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Indian Ocean Dipole

November 02, 2023

The Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD), also known as the Indian Niño, is an irregular oscillation of sea surface temperatures in which the western Indian Ocean becomes alternately warmer (positive phase) and then colder (negative phase) than the eastern part of the ocean.

Water temperatures around the Mentawai Islands dropped about 4 °C during the height of a positive phase of the Indian Ocean Dipole in November 1997. During these events unusually strong winds from the east push warm surface water towards Africa, allowing cold water to upwell along the Sumatran coast. In this image blue areas are cooler than normal, while red areas are warmer than normal.

Phenomenon edit

The IOD involves an aperiodic oscillation of sea-surface temperatures (SST), between "positive", "neutral" and "negative" phases. A positive phase sees greater-than-average sea-surface temperatures and greater precipitation in the western Indian Ocean region,[dubious – discuss] with a corresponding cooling of waters in the eastern Indian Ocean—which tends to cause droughts in adjacent land areas of Indonesia and Australia. The negative phase of the IOD brings about the opposite conditions, with warmer water and greater precipitation in the eastern Indian Ocean, and cooler and drier conditions in the west.

The IOD also affects the strength of monsoons over the Indian subcontinent. A significant positive IOD occurred in 1997–98, with another in 2006. The IOD is one aspect of the general cycle of global climate, interacting with similar phenomena like the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) in the Pacific Ocean.

The IOD phenomenon was first identified by climate researchers in 1999.[1][2]

An average of four each positive-negative IOD events occur during each 30-year period with each event lasting around six months. However, there were 12 positive IODs between 1980 and 2009, and no negative events between 1980 and 1992. The occurrence of consecutive positive IOD events is extremely rare with only two such events recorded, 1913–1914 and the three consecutive events from 2006 to 2008 which preceded the Black Saturday bushfires. Modelling suggests that consecutive positive events could be expected to occur twice over a 1,000-year period. The positive IOD in 2007 evolved together with La Niña, which is a very rare phenomenon that has happened only once in the available historical records (in 1967).[3][4][5][6] A strong negative IOD developed in October 2010,[7] which, coupled with a strong and concurrent La Niña, caused the 2010–2011 Queensland floods and the 2011 Victorian floods.

In 2008, Nerilie Abram used coral records from the eastern and western Indian Ocean to construct a coral Dipole Mode Index extending back to 1846 AD.[8] This extended perspective on IOD behaviour suggested that positive IOD events increased in strength and frequency during the 20th century.[9]

Effect on Southeast Asian and Australian droughts edit

A positive IOD is associated with droughts in Southeast Asia[10],[11] and Australia. Extreme positive-IOD events are expected.[12]

A 2009 study by Ummenhofer et al. at the University of New South Wales (UNSW) Climate Change Research Centre has demonstrated a significant correlation between the IOD and drought in the southern half of Australia, in particular the south-east. Every major southern drought since 1889 has coincided with positive-neutral IOD fluctuations including the 1895–1902, 1937–1945 and the 1995–2009 droughts.[13]

The research shows that when the IOD is in its negative phase, with cool western Indian Ocean water and warm water off northwest Australia (Timor Sea), winds are generated that pick up moisture from the ocean and then sweep down towards southern Australia to deliver higher rainfall. In the IOD-positive phase, the pattern of ocean temperatures is reversed, weakening the winds and reducing the amount of moisture picked up and transported across Australia. The consequence is that rainfall in the south-east is well below average during periods of a positive IOD.

The study also shows that the IOD has a much more significant effect on the rainfall patterns in south-east Australia than the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) in the Pacific Ocean as already shown in several recent studies.[14][15][16]

Effect on rainfall across East Africa edit

A positive IOD is linked to higher than average rainfall during the East African Short Rains (EASR) between October and December.[17] Higher rainfall during the EASR are associated with warm sea-surface temperatures (SST) in the western Indian Ocean and low level westerlies across the equatorial region of the ocean which brings moisture over the East Africa region.[17]

The increased rainfall associated with a positive IOD has been found to result in increased flooding over East Africa during the EASR period. During a particularly strong positive IOD at the end of 2019, average rainfall over East Africa was 300% higher than normal.[18] This higher than average rainfall has resulted in a high prevalence of flooding in the countries of Djibouti, Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Somalia and South Sudan.[19] Torrential rainfall and increased risk of landslides over the region during this period often results in widespread destruction and loss of life.[20][21][22][23]

It is expected that the Western Indian ocean will warm at accelerated rates due to climate change [24][25] leading to an increasing occurrence of positive IODs.[26] This is likely to result in the increasing intensity of rainfall during the short rain period over East Africa.[27]

Effect on El Niño edit

A 2018 study by Hameed et al. at the University of Aizu simulated the impact of a positive IOD event on Pacific surface wind and SST variations.[28] They show that IOD-induced surface wind anomalies can produce El Nino-like SST anomalies, with the IOD's impact on SST being the strongest in the far-eastern Pacific. They further demonstrated that IOD-ENSO interaction is a key for the generation of Super El Ninos.[29]

2020 IOD positive cycle edit

A positive IOD cycle is related to multiple cyclones that ravaged East Africa in 2019, killing thousands. The unusually active 2018-2019 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season was aided by warmer than normal waters offshore (starting with Cyclone Idai and continuing on to the subsequent cyclone season). Additionally, the positive IOD dipole contributed to Australian drought & bushfires (convective IOD cycle brings dry air down on Australia) and the 2020 Jakarta floods (convective IOD cycle prevents moist air from going south, thus concentrating it in the tropics), and more recently the 2019–21 East Africa locust infestation.[30][31]

See also edit

References edit

  1. ^ Saji et al. 1999
  2. ^ Webster, P.J.; Moore, A.M:Loschnigg; J.P., Leben, R.P. (1999). "Coupled ocean–atmosphere dynamics in the Indian Ocean during 1997–98". Letters to Nature. 401 (6751): 356–360. Bibcode:1999Natur.401..356W. doi:10.1038/43848. PMID 16862107. S2CID 205033630.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  3. ^ Cai W, Pan A, Roemmich D, Cowan T, Guo X (2009). "Argo profiles a rare occurrence of three consecutive positive Indian Ocean Dipole events, 2006–2008". Geophysical Research Letters. 36 (8): L037038. Bibcode:2009GeoRL..36.8701C. doi:10.1029/2008GL037038.
  4. ^ Cooper, Dani (March 25, 2009). "Bushfire origins lie in Indian Ocean". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved December 22, 2009.
  5. ^ Perry, Michael (February 5, 2009). "Indian Ocean linked to Australian droughts". Reuters. Retrieved December 22, 2009.
  6. ^ Rosebro, Jack (February 12, 2009). "Australi Reels From Split Weather System". Green Car Congress. Retrieved December 22, 2009.
  7. ^ "Seasonal Prediction: ENSO forecast, Indian Ocean forecast, Regional forecast". Low-latitude Climate Prediction Research. JAMSTEC.
  8. ^ "Coral Dipole Mode Index, World Data Center for Paleoclimatology".
  9. ^ Abram, Nerilie J.; Gagan, Michael K.; Cole, Julia E.; Hantoro, Wahyoe S.; Mudelsee, Manfred (16 November 2008). "Recent intensification of tropical climate variability in the Indian Ocean". Nature Geoscience. 1 (12): 849–853. Bibcode:2008NatGe...1..849A. doi:10.1038/ngeo357.
  10. ^ Tan, Audrey (2019-08-22). "Dry spell likely caused by climate phenomenon". The New Paper. Retrieved 2019-09-12.
  11. ^ Tan, Audrey (2019-08-22). "Dry spell in Singapore likely to last several months". The Straits Times. Retrieved 2019-09-12.
  12. ^ Cai, Wenju; Santoso, Agus; Wang, Guojian; Weller, Evan; Wu, Lixin; Ashok, Karumuri; Masumoto, Yukio; Yamagata, Toshio (2014). "Increased frequency of extreme Indian Ocean Dipole events due to greenhouse warming". Nature. 510 (7504): 254–8. Bibcode:2014Natur.510..254C. doi:10.1038/nature13327. PMID 24919920. S2CID 4458688.
  13. ^ Ummenhofer, Caroline C. (February 2009). "What causes southeast Australia's worst droughts?". Geophysical Research Letters. 36 (4): L04706. Bibcode:2009GeoRL..36.4706U. doi:10.1029/2008GL036801.
  14. ^ Behera, Swadhin K.; Yamagata, Toshio (2003). "Influence of the Indian Ocean Dipole on the Southern Oscillation". Journal of the Meteorological Society of Japan. 81 (1): 169–177. Bibcode:2003JMeSJ..81..169B. doi:10.2151/jmsj.81.169.
  15. ^ Annamalai, H.; Xie, S.-P.; McCreary, J.-P.; Murtugudde, R. (2005). "Impact of Indian Ocean sea surface temperature on developing El Niño". Journal of Climate. 18 (2): 302–319. Bibcode:2005JCli...18..302A. doi:10.1175/JCLI-3268.1. S2CID 17013509.
  16. ^ Izumo, T.; Vialard, J.; Lengaigne, M.; de Boyer Montegut, C.; Behera, S.K.; Luo, J.-J.; Cravatte, S.; Masson, S.; Yamagata, T. (2010). "Influence of the state of the Indian Ocean Dipole on the following year's El Niño" (PDF). Nature Geoscience. 3 (3): 168–172. Bibcode:2010NatGe...3..168I. doi:10.1038/NGEO760.
  17. ^ a b Hirons, Linda; Turner, Andrew (August 2018). "The Impact of Indian Ocean Mean-State Biases in Climate Models on the Representation of the East African Short Rains" (PDF). Journal of Climate. 31 (16): 6611–6631. Bibcode:2018JCli...31.6611H. doi:10.1175/JCLI-D-17-0804.1. ISSN 0894-8755.
  18. ^ "East Africa Food Security Outlook: High food assistance needs persist, but food security in the Horn is likely to improve in 2020, November 2019 - South Sudan". ReliefWeb. Retrieved 2020-01-10.
  19. ^ "The climate phenomenon linking floods and bushfires". 2019-12-07. Retrieved 2020-01-10.
  20. ^ "Flooding in western Uganda kills more than a dozen". www.aljazeera.com. Retrieved 2020-01-10.
  21. ^ "Risk of more flooding and landslides as rains batter East Africa". www.aljazeera.com. Retrieved 2020-01-10.
  22. ^ "Kenya floods: More rain expected in region". www.aljazeera.com. Retrieved 2020-01-10.
  23. ^ "East Africa floods". BBC News. Retrieved 2020-01-10.
  24. ^ Chu, Jung-Eun; Ha, Kyung-Ja; Lee, June-Yi; Wang, Bin; Kim, Byeong-Hee; Chung, Chul Eddy (2014-07-01). "Future change of the Indian Ocean basin-wide and dipole modes in the CMIP5". Climate Dynamics. 43 (1): 535–551. Bibcode:2014ClDy...43..535C. doi:10.1007/s00382-013-2002-7. ISSN 1432-0894.
  25. ^ Zheng, Xiao-Tong; Xie, Shang-Ping; Du, Yan; Liu, Lin; Huang, Gang; Liu, Qinyu (2013-03-01). "Indian Ocean Dipole Response to Global Warming in the CMIP5 Multimodel Ensemble". Journal of Climate. 26 (16): 6067–6080. Bibcode:2013JCli...26.6067Z. doi:10.1175/JCLI-D-12-00638.1. ISSN 0894-8755.
  26. ^ Cai, Wenju; Wang, Guojian; Gan, Bolan; Wu, Lixin; Santoso, Agus; Lin, Xiaopei; Chen, Zhaohui; Jia, Fan; Yamagata, Toshio (2018-04-12). "Stabilised frequency of extreme positive Indian Ocean Dipole under 1.5 °C warming". Nature Communications. 9 (1): 1419. Bibcode:2018NatCo...9.1419C. doi:10.1038/s41467-018-03789-6. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 5897553. PMID 29650992.
  27. ^ Kendon, Elizabeth J.; Stratton, Rachel A.; Tucker, Simon; Marsham, John H.; Berthou, Ségolène; Rowell, David P.; Senior, Catherine A. (2019-04-23). "Enhanced future changes in wet and dry extremes over Africa at convection-permitting scale". Nature Communications. 10 (1): 1794. Bibcode:2019NatCo..10.1794K. doi:10.1038/s41467-019-09776-9. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 6478940. PMID 31015416.
  28. ^ Hameed, Saji N.; Jin, Dachao; Thilakan, Vishnu (2018-06-28). "A model for super El Niños". Nature Communications. 9 (1): 2528. Bibcode:2018NatCo...9.2528H. doi:10.1038/s41467-018-04803-7. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 6023905. PMID 29955048.
  29. ^ Hong, Li-Ciao; LinHo; Jin, Fei-Fei (2014-03-24). "A Southern Hemisphere booster of super El Niño". Geophysical Research Letters. 41 (6): 2142–2149. Bibcode:2014GeoRL..41.2142H. doi:10.1002/2014gl059370. ISSN 0094-8276. S2CID 128595874.
  30. ^ "Indian Ocean Dipole: What is it and why is it linked to floods and bushfires?". BBC News. 2019-12-07. Retrieved 2021-06-02.
  31. ^ "Billions of locusts swarm through East Africa after year of extreme weather". France 24. 2020-01-24. Retrieved 2021-06-02.

Further reading edit

  • Abram, Nerilie J.; et al. (2007). "Seasonal characteristics of the Indian Ocean dipole during the Holocene epoch". Nature. 445 (7125): 299–302. Bibcode:2007Natur.445..299A. doi:10.1038/nature05477. hdl:1885/24194. PMID 17230187. S2CID 4348466.
  • Ashok, Karumuri; Guan, Zhaoyong; Yamagata, Toshio (2001). "Impact of the Indian Ocean Dipole on the Relationship between the Indian Monsoon Rainfall and ENSO". Geophysical Research Letters. 28 (23): 4499–4502. Bibcode:2001GeoRL..28.4499A. doi:10.1029/2001GL013294. S2CID 62837195.
  • Li, Tim; et al. (2003). "A Theory for the Indian Ocean Dipole–Zonal Mode". Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences. 60 (17): 2119–35. Bibcode:2003JAtS...60.2119L. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(2003)060<2119:ATFTIO>2.0.CO;2. ISSN 1520-0469. S2CID 3053877.
  • Rao, S. A.; et al. (2002). "Interannual variability in the subsurface Indian Ocean with special emphasis on the Indian Ocean Dipole". Deep-Sea Research Part II. 49 (7–8): 1549–72. Bibcode:2002DSRII..49.1549R. doi:10.1016/S0967-0645(01)00158-8.
  • Saji, N. H.; et al. (1999). "A dipole mode in the tropical Indian Ocean". Nature. 401 (6751): 360–3. Bibcode:1999Natur.401..360S. doi:10.1038/43854. PMID 16862108. S2CID 4427627.
  • Behera, S. K.; et al. (2008). "Unusual IOD event of 2007". Geophysical Research Letters. 35 (14): L14S11. Bibcode:2008GeoRL..3514S11B. doi:10.1029/2008GL034122. S2CID 129737324.

External links edit

  • IOD home page
  • Indian Ocean causes Big Dry: drought mystery solved.

November 02, 2023
indian, ocean, dipole, also, known, indian, niño, irregular, oscillation, surface, temperatures, which, western, indian, ocean, becomes, alternately, warmer, positive, phase, then, colder, negative, phase, than, eastern, part, ocean, water, temperatures, aroun. The Indian Ocean Dipole IOD also known as the Indian Nino is an irregular oscillation of sea surface temperatures in which the western Indian Ocean becomes alternately warmer positive phase and then colder negative phase than the eastern part of the ocean Water temperatures around the Mentawai Islands dropped about 4 C during the height of a positive phase of the Indian Ocean Dipole in November 1997 During these events unusually strong winds from the east push warm surface water towards Africa allowing cold water to upwell along the Sumatran coast In this image blue areas are cooler than normal while red areas are warmer than normal Contents 1 Phenomenon 2 Effect on Southeast Asian and Australian droughts 3 Effect on rainfall across East Africa 4 Effect on El Nino 5 2020 IOD positive cycle 6 See also 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External linksPhenomenon editThe IOD involves an aperiodic oscillation of sea surface temperatures SST between positive neutral and negative phases A positive phase sees greater than average sea surface temperatures and greater precipitation in the western Indian Ocean region dubious discuss with a corresponding cooling of waters in the eastern Indian Ocean which tends to cause droughts in adjacent land areas of Indonesia and Australia The negative phase of the IOD brings about the opposite conditions with warmer water and greater precipitation in the eastern Indian Ocean and cooler and drier conditions in the west The IOD also affects the strength of monsoons over the Indian subcontinent A significant positive IOD occurred in 1997 98 with another in 2006 The IOD is one aspect of the general cycle of global climate interacting with similar phenomena like the El Nino Southern Oscillation ENSO in the Pacific Ocean The IOD phenomenon was first identified by climate researchers in 1999 1 2 An average of four each positive negative IOD events occur during each 30 year period with each event lasting around six months However there were 12 positive IODs between 1980 and 2009 and no negative events between 1980 and 1992 The occurrence of consecutive positive IOD events is extremely rare with only two such events recorded 1913 1914 and the three consecutive events from 2006 to 2008 which preceded the Black Saturday bushfires Modelling suggests that consecutive positive events could be expected to occur twice over a 1 000 year period The positive IOD in 2007 evolved together with La Nina which is a very rare phenomenon that has happened only once in the available historical records in 1967 3 4 5 6 A strong negative IOD developed in October 2010 7 which coupled with a strong and concurrent La Nina caused the 2010 2011 Queensland floods and the 2011 Victorian floods In 2008 Nerilie Abram used coral records from the eastern and western Indian Ocean to construct a coral Dipole Mode Index extending back to 1846 AD 8 This extended perspective on IOD behaviour suggested that positive IOD events increased in strength and frequency during the 20th century 9 Effect on Southeast Asian and Australian droughts editA positive IOD is associated with droughts in Southeast Asia 10 11 and Australia Extreme positive IOD events are expected 12 A 2009 study by Ummenhofer et al at the University of New South Wales UNSW Climate Change Research Centre has demonstrated a significant correlation between the IOD and drought in the southern half of Australia in particular the south east Every major southern drought since 1889 has coincided with positive neutral IOD fluctuations including the 1895 1902 1937 1945 and the 1995 2009 droughts 13 The research shows that when the IOD is in its negative phase with cool western Indian Ocean water and warm water off northwest Australia Timor Sea winds are generated that pick up moisture from the ocean and then sweep down towards southern Australia to deliver higher rainfall In the IOD positive phase the pattern of ocean temperatures is reversed weakening the winds and reducing the amount of moisture picked up and transported across Australia The consequence is that rainfall in the south east is well below average during periods of a positive IOD The study also shows that the IOD has a much more significant effect on the rainfall patterns in south east Australia than the El Nino Southern Oscillation ENSO in the Pacific Ocean as already shown in several recent studies 14 15 16 Effect on rainfall across East Africa editA positive IOD is linked to higher than average rainfall during the East African Short Rains EASR between October and December 17 Higher rainfall during the EASR are associated with warm sea surface temperatures SST in the western Indian Ocean and low level westerlies across the equatorial region of the ocean which brings moisture over the East Africa region 17 The increased rainfall associated with a positive IOD has been found to result in increased flooding over East Africa during the EASR period During a particularly strong positive IOD at the end of 2019 average rainfall over East Africa was 300 higher than normal 18 This higher than average rainfall has resulted in a high prevalence of flooding in the countries of Djibouti Ethiopia Kenya Uganda Tanzania Somalia and South Sudan 19 Torrential rainfall and increased risk of landslides over the region during this period often results in widespread destruction and loss of life 20 21 22 23 It is expected that the Western Indian ocean will warm at accelerated rates due to climate change 24 25 leading to an increasing occurrence of positive IODs 26 This is likely to result in the increasing intensity of rainfall during the short rain period over East Africa 27 Effect on El Nino editA 2018 study by Hameed et al at the University of Aizu simulated the impact of a positive IOD event on Pacific surface wind and SST variations 28 They show that IOD induced surface wind anomalies can produce El Nino like SST anomalies with the IOD s impact on SST being the strongest in the far eastern Pacific They further demonstrated that IOD ENSO interaction is a key for the generation of Super El Ninos 29 2020 IOD positive cycle editA positive IOD cycle is related to multiple cyclones that ravaged East Africa in 2019 killing thousands The unusually active 2018 2019 South West Indian Ocean cyclone season was aided by warmer than normal waters offshore starting with Cyclone Idai and continuing on to the subsequent cyclone season Additionally the positive IOD dipole contributed to Australian drought amp bushfires convective IOD cycle brings dry air down on Australia and the 2020 Jakarta floods convective IOD cycle prevents moist air from going south thus concentrating it in the tropics and more recently the 2019 21 East Africa locust infestation 30 31 See also editArctic dipole anomaly Subtropical Indian Ocean DipoleReferences edit Saji et al 1999 Webster P J Moore A M Loschnigg J P Leben R P 1999 Coupled ocean atmosphere dynamics in the Indian Ocean during 1997 98 Letters to Nature 401 6751 356 360 Bibcode 1999Natur 401 356W doi 10 1038 43848 PMID 16862107 S2CID 205033630 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Cai W Pan A Roemmich D Cowan T Guo X 2009 Argo profiles a rare occurrence of three consecutive positive Indian Ocean Dipole events 2006 2008 Geophysical Research Letters 36 8 L037038 Bibcode 2009GeoRL 36 8701C doi 10 1029 2008GL037038 Cooper Dani March 25 2009 Bushfire origins lie in Indian Ocean Australian Broadcasting Corporation Retrieved December 22 2009 Perry Michael February 5 2009 Indian Ocean linked to Australian droughts Reuters Retrieved December 22 2009 Rosebro Jack February 12 2009 Australi Reels From Split Weather System Green Car Congress Retrieved December 22 2009 Seasonal Prediction ENSO forecast Indian Ocean forecast Regional forecast Low latitude Climate Prediction Research JAMSTEC Coral Dipole Mode Index World Data Center for Paleoclimatology Abram Nerilie J Gagan Michael K Cole Julia E Hantoro Wahyoe S Mudelsee Manfred 16 November 2008 Recent intensification of tropical climate variability in the Indian Ocean Nature Geoscience 1 12 849 853 Bibcode 2008NatGe 1 849A doi 10 1038 ngeo357 Tan Audrey 2019 08 22 Dry spell likely caused by climate phenomenon The New Paper Retrieved 2019 09 12 Tan Audrey 2019 08 22 Dry spell in Singapore likely to last several months The Straits Times Retrieved 2019 09 12 Cai Wenju Santoso Agus Wang Guojian Weller Evan Wu Lixin Ashok Karumuri Masumoto Yukio Yamagata Toshio 2014 Increased frequency of extreme Indian Ocean Dipole events due to greenhouse warming Nature 510 7504 254 8 Bibcode 2014Natur 510 254C doi 10 1038 nature13327 PMID 24919920 S2CID 4458688 Ummenhofer Caroline C February 2009 What causes southeast Australia s worst droughts Geophysical Research Letters 36 4 L04706 Bibcode 2009GeoRL 36 4706U doi 10 1029 2008GL036801 Behera Swadhin K Yamagata Toshio 2003 Influence of the Indian Ocean Dipole on the Southern Oscillation Journal of the Meteorological Society of Japan 81 1 169 177 Bibcode 2003JMeSJ 81 169B doi 10 2151 jmsj 81 169 Annamalai H Xie S P McCreary J P Murtugudde R 2005 Impact of Indian Ocean sea surface temperature on developing El Nino Journal of Climate 18 2 302 319 Bibcode 2005JCli 18 302A doi 10 1175 JCLI 3268 1 S2CID 17013509 Izumo T Vialard J Lengaigne M de Boyer Montegut C Behera S K Luo J J Cravatte S Masson S Yamagata T 2010 Influence of the state of the Indian Ocean Dipole on the following year s El Nino PDF Nature Geoscience 3 3 168 172 Bibcode 2010NatGe 3 168I doi 10 1038 NGEO760 a b Hirons Linda Turner Andrew August 2018 The Impact of Indian Ocean Mean State Biases in Climate Models on the Representation of the East African Short Rains PDF Journal of Climate 31 16 6611 6631 Bibcode 2018JCli 31 6611H doi 10 1175 JCLI D 17 0804 1 ISSN 0894 8755 East Africa Food Security Outlook High food assistance needs persist but food security in the Horn is likely to improve in 2020 November 2019 South Sudan ReliefWeb Retrieved 2020 01 10 The climate phenomenon linking floods and bushfires 2019 12 07 Retrieved 2020 01 10 Flooding in western Uganda kills more than a dozen www aljazeera com Retrieved 2020 01 10 Risk of more flooding and landslides as rains batter East Africa www aljazeera com Retrieved 2020 01 10 Kenya floods More rain expected in region www aljazeera com Retrieved 2020 01 10 East Africa floods BBC News Retrieved 2020 01 10 Chu Jung Eun Ha Kyung Ja Lee June Yi Wang Bin Kim Byeong Hee Chung Chul Eddy 2014 07 01 Future change of the Indian Ocean basin wide and dipole modes in the CMIP5 Climate Dynamics 43 1 535 551 Bibcode 2014ClDy 43 535C doi 10 1007 s00382 013 2002 7 ISSN 1432 0894 Zheng Xiao Tong Xie Shang Ping Du Yan Liu Lin Huang Gang Liu Qinyu 2013 03 01 Indian Ocean Dipole Response to Global Warming in the CMIP5 Multimodel Ensemble Journal of Climate 26 16 6067 6080 Bibcode 2013JCli 26 6067Z doi 10 1175 JCLI D 12 00638 1 ISSN 0894 8755 Cai Wenju Wang Guojian Gan Bolan Wu Lixin Santoso Agus Lin Xiaopei Chen Zhaohui Jia Fan Yamagata Toshio 2018 04 12 Stabilised frequency of extreme positive Indian Ocean Dipole under 1 5 C warming Nature Communications 9 1 1419 Bibcode 2018NatCo 9 1419C doi 10 1038 s41467 018 03789 6 ISSN 2041 1723 PMC 5897553 PMID 29650992 Kendon Elizabeth J Stratton Rachel A Tucker Simon Marsham John H Berthou Segolene Rowell David P Senior Catherine A 2019 04 23 Enhanced future changes in wet and dry extremes over Africa at convection permitting scale Nature Communications 10 1 1794 Bibcode 2019NatCo 10 1794K doi 10 1038 s41467 019 09776 9 ISSN 2041 1723 PMC 6478940 PMID 31015416 Hameed Saji N Jin Dachao Thilakan Vishnu 2018 06 28 A model for super El Ninos Nature Communications 9 1 2528 Bibcode 2018NatCo 9 2528H doi 10 1038 s41467 018 04803 7 ISSN 2041 1723 PMC 6023905 PMID 29955048 Hong Li Ciao LinHo Jin Fei Fei 2014 03 24 A Southern Hemisphere booster of super El Nino Geophysical Research Letters 41 6 2142 2149 Bibcode 2014GeoRL 41 2142H doi 10 1002 2014gl059370 ISSN 0094 8276 S2CID 128595874 Indian Ocean Dipole What is it and why is it linked to floods and bushfires BBC News 2019 12 07 Retrieved 2021 06 02 Billions of locusts swarm through East Africa after year of extreme weather France 24 2020 01 24 Retrieved 2021 06 02 Further reading editAbram Nerilie J et al 2007 Seasonal characteristics of the Indian Ocean dipole during the Holocene epoch Nature 445 7125 299 302 Bibcode 2007Natur 445 299A doi 10 1038 nature05477 hdl 1885 24194 PMID 17230187 S2CID 4348466 Ashok Karumuri Guan Zhaoyong Yamagata Toshio 2001 Impact of the Indian Ocean Dipole on the Relationship between the Indian Monsoon Rainfall and ENSO Geophysical Research Letters 28 23 4499 4502 Bibcode 2001GeoRL 28 4499A doi 10 1029 2001GL013294 S2CID 62837195 Li Tim et al 2003 A Theory for the Indian Ocean Dipole Zonal Mode Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 60 17 2119 35 Bibcode 2003JAtS 60 2119L doi 10 1175 1520 0469 2003 060 lt 2119 ATFTIO gt 2 0 CO 2 ISSN 1520 0469 S2CID 3053877 Rao S A et al 2002 Interannual variability in the subsurface Indian Ocean with special emphasis on the Indian Ocean Dipole Deep Sea Research Part II 49 7 8 1549 72 Bibcode 2002DSRII 49 1549R doi 10 1016 S0967 0645 01 00158 8 Saji N H et al 1999 A dipole mode in the tropical Indian Ocean Nature 401 6751 360 3 Bibcode 1999Natur 401 360S doi 10 1038 43854 PMID 16862108 S2CID 4427627 Behera S K et al 2008 Unusual IOD event of 2007 Geophysical Research Letters 35 14 L14S11 Bibcode 2008GeoRL 3514S11B doi 10 1029 2008GL034122 S2CID 129737324 External links editIOD home page Indian Ocean causes Big Dry drought mystery solved Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Indian Ocean Dipole amp oldid 1176092160, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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