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Revolution of the 44

March 30, 2023

The Revolution of the 44 (Spanish: Revolución de los 44) was a military rebellion led by a group of Salvadoran generals, known as "the 44", against the government of President General Carlos Ezeta and Vice President General Antonio Ezeta.

Revolution of the 44
Date
  • 29 April 1894 – 10 June 1894
  • (42 days)
Location
El Salvador
Result

Rebel victory

Belligerents
Salvadoran government
Commanders and leaders
Strength
Unknown 5,500
Casualties and losses
  • 2,000 killed[1]
  • 5,000 wounded[1]
 Unknown

The rebellion began in late-April 1894 when rebels captured the western Salvadoran city of Santa Ana, upon which, Ezeta declared a state of siege. By mid-June 1894, the rebels ousted the Ezeta brothers and installed General Rafael Antonio Gutiérrez as the country's provisional president.

Background

On 22 June 1890, General Carlos Ezeta, with the support of some indigenous Salvadorans, staged a coup d'état which overthrew and killed President General Francisco Menéndez,[2][3] who himself became president after a coup d'état against Rafael Zaldívar in 1885.[4] The Guatemalan government refused to recognize Ezeta's government and declared war on El Salvador on 27 June 1890.[5] Guatemalan forces under General Cayetano Sánchez and Salvadoran forces under Ezeta's brother, General Antonio Ezeta, met in battle on 21 July outside the city of Coatepeque, ending in a Guatemalan victory.[6] Another battle occurred on 3 August near the town of Tempisque, ending in a Salvadoran victory.[7]

Although Salvadoran exiles supported the Guatemalans in an attempt to seize power, the war ended in September 1890 on the condition that the Salvadoran people are allowed to elect their president.[8] The following year, the Salvadoran government held a presidential election. The election was heavily rigged in Carlos' favor; he was the only candidate and won 52,342 votes to only 19 against, or 99.96 percent.[4] Antonio was elected as his vice president, winning by a similar margin.[4][9] Their term began on 1 March 1891. Additionally, Antonio was appointed as the commander-in-chief of the army.[8]

Revolution

 
General Carlos Ezeta.

On the morning of 29 April 1894, a group of 44 rebels captured the western Salvadoran city of Santa Ana.[10] The rebels, had arrived from exile in Guatemala,[9] captured the city's army barracks and forced Antonio and General Jacinto Colocho, the barrack's commander, to flee the city to Coatepeque.[8] In response to the rebellion, which numbered around 500 rebels[8] and was supported by an additional 5,000 soldiers from Guatemala and Honduras,[1] Carlos invoked articles 4 and 91 of the constitution and declared a state of siege for twenty-nine days.[11] In a public announcement issued through the Diario Oficial newspaper on the day the rebellion began, Carlos stated:

Salvadorans:

A seditious movement has just erupted in Santa Ana, that, although isolated and without elements to extend itself, it clearly reveals that the enemies of the fatherland do not rest in their ungrateful task to harm the country snatch the benefits of peace, that it has enjoyed until now.

A treacherous hand, the eternal enemy of our autonomy, has given impulse to a handful of rebels, who promptly will be terribly chastened, because the wicked who want to bring the country the disgraces and calamities of a civil war do not deserve anything else.

Salvadorans! I do not need more than a small force of our patriotism to annihilate the disturbers of order, and once again taste the autonomy and independence that El Salvador has conquered with many sacrifices, they are now indestructible, because the brilliant army that sustains it and the people will give everything until the last drop of blood in defense of that precious conquest, if necessary.

Otherwise, tranquilly rest in that our Chief will know in any case how to fulfill his duty and always end all causes of disorder and anarchy.

— President General Carlos Ezeta, 29 April 1894[11]

On 1 May, General Rafael Antonio Gutiérrez, one of the rebellion's leaders, was proclaimed as the country's president in opposition to the Ezeta brothers' government.[4][12] On 3 May, Antonio was wounded by rebel forces, resulting in him being replaced as commander-in-chief of the army by General León Bolaños.[8] On 5 May, while Carlos was traveling to Santa Ana by train in command of an army of 1,000 soldiers, rebels derailed the train near the town of La Ceiba by ripping out the track's rivets on a bridge that crossed the Ateos river. He survived the derailment, as his carriage was specially designed to be stronger than the other carriages. The number of casualties is unknown.[13] The rebels captured the Santa Ana Volcano and entered its crater on 8 May.[14] Government forces under the command of General Joaquín López defeated rebel forces in the city of Chalchuapa on 11 May, forcing them to retreat back to Santa Ana.[15]

Antonio reassumed the role of commander-in-chief on 23 May after recovering from his injuries.[8]

As the rebels made advances towards San Salvador, Carlos fled the country for Panama on 4 June, departing from the port of La Libertad. From there, he left for New York City and then Europe. Upon his brother's flight from the country, Antonio assumed the presidency in an acting capacity and commanded his army to retreat to Santa Tecla on 5 June. By then, his army, which began with 1,700 soldiers, was reduced to a few hundred soldiers due to soldiers being killed, wounded, or deserting.[8] The United States had dispatched the USS Bennington to the port of La Libertad to protect the interests of U.S. citizens in the country, where Antonio and sixteen other generals requested asylum.[16] After both Ezeta brothers had fled the country, Gutiérrez marched into San Salvador on 10 June and officially assumed office as provisional president.[4][17] The new government requested the extradition of those who fled the country to the United States, but the U.S. government refused to extradite them; the U.S. would not recognize Gutiérrez's presidency until 3 August.[18]

Aftermath

Gutiérrez served as president in a provisional capacity until his inauguration on 1 March 1895 after he was elected through a rigged presidential election, in which he was the only candidate, in January of that year. He received 61,080 votes to only 91 against, or 99.85 percent. Prudencio Alfaro was elected as his vice president, winning 38,006 votes, or 62.51 percent. Gutiérrez served until 13 November 1898 when he was overthrown by General Tomás Regalado Romero, who assumed office as provisional president,[19] later legitimizing his rule through the 1899 presidential election.[4] The city of Santa Ana was nicknamed "The Heroic City" by the revolution's leaders after assuming power.[20]

In an interview with The New York Times in July 1894, Carlos stated that he would not seek to regain power. He added, "the revolution was planned by refugee Salvadorans and won with the support of Guatemala". His wife, four children, and three servants joined him in exile. He was accused of bringing USD$3 million with him to the United States, to which he responded, "I wish I had it".[1]

Salvadoran poet and writer Roque Dalton criticized the revolution in his 1972 book Miguel Mármol. Dalton described the rebels as a "reactionary mob" and as "44 rich good-for-nothings and 44 traitors and 44 sons of bitches". He added, "in spite of everything, the Ezeta government was more for the people, while [the government] of the 44 was fundamentally an enemy of the people", citing a period of economic downturn during Gutiérrez's presidency.[20]

See also

References

Citations

  1. ^ a b c d The New York Times 1894, p. 1.
  2. ^ Lauria-Santiago & Binford 2004, p. 25.
  3. ^ Casa Presidencial c. 2005a.
  4. ^ a b c d e f University of California, San Diego c. 2018.
  5. ^ Slade 1917, p. 207.
  6. ^ Aceña 1899, pp. 208–210.
  7. ^ Aceña 1899, p. 222.
  8. ^ a b c d e f g USGPO 1895, p. 126.
  9. ^ a b Lamperti c. 2003.
  10. ^ Linares 2006.
  11. ^ a b Diario Oficial 1894a, p. 513.
  12. ^ Diario Oficial 1894c, pp. 617–618.
  13. ^ Diario Oficial 1894b, p. 541.
  14. ^ Diario Oficial 1894b, p. 549.
  15. ^ Diario Oficial 1894b, p. 561.
  16. ^ USGPO 1895, pp. 126–127.
  17. ^ Casa Presidencial c. 2005b.
  18. ^ USGPO 1895, p. 127.
  19. ^ Lauria-Santiago & Binford 2004, p. 32.
  20. ^ a b Dalton 1973, p. 61.

Bibliography

  • Aceña, Ramón (1899). Efemérides Militares [Military Ephemeris] (in Spanish). Guatemala: Tipografía Nacional. ISBN 9781246122381. Retrieved 28 January 2023.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  • Dalton, Roque (1972). Miguel Mármol: Los Sucesos de 1932 en El Salvador [Miguel Mármol: The Events of 1932 in El Salvador] (PDF) (in Spanish). Curbstone Press. ISBN 9780915306671. Retrieved 7 February 2023.
  • "Diario Oficial (29 April 1894 Issue)" (PDF). Diario Oficial (in Spanish). Vol. 36, no. 100. San Salvador, El Salvador. 29 April 1894. pp. 513–516.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  • "Diario Oficial (May 1894 Issues)" (PDF). Diario Oficial (in Spanish). Vol. 36, no. 102–123. San Salvador, El Salvador. May 1894. pp. 521–612.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  • "Diario Oficial (June 1894 Issues)" (PDF). Diario Oficial (in Spanish). Vol. 36, no. 124–135. San Salvador, El Salvador. June 1894. pp. 613–660.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  • . University of California, San Diego. San Diego, California. c. 2018. Archived from the original on 23 March 2021. Retrieved 9 April 2022.
  • "Gen. Carlos Ezeta is Here – San Salvador's Ex-President Talks of His Overthrow". The New York Times. Vol. XLIII, no. 13372. 2 July 1894. pp. 1–10. Retrieved 7 February 2023.
  • Lamperti, John (c. 2003). "A Difference of Opinion". Dartmouth College. from the original on 21 December 2016. Retrieved 9 April 2022.
  • Lauria-Santiago, Aldo A.; Binford, Leigh, eds. (9 May 2004). Landscapes of Struggle: Politics, Society, and Community in El Salvador. University of Pittsburgh Press. ISBN 0822972549. Retrieved 7 January 2022.
  • Linares, Edwin (25 June 2006). "Los 44, Una Historia de Heroísmo" [The 44, The History of Heroism]. El Salvador.com (in Spanish). Retrieved 7 February 2023.
  • [Presidents of El Salvador – General Carlos Ezeta]. Casa Presidencial (in Spanish). c. 2005. Archived from the original on 2 March 2009. Retrieved 9 April 2022.
  • [Presidents of El Salvador – General Rafael Antonio Gutiérrez] (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 2 March 2009. Retrieved 1 September 2020.
  • Slade, William F. (1917). "The Federation of Central America". The Journal of Race Development. 8 (2): 204–276. doi:10.2307/29738239. hdl:2027/inu.30000056731338. JSTOR 29738239.
  • United States Congressional Serial Set, Volume 3279. Washington, D.C., United States: U.S. Government Printing Office. 1895.

Further reading

  • Vidal, Manuel (1935). Nociones de Historia de Centro América: (Especial de El Salvador) [Notions of the History of Central America: (Special of El Salvador)] (in Spanish). Talleres Gráficos Cisneros. ASIN B002DJ2R1Q.

March 30, 2023
revolution, spanish, revolución, military, rebellion, group, salvadoran, generals, known, against, government, president, general, carlos, ezeta, vice, president, general, antonio, ezeta, date29, april, 1894, june, 1894, days, locationel, salvadorresultrebel, . The Revolution of the 44 Spanish Revolucion de los 44 was a military rebellion led by a group of Salvadoran generals known as the 44 against the government of President General Carlos Ezeta and Vice President General Antonio Ezeta Revolution of the 44Date29 April 1894 10 June 1894 42 days LocationEl SalvadorResultRebel victory Carlos and Antonio Ezeta overthrown and replaced by Rafael Antonio GutierrezBelligerentsSalvadoran governmentAnti government rebels Supported by Guatemala HondurasCommanders and leadersCarlos Ezeta Antonio Ezeta WIA Rafael Antonio Gutierrez Tomas RegaladoStrengthUnknown5 500Casualties and losses2 000 killed 1 5 000 wounded 1 UnknownThe rebellion began in late April 1894 when rebels captured the western Salvadoran city of Santa Ana upon which Ezeta declared a state of siege By mid June 1894 the rebels ousted the Ezeta brothers and installed General Rafael Antonio Gutierrez as the country s provisional president Contents 1 Background 2 Revolution 3 Aftermath 4 See also 5 References 5 1 Citations 5 2 Bibliography 6 Further readingBackground EditOn 22 June 1890 General Carlos Ezeta with the support of some indigenous Salvadorans staged a coup d etat which overthrew and killed President General Francisco Menendez 2 3 who himself became president after a coup d etat against Rafael Zaldivar in 1885 4 The Guatemalan government refused to recognize Ezeta s government and declared war on El Salvador on 27 June 1890 5 Guatemalan forces under General Cayetano Sanchez and Salvadoran forces under Ezeta s brother General Antonio Ezeta met in battle on 21 July outside the city of Coatepeque ending in a Guatemalan victory 6 Another battle occurred on 3 August near the town of Tempisque ending in a Salvadoran victory 7 Although Salvadoran exiles supported the Guatemalans in an attempt to seize power the war ended in September 1890 on the condition that the Salvadoran people are allowed to elect their president 8 The following year the Salvadoran government held a presidential election The election was heavily rigged in Carlos favor he was the only candidate and won 52 342 votes to only 19 against or 99 96 percent 4 Antonio was elected as his vice president winning by a similar margin 4 9 Their term began on 1 March 1891 Additionally Antonio was appointed as the commander in chief of the army 8 Revolution Edit General Carlos Ezeta On the morning of 29 April 1894 a group of 44 rebels captured the western Salvadoran city of Santa Ana 10 The rebels had arrived from exile in Guatemala 9 captured the city s army barracks and forced Antonio and General Jacinto Colocho the barrack s commander to flee the city to Coatepeque 8 In response to the rebellion which numbered around 500 rebels 8 and was supported by an additional 5 000 soldiers from Guatemala and Honduras 1 Carlos invoked articles 4 and 91 of the constitution and declared a state of siege for twenty nine days 11 In a public announcement issued through the Diario Oficial newspaper on the day the rebellion began Carlos stated Salvadorans A seditious movement has just erupted in Santa Ana that although isolated and without elements to extend itself it clearly reveals that the enemies of the fatherland do not rest in their ungrateful task to harm the country snatch the benefits of peace that it has enjoyed until now A treacherous hand the eternal enemy of our autonomy has given impulse to a handful of rebels who promptly will be terribly chastened because the wicked who want to bring the country the disgraces and calamities of a civil war do not deserve anything else Salvadorans I do not need more than a small force of our patriotism to annihilate the disturbers of order and once again taste the autonomy and independence that El Salvador has conquered with many sacrifices they are now indestructible because the brilliant army that sustains it and the people will give everything until the last drop of blood in defense of that precious conquest if necessary Otherwise tranquilly rest in that our Chief will know in any case how to fulfill his duty and always end all causes of disorder and anarchy President General Carlos Ezeta 29 April 1894 11 General Rafael Antonio Gutierrez On 1 May General Rafael Antonio Gutierrez one of the rebellion s leaders was proclaimed as the country s president in opposition to the Ezeta brothers government 4 12 On 3 May Antonio was wounded by rebel forces resulting in him being replaced as commander in chief of the army by General Leon Bolanos 8 On 5 May while Carlos was traveling to Santa Ana by train in command of an army of 1 000 soldiers rebels derailed the train near the town of La Ceiba by ripping out the track s rivets on a bridge that crossed the Ateos river He survived the derailment as his carriage was specially designed to be stronger than the other carriages The number of casualties is unknown 13 The rebels captured the Santa Ana Volcano and entered its crater on 8 May 14 Government forces under the command of General Joaquin Lopez defeated rebel forces in the city of Chalchuapa on 11 May forcing them to retreat back to Santa Ana 15 Antonio reassumed the role of commander in chief on 23 May after recovering from his injuries 8 As the rebels made advances towards San Salvador Carlos fled the country for Panama on 4 June departing from the port of La Libertad From there he left for New York City and then Europe Upon his brother s flight from the country Antonio assumed the presidency in an acting capacity and commanded his army to retreat to Santa Tecla on 5 June By then his army which began with 1 700 soldiers was reduced to a few hundred soldiers due to soldiers being killed wounded or deserting 8 The United States had dispatched the USS Bennington to the port of La Libertad to protect the interests of U S citizens in the country where Antonio and sixteen other generals requested asylum 16 After both Ezeta brothers had fled the country Gutierrez marched into San Salvador on 10 June and officially assumed office as provisional president 4 17 The new government requested the extradition of those who fled the country to the United States but the U S government refused to extradite them the U S would not recognize Gutierrez s presidency until 3 August 18 Aftermath EditGutierrez served as president in a provisional capacity until his inauguration on 1 March 1895 after he was elected through a rigged presidential election in which he was the only candidate in January of that year He received 61 080 votes to only 91 against or 99 85 percent Prudencio Alfaro was elected as his vice president winning 38 006 votes or 62 51 percent Gutierrez served until 13 November 1898 when he was overthrown by General Tomas Regalado Romero who assumed office as provisional president 19 later legitimizing his rule through the 1899 presidential election 4 The city of Santa Ana was nicknamed The Heroic City by the revolution s leaders after assuming power 20 In an interview with The New York Times in July 1894 Carlos stated that he would not seek to regain power He added the revolution was planned by refugee Salvadorans and won with the support of Guatemala His wife four children and three servants joined him in exile He was accused of bringing USD 3 million with him to the United States to which he responded I wish I had it 1 Salvadoran poet and writer Roque Dalton criticized the revolution in his 1972 book Miguel Marmol Dalton described the rebels as a reactionary mob and as 44 rich good for nothings and 44 traitors and 44 sons of bitches He added in spite of everything the Ezeta government was more for the people while the government of the 44 was fundamentally an enemy of the people citing a period of economic downturn during Gutierrez s presidency 20 See also EditList of Salvadoran coups d etatReferences EditCitations Edit a b c d The New York Times 1894 p 1 Lauria Santiago amp Binford 2004 p 25 Casa Presidencial c 2005a a b c d e f University of California San Diego c 2018 Slade 1917 p 207 Acena 1899 pp 208 210 Acena 1899 p 222 a b c d e f g USGPO 1895 p 126 a b Lamperti c 2003 Linares 2006 a b Diario Oficial 1894a p 513 Diario Oficial 1894c pp 617 618 Diario Oficial 1894b p 541 Diario Oficial 1894b p 549 Diario Oficial 1894b p 561 USGPO 1895 pp 126 127 Casa Presidencial c 2005b USGPO 1895 p 127 Lauria Santiago amp Binford 2004 p 32 a b Dalton 1973 p 61 sfn error no target CITEREFDalton1973 help Bibliography Edit Acena Ramon 1899 Efemerides Militares Military Ephemeris in Spanish Guatemala Tipografia Nacional ISBN 9781246122381 Retrieved 28 January 2023 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint url status link Dalton Roque 1972 Miguel Marmol Los Sucesos de 1932 en El Salvador Miguel Marmol The Events of 1932 in El Salvador PDF in Spanish Curbstone Press ISBN 9780915306671 Retrieved 7 February 2023 Diario Oficial 29 April 1894 Issue PDF Diario Oficial in Spanish Vol 36 no 100 San Salvador El Salvador 29 April 1894 pp 513 516 a href Template Cite news html title Template Cite news cite news a CS1 maint url status link Diario Oficial May 1894 Issues PDF Diario Oficial in Spanish Vol 36 no 102 123 San Salvador El Salvador May 1894 pp 521 612 a href Template Cite news html title Template Cite news cite news a CS1 maint url status link Diario Oficial June 1894 Issues PDF Diario Oficial in Spanish Vol 36 no 124 135 San Salvador El Salvador June 1894 pp 613 660 a href Template Cite news html title Template Cite news cite news a CS1 maint url status link Elections and Events 1850 1899 University of California San Diego San Diego California c 2018 Archived from the original on 23 March 2021 Retrieved 9 April 2022 Gen Carlos Ezeta is Here San Salvador s Ex President Talks of His Overthrow The New York Times Vol XLIII no 13372 2 July 1894 pp 1 10 Retrieved 7 February 2023 Lamperti John c 2003 A Difference of Opinion Dartmouth College Archived from the original on 21 December 2016 Retrieved 9 April 2022 Lauria Santiago Aldo A Binford Leigh eds 9 May 2004 Landscapes of Struggle Politics Society and Community in El Salvador University of Pittsburgh Press ISBN 0822972549 Retrieved 7 January 2022 Linares Edwin 25 June 2006 Los 44 Una Historia de Heroismo The 44 The History of Heroism El Salvador com in Spanish Retrieved 7 February 2023 Presidentes de El Salvador General Carlos Ezeta Presidents of El Salvador General Carlos Ezeta Casa Presidencial in Spanish c 2005 Archived from the original on 2 March 2009 Retrieved 9 April 2022 Presidentes de El Salvador General Rafael Antonio Gutierrez Presidents of El Salvador General Rafael Antonio Gutierrez in Spanish Archived from the original on 2 March 2009 Retrieved 1 September 2020 Slade William F 1917 The Federation of Central America The Journal of Race Development 8 2 204 276 doi 10 2307 29738239 hdl 2027 inu 30000056731338 JSTOR 29738239 United States Congressional Serial Set Volume 3279 Washington D C United States U S Government Printing Office 1895 Further reading EditVidal Manuel 1935 Nociones de Historia de Centro America Especial de El Salvador Notions of the History of Central America Special of El Salvador in Spanish Talleres Graficos Cisneros ASIN B002DJ2R1Q Portals El Salvador Military Politics Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Revolution of the 44 amp oldid 1145039048, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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