu; Huang, Jian; Hu, Xiaoming; Wang, Ziqian; Jiang, Xingwen (2021). Climate Change in Southeast Asia and Surrounding Areas. Springer Climate. Singapore: Springer Singapore. doi:10.1007/978-981-15-8225-7. ISBN 978-981-15-8224-0. S2CID 226232024.
• Zuo, Meng; Zhou, Tianjun; Man, Wenmin (2019). "Wetter Global Arid Regions Driven by Volcanic Eruptions". Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres. 124 (24): 13648–13662. Bibcode:2019JGRD..12413648Z. doi:10.1029/2019JD031171. ISSN 2169-8996. S2CID 210245016.