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Rat snake

January 01, 1970

Rat snakes are members – along with kingsnakes, milk snakes, vine snakes and indigo snakes – of the subfamily Colubrinae of the family Colubridae. They are medium to large constrictors and are found throughout much of the Northern Hemisphere. They feed primarily on rodents. Many species make attractive and docile pets and one, the corn snake, is one of the most popular reptile pets in the world. Like all snakes, they can be defensive when approached too closely, handled, or restrained. However, rat snake bites are not dangerous to humans. Like nearly all colubrids, rat snakes pose no threat to humans. Rat snakes were long believed to be completely nonvenomous, but recent studies have shown that some Old World species do possess small amounts of venom, though the amount is negligible relative to humans.[1]

Rat snake
Aesculapian snake (Zamenis longissimus)
Scientific classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Suborder: Serpentes
Family: Colubridae
Subfamily: Colubrinae
Genera

See text

Previously, most rat snakes were assigned to the genus Elaphe, but many have been since renamed following mitochondrial DNA analysis performed in 2002. For the purpose of this article, names will be harmonized with the TIGR Database.

Species edit

Old World rat snakes edit

 
Gray rat snake, Pantherophis spiloides
 
Red-tailed green rat snake, Gonyosoma oxycephalum
 
Rhinoceros ratsnake, Rhynchophis boulengeri
 
Mandarin rat snake, Euprepiophis mandarinus

Coelognathus spp.

Elaphe spp.

Euprepiophis spp.

Gonyosoma spp.

Oreocryptophis spp.

Orthriophis spp.

Ptyas spp.

Rhadinophis spp.

Rhynchophis spp.

Zamenis spp.

 
Black ratsnake, Pantherophis obsoletus (formerly Elaphe obsoleta obsoleta): The blue eyes indicate the snake is in a shed cycle.
 
Yellow rat snake Pantherophis sp. (formerly Elaphe obsoleta quadrivittata) from Florida

New World rat snakes edit

Bogertophis spp.

Pantherophis spp.

Pseudelaphe spp.

Senticolis spp.

Spilotes spp.

  • Chicken snake or yellow rat snake, S. pullatus (Linnaeus, 1758)

Nota bene: In the above species lists, an authority's name in parentheses indicates that the species was originally described in a different genus. An authority's name not in parentheses indicates that the species is still assigned to the original genus in which it was described.

Taxonomy edit

In recent years, some taxonomic controversy has occurred over the genus of North American rat snakes. Based on mitochondrial DNA, Utiger et al. (2002) showed that North American rat snakes of the genus Elaphe, along with closely related genera such as Pituophis and Lampropeltis, form a monophyletic group separate from Old World members of the genus. They therefore suggested the resurrection of the available name Pantherophis Fitzinger for all North American taxa (north of Mexico).[2][3] Crother et al. (2008) accepted the taxonomic change to Pantherophis.[4]

Venom edit

Like nearly all colubrids, rat snakes pose no threat to humans. Although rat snakes were long believed to be completely nonvenomous, recent studies have shown that some Old World species do possess small amounts of venom, though the amount is negligible relative to humans.[1] Rat snakes usually hunt and kill mice and other small animals by grasping with their teeth to prevent escape, wrapping their body around that of the prey, and suffocating the prey by constriction.

In captivity edit

Rat snakes are commonly kept as pets by reptile enthusiasts. The corn snake, one of the most popular pet reptiles, is a rat snake. New World species are generally thought to be more docile in captivity as opposed to Old World rat snakes, of which the opposite is assumed.[5]

Effects of climate change on rat snakes edit

Positive impacts edit

All snakes are ectotherm species, meaning they depend on the temperature of the environment to maintain homeostasis.[6] Although it is predicted that the current rate of climate change will be too rapid for many reptiles and amphibian species to adapt or to evolve,[7] studies have suggested that a warmer climate may actually be beneficial to rat snake species. Global warming also poses less threats to rat snakes in temperate zones than in tropical zones as rat snake species in temperate zones can tolerate broader ranges of temperature.[8] Global climate change will increase both day and night time temperatures. This will make the night time environment more thermally suitable for rat snakes to hunt, thereby making them more active at night.[9] Increasing night time activity allows rat snakes to catch larger prey such as birds, since female birds usually incubate their eggs in the nest at night and have decreased ability to detect rat snakes due to poor visibility conditions. Global warming may also lead to changes in predation. Rat snakes are prey species to predators like hawks. While rat snakes are being hunted during the day, being more active at night due to warmer temperatures may allow rat snakes to be less vulnerable to predation from hawks.[9] A warming climate also enhances food digestion in rat snakes thereby making them more efficient, which enables rat snake individuals to grow larger in size and allowing them to consume more prey.[10] In comparison to rat snake species at relatively colder regions, rat snake species at lower latitudes tend to be larger in size due to warmer climate conditions. As the global climate warms, the average body size of rat snakes at higher latitudes will become larger, which will allow the species to catch more prey and thus increase their overall reproductive success.[11]

Negative impacts edit

Eastern rat snake species in North America are experiencing negative shifts in their behaviour due to Global Warming and increasing temperatures. These shifts differ between the large distribution of rat snakes that range from Ontario to Texas.[8] The increasing Global Warming can negatively impact this species and can be responsible for population declines in some areas.

Rat snake populations from their northern range, such as Ontario, are experiencing a shift in hibernation emergence.[12] The populations in these regions typically emerge from hibernation in late April.[12] However, the increasing variability in temperature may cause rat snakes to emerge on a warm sunny day in the months of February or March.[8] Climate change has caused winters that can have weather turn back very quickly from sunny periods with high temperatures to snow and below freezing temperatures. The early emergence of these rat snakes will begin to expose them to these fatal conditions if a snake cannot return to its hibernaculum in time.[8] Therefore, the fluctuations in temperature affect the thermoregulation that rat snakes need for bodily functions like digestion and movement.[10] The unpredictability of the weather is causing more rat snakes in their northern range to get caught in these cold snaps and freeze to death.[12]

Increasing temperatures due to climate change have increased the nocturnal activity of rat snakes, especially in warmer climates such as Texas.[8] This has allowed them to alter their predation habits and feed more on nesting birds and other accessible prey.[13] However, their increased nocturnal activity puts them at risk to a new range of nocturnal predators. Rat snakes may not be used to the presence of nocturnal predators such as raccoons and owls and may be more vulnerable as prey.[14] Until rat snakes are able to adapt to their relatively new predators, populations may be at risk due to heavy predation.

Life history alterations in Ontario gray rat snakes edit

As rat snakes are ectothermic species, they require sunlight and heat to maintain their body temperatures. Across their range in North America each species of rat snake has different ideal body temperatures. In Ontario, the average ideal body temperature of a rat snake is 28.1 degrees Celsius with free ranging gravid females tending to require a bit higher in order to meet their thermoregulatory requirements for gestation.[15] With ambient air temperatures over the course of their entire active season (from May to September) almost never reaching the required 28.1 °C, rat snakes in Ontario resort to basking habitats where conditions allow temperatures to rise above normal and up to 43 degrees Celsius at the hottest times of day and year.[15] These habitats include areas such as rock outcrops, bare ground, or edge habitat where they can bask on tree branches fully exposed to the sun. However, with climate change and an associated increase in ambient air temperature by 3 °C, the amount of required time spent by snakes in these habitats will decrease.[16] This will result in alterations in the amount and time of activity of rat snakes in the province. They will have the potential to be generally more active during both the day and night as it will be easier for them to maintain their ideal body temperature. Habitat choices may also shift with increased temperatures. More time could be spent in areas such as forests or barns where the temperatures are currently too low for the snakes to spend most of their time.[15] There will be less of a need to expose themselves in their open basking habitats, causing decreases in predator vulnerability as well as increases in thermoregulatory ability and foraging time. In addition, rat snakes in Ontario have a slower growth and maturation rates due to the cooler climate and shorter active seasons compared to other species of rat snakes further South in North America.[17] This means that Ontario's rat snakes are more vulnerable to population declines. But, with an increase in temperature and an increase in the duration of the active season from climate change, it is possible that the growth and maturation rates of these snakes will increase.[18]

See also edit

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Zamenis longissimus.

References edit

  1. ^ a b Fry, Bryan G.; Lumsden, Natalie G.; Wüster, Wolfgang; Wickramaratna, Janith C.; Hodgson, Wayne C.; Kini, R. Manjunatha (1 October 2003). "Isolation of a neurotoxin (alpha-colubritoxin) from a nonvenomous colubrid: evidence for early origin of venom in snakes". Journal of Molecular Evolution. 57 (4): 446–452. doi:10.1007/s00239-003-2497-3. ISSN 0022-2844. PMID 14708577. S2CID 21055188.
  2. ^ Utiger U, Helfenberger N, Schätti B, Schmidt C, Ruf M, Ziswiler V (2002). (PDF). Russian Journal of Herpetology. 9 (2): 105–124. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 14 October 2016.
  3. ^ Elaphe obsoleta 14 April 2009 at the Wayback Machine at The Center for North American Herpetology. Accessed 20 June 2008.
  4. ^ Crother BI, et al. (2008) Scientific and Standard English Names of Amphibians and Reptiles of North America North of Mexico: 6th edition. Herp. Rev. 37, pp. 58–59. or see pp. 64 ff in the 7th edition.
  5. ^ Bartlett, Richard D.; Bartlett, Patricia Pope (2006). Corn Snakes and Other Rat Snakes: Everything about Acquiring, Housing, Health, and Breeding. Barron's Educational Series. p. 8. ISBN 978-0-7641-3407-4.
  6. ^ Vieira Andrade, Denis; Gavira, Rodrigo S.B.; Tattersall, Glenn J. (30 December 2015). "Thermogenesis in ectothermic vertebrates". Temperature (Austin). 2 (4): 454. doi:10.1080/23328940.2015.1115570. PMC 4843938. PMID 27227064.
  7. ^ Bickford, David; Howard, Sam D.; Ng, Daniel J.J.; Sheridan, Jennifer A. (April 2010). "Effects of Climate Change on the amphibians and reptiles of Southeast Asia". Biodiversity and Conservation. 19 (4): 1043–1062. doi:10.1007/s10531-010-9782-4. S2CID 4462980.
  8. ^ a b c d e Weatherhead, Patrick J.; Sperry, Jinelle H.; Cargagno, Gerardo L.F.; Blouin-Demers, Gabriel (July 2012). "Latitudinal variation in thermal ecology of North American ratsnakes and its implications for the effect of climate warming on snakes". Journal of Thermal Biology. 37 (4): 273–281. doi:10.1016/j.jtherbio.2011.03.008.
  9. ^ a b Larson, Debra Levey. "Global warming beneficial to ratsnakes". ACES Illinois. College of Agricultural, Consumer, and Environmental Sciences. Retrieved 24 March 2018.
  10. ^ a b Knight, Kathryn (2010). "Timeframe affects snakes' ability to cope with climate change". Journal of Experimental Biology. 213 (2): ii. doi:10.1242/jeb.041467.
  11. ^ Shine, Richard (22 May 2003). "Reproductive Strategies in Snakes". Proceedings: Biological Sciences. 270 (1519): 995–1004. doi:10.1098/rspb.2002.2307. PMC 1691341. PMID 12803888.
  12. ^ a b c Blouin-Demers, G; Prior, Kent; Weatherhead, P.J. (1 June 2000). "Patterns of variation in spring emergence by black rat snakes (Elaphe obsoleta obsoleta)". Herpetologica. 56: 175–188.
  13. ^ Sperry, Jinelle; P. Ward, Michael; J. Weatherhead, Patrick (1 March 2013). "Effects of Temperature, Moon Phase, and Prey on Nocturnal Activity in Ratsnakes: An Automated Telemetry Study". Journal of Herpetology. 47: 105–111. doi:10.1670/11-325. S2CID 33710484.
  14. ^ DeGregorio, Brett A.; Westervelt, James D.; Weatherhead, Patrick J.; Sperry, Jinelle H. (24 September 2015). "Indirect effect of climate change: Shifts in ratsnake behavior alter intensity and timing of avian nest predation". Ecological Modelling. 312: 239–246. doi:10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2015.05.031. ISSN 0304-3800.
  15. ^ a b c Blouin-Demers, Gabriel; Weatherhead, Patrick J. (1 November 2001). "Thermal Ecology of Black Rat Snakes (Elaphe Obsoleta) in a Thermally Challenging Environment". Ecology. 82 (11): 3025–3043. doi:10.1890/0012-9658(2001)082[3025:teobrs]2.0.co;2. ISSN 1939-9170.
  16. ^ Weatherhead, Patrick J.; Sperry, Jinelle H.; Carfagno, Gerardo L.F.; Blouin-Demers, Gabriel (2012). "Latitudinal variation in thermal ecology of North American ratsnakes and its implications for the effect of climate warming on snakes". Journal of Thermal Biology. 37 (4): 273–281. doi:10.1016/j.jtherbio.2011.03.008.
  17. ^ Blouin-Demers, Gabriel; Prior, Kent A.; Weatherhead, Patrick J. (1 January 2002). "Comparative demography of black rat snakes (Elaphe obsoleta) in Ontario and Maryland". Journal of Zoology. 256 (1): 1–10. doi:10.1017/s0952836902000018. ISSN 1469-7998. S2CID 85958037.
  18. ^ "Black Rat Snake". www.psu.edu. Retrieved 9 April 2018.

January 01, 1970
snake, this, article, needs, additional, citations, verification, please, help, improve, this, article, adding, citations, reliable, sources, unsourced, material, challenged, removed, find, sources, news, newspapers, books, scholar, jstor, april, 2014, learn, . This article needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed Find sources Rat snake news newspapers books scholar JSTOR April 2014 Learn how and when to remove this message Rat snakes are members along with kingsnakes milk snakes vine snakes and indigo snakes of the subfamily Colubrinae of the family Colubridae They are medium to large constrictors and are found throughout much of the Northern Hemisphere They feed primarily on rodents Many species make attractive and docile pets and one the corn snake is one of the most popular reptile pets in the world Like all snakes they can be defensive when approached too closely handled or restrained However rat snake bites are not dangerous to humans Like nearly all colubrids rat snakes pose no threat to humans Rat snakes were long believed to be completely nonvenomous but recent studies have shown that some Old World species do possess small amounts of venom though the amount is negligible relative to humans 1 Rat snake Aesculapian snake Zamenis longissimus Scientific classification Domain Eukaryota Kingdom Animalia Phylum Chordata Class Reptilia Order Squamata Suborder Serpentes Family Colubridae Subfamily Colubrinae Genera See text Previously most rat snakes were assigned to the genus Elaphe but many have been since renamed following mitochondrial DNA analysis performed in 2002 For the purpose of this article names will be harmonized with the TIGR Database Contents 1 Species 1 1 Old World rat snakes 1 2 New World rat snakes 2 Taxonomy 3 Venom 4 In captivity 5 Effects of climate change on rat snakes 5 1 Positive impacts 5 2 Negative impacts 5 3 Life history alterations in Ontario gray rat snakes 6 See also 7 ReferencesSpecies editOld World rat snakes edit nbsp Gray rat snake Pantherophis spiloides nbsp Red tailed green rat snake Gonyosoma oxycephalum nbsp Rhinoceros ratsnake Rhynchophis boulengeri nbsp Mandarin rat snake Euprepiophis mandarinus Coelognathus spp Philippine rat snake C erythrurus A M C Dumeril Bibron amp A H A Dumeril 1854 Black copper rat snake or yellow striped snake C flavolineatus Schlegel 1837 Trinket snake C helena Daudin 1803 Copperhead rat snake C radiatus F Boie 1827 Indonesian rat snake C subradiatus Schlegel 1837 Elaphe spp Twin spotted rat snake Elaphe bimaculata Schmidt 1925 King rat snake Elaphe carinata Gunther 1864 Japanese rat snake E climacophora H Boie 1826 David s rat snake E davidi Sauvage 1884 Dione rat snake E dione Pallas 1773 Japanese four lined rat snake E quadrivirgata H Boie 1826 Four lined snake E quatuorlineata Lacepede 1789 Red backed rat snake E rufodorsata Cantor 1842 Eastern four lined snake E sauromates Pallas 1811 Russian rat snake E schrenckii Strauch 1873 Euprepiophis spp Japanese forest rat snake E conspicillatus H Boie 1826 Mandarin rat snake E mandarinus Cantor 1842 Gonyosoma spp Green trinket snake G frenatum Gray 1853 Celebes black tailed rat snake G jansenii Bleeker 1858 Red tailed green rat snake G oxycephalum F Boie 1827 Oreocryptophis spp Mountain rat snake O porphyracea Cantor 1839 Orthriophis spp Cantor s rat snake O cantoris Boulenger 1894 Hodgson s rat snake O hodgsoni Gunther 1860 100 flower rat snake O moellendorffi Boettger 1886 Beauty snake O taeniurus Cope 1861 Ptyas spp Keeled rat snake P carinata Gunther 1858 P dhumnades Cantor 1842 Sulawesi black racer P dipsas Schlegel 1837 White bellied rat snake P fusca Gunther 1858 Chinese rat snake P korros Schlegel 1837 P luzonensis Gunther 1873 Oriental rat snake P mucosa Linnaeus 1758 Green rat snake P nigromarginata Blyth 1854 Rhadinophis spp Green bush snake R prasinus Blyth 1854 Rhynchophis spp Rhinoceros ratsnake R boulengeri Mocquard 1897 Zamenis spp Transcaucasian rat snake Z hohenackeri Strauch 1873 Italian Aesculapian snake Z lineatus Camerano 1891 Aesculapian snake Z longissimus Laurenti 1768 Persian rat snake Z persicus F Werner 1913 Ladder snake Z scalaris Schinz 1822 Leopard snake Z situla Linnaeus 1758 nbsp Black ratsnake Pantherophis obsoletus formerly Elaphe obsoleta obsoleta The blue eyes indicate the snake is in a shed cycle nbsp Yellow rat snake Pantherophis sp formerly Elaphe obsoleta quadrivittata from Florida New World rat snakes edit Bogertophis spp Baja California rat snake B rosaliae Mocquard 1899 Trans Pecos rat snake B subocularis Brown 1901 Pantherophis spp Eastern rat snake P alleghaniensis Holbrook 1836 Baird s rat snake P bairdi Yarrow 1880 Great Plains rat snake P emoryi Baird amp Girard 1853 Eastern fox snake P gloydi Conant 1940 Corn snake P guttatus Linnaeus 1766 Black rat snake P obsoletus Say 1823 Western fox snake P ramspotti Crother White Savage Eckstut Graham amp Gardner 2011 Gray rat snake P spiloides A M C Dumeril Bibron amp A H A Dumeril 1854 Eastern fox snake P vulpinus Baird amp Girard 1853 Pseudelaphe spp Mexican rat snake P flavirufa Cope 1867 Senticolis spp Green rat snake S triaspis Cope 1866 Spilotes spp Chicken snake or yellow rat snake S pullatus Linnaeus 1758 Nota bene In the above species lists an authority s name in parentheses indicates that the species was originally described in a different genus An authority s name not in parentheses indicates that the species is still assigned to the original genus in which it was described Taxonomy editIn recent years some taxonomic controversy has occurred over the genus of North American rat snakes Based on mitochondrial DNA Utiger et al 2002 showed that North American rat snakes of the genus Elaphe along with closely related genera such as Pituophis and Lampropeltis form a monophyletic group separate from Old World members of the genus They therefore suggested the resurrection of the available name Pantherophis Fitzinger for all North American taxa north of Mexico 2 3 Crother et al 2008 accepted the taxonomic change to Pantherophis 4 Venom editLike nearly all colubrids rat snakes pose no threat to humans Although rat snakes were long believed to be completely nonvenomous recent studies have shown that some Old World species do possess small amounts of venom though the amount is negligible relative to humans 1 Rat snakes usually hunt and kill mice and other small animals by grasping with their teeth to prevent escape wrapping their body around that of the prey and suffocating the prey by constriction In captivity editRat snakes are commonly kept as pets by reptile enthusiasts The corn snake one of the most popular pet reptiles is a rat snake New World species are generally thought to be more docile in captivity as opposed to Old World rat snakes of which the opposite is assumed 5 Effects of climate change on rat snakes editPositive impacts edit All snakes are ectotherm species meaning they depend on the temperature of the environment to maintain homeostasis 6 Although it is predicted that the current rate of climate change will be too rapid for many reptiles and amphibian species to adapt or to evolve 7 studies have suggested that a warmer climate may actually be beneficial to rat snake species Global warming also poses less threats to rat snakes in temperate zones than in tropical zones as rat snake species in temperate zones can tolerate broader ranges of temperature 8 Global climate change will increase both day and night time temperatures This will make the night time environment more thermally suitable for rat snakes to hunt thereby making them more active at night 9 Increasing night time activity allows rat snakes to catch larger prey such as birds since female birds usually incubate their eggs in the nest at night and have decreased ability to detect rat snakes due to poor visibility conditions Global warming may also lead to changes in predation Rat snakes are prey species to predators like hawks While rat snakes are being hunted during the day being more active at night due to warmer temperatures may allow rat snakes to be less vulnerable to predation from hawks 9 A warming climate also enhances food digestion in rat snakes thereby making them more efficient which enables rat snake individuals to grow larger in size and allowing them to consume more prey 10 In comparison to rat snake species at relatively colder regions rat snake species at lower latitudes tend to be larger in size due to warmer climate conditions As the global climate warms the average body size of rat snakes at higher latitudes will become larger which will allow the species to catch more prey and thus increase their overall reproductive success 11 Negative impacts edit Eastern rat snake species in North America are experiencing negative shifts in their behaviour due to Global Warming and increasing temperatures These shifts differ between the large distribution of rat snakes that range from Ontario to Texas 8 The increasing Global Warming can negatively impact this species and can be responsible for population declines in some areas Rat snake populations from their northern range such as Ontario are experiencing a shift in hibernation emergence 12 The populations in these regions typically emerge from hibernation in late April 12 However the increasing variability in temperature may cause rat snakes to emerge on a warm sunny day in the months of February or March 8 Climate change has caused winters that can have weather turn back very quickly from sunny periods with high temperatures to snow and below freezing temperatures The early emergence of these rat snakes will begin to expose them to these fatal conditions if a snake cannot return to its hibernaculum in time 8 Therefore the fluctuations in temperature affect the thermoregulation that rat snakes need for bodily functions like digestion and movement 10 The unpredictability of the weather is causing more rat snakes in their northern range to get caught in these cold snaps and freeze to death 12 Increasing temperatures due to climate change have increased the nocturnal activity of rat snakes especially in warmer climates such as Texas 8 This has allowed them to alter their predation habits and feed more on nesting birds and other accessible prey 13 However their increased nocturnal activity puts them at risk to a new range of nocturnal predators Rat snakes may not be used to the presence of nocturnal predators such as raccoons and owls and may be more vulnerable as prey 14 Until rat snakes are able to adapt to their relatively new predators populations may be at risk due to heavy predation Life history alterations in Ontario gray rat snakes edit As rat snakes are ectothermic species they require sunlight and heat to maintain their body temperatures Across their range in North America each species of rat snake has different ideal body temperatures In Ontario the average ideal body temperature of a rat snake is 28 1 degrees Celsius with free ranging gravid females tending to require a bit higher in order to meet their thermoregulatory requirements for gestation 15 With ambient air temperatures over the course of their entire active season from May to September almost never reaching the required 28 1 C rat snakes in Ontario resort to basking habitats where conditions allow temperatures to rise above normal and up to 43 degrees Celsius at the hottest times of day and year 15 These habitats include areas such as rock outcrops bare ground or edge habitat where they can bask on tree branches fully exposed to the sun However with climate change and an associated increase in ambient air temperature by 3 C the amount of required time spent by snakes in these habitats will decrease 16 This will result in alterations in the amount and time of activity of rat snakes in the province They will have the potential to be generally more active during both the day and night as it will be easier for them to maintain their ideal body temperature Habitat choices may also shift with increased temperatures More time could be spent in areas such as forests or barns where the temperatures are currently too low for the snakes to spend most of their time 15 There will be less of a need to expose themselves in their open basking habitats causing decreases in predator vulnerability as well as increases in thermoregulatory ability and foraging time In addition rat snakes in Ontario have a slower growth and maturation rates due to the cooler climate and shorter active seasons compared to other species of rat snakes further South in North America 17 This means that Ontario s rat snakes are more vulnerable to population declines But with an increase in temperature and an increase in the duration of the active season from climate change it is possible that the growth and maturation rates of these snakes will increase 18 See also edit nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to Zamenis longissimus Black rat snake Beauty rat snake Gray rat snake Texas rat snake Ptyas mucosaReferences edit a b Fry Bryan G Lumsden Natalie G Wuster Wolfgang Wickramaratna Janith C Hodgson Wayne C Kini R Manjunatha 1 October 2003 Isolation of a neurotoxin alpha colubritoxin from a nonvenomous colubrid evidence for early origin of venom in snakes Journal of Molecular Evolution 57 4 446 452 doi 10 1007 s00239 003 2497 3 ISSN 0022 2844 PMID 14708577 S2CID 21055188 Utiger U Helfenberger N Schatti B Schmidt C Ruf M Ziswiler V 2002 Molecular systematics and phylogeny of Old and New World ratsnakes Elaphe auct and related genera Reptilia Squamata Colubridae PDF Russian Journal of Herpetology 9 2 105 124 Archived from the original PDF on 24 September 2015 Retrieved 14 October 2016 Elaphe obsoleta Archived 14 April 2009 at the Wayback Machine at The Center for North American Herpetology Accessed 20 June 2008 Crother BI et al 2008 Scientific and Standard English Names of Amphibians and Reptiles of North America North of Mexico 6th edition Herp Rev 37 pp 58 59 or see pp 64 ff in the 7th edition Bartlett Richard D Bartlett Patricia Pope 2006 Corn Snakes and Other Rat Snakes Everything about Acquiring Housing Health and Breeding Barron s Educational Series p 8 ISBN 978 0 7641 3407 4 Vieira Andrade Denis Gavira Rodrigo S B Tattersall Glenn J 30 December 2015 Thermogenesis in ectothermic vertebrates Temperature Austin 2 4 454 doi 10 1080 23328940 2015 1115570 PMC 4843938 PMID 27227064 Bickford David Howard Sam D Ng Daniel J J Sheridan Jennifer A April 2010 Effects of Climate Change on the amphibians and reptiles of Southeast Asia Biodiversity and Conservation 19 4 1043 1062 doi 10 1007 s10531 010 9782 4 S2CID 4462980 a b c d e Weatherhead Patrick J Sperry Jinelle H Cargagno Gerardo L F Blouin Demers Gabriel July 2012 Latitudinal variation in thermal ecology of North American ratsnakes and its implications for the effect of climate warming on snakes Journal of Thermal Biology 37 4 273 281 doi 10 1016 j jtherbio 2011 03 008 a b Larson Debra Levey Global warming beneficial to ratsnakes ACES Illinois College of Agricultural Consumer and Environmental Sciences Retrieved 24 March 2018 a b Knight Kathryn 2010 Timeframe affects snakes ability to cope with climate change Journal of Experimental Biology 213 2 ii doi 10 1242 jeb 041467 Shine Richard 22 May 2003 Reproductive Strategies in Snakes Proceedings Biological Sciences 270 1519 995 1004 doi 10 1098 rspb 2002 2307 PMC 1691341 PMID 12803888 a b c Blouin Demers G Prior Kent Weatherhead P J 1 June 2000 Patterns of variation in spring emergence by black rat snakes Elaphe obsoleta obsoleta Herpetologica 56 175 188 Sperry Jinelle P Ward Michael J Weatherhead Patrick 1 March 2013 Effects of Temperature Moon Phase and Prey on Nocturnal Activity in Ratsnakes An Automated Telemetry Study Journal of Herpetology 47 105 111 doi 10 1670 11 325 S2CID 33710484 DeGregorio Brett A Westervelt James D Weatherhead Patrick J Sperry Jinelle H 24 September 2015 Indirect effect of climate change Shifts in ratsnake behavior alter intensity and timing of avian nest predation Ecological Modelling 312 239 246 doi 10 1016 j ecolmodel 2015 05 031 ISSN 0304 3800 a b c Blouin Demers Gabriel Weatherhead Patrick J 1 November 2001 Thermal Ecology of Black Rat Snakes Elaphe Obsoleta in a Thermally Challenging Environment Ecology 82 11 3025 3043 doi 10 1890 0012 9658 2001 082 3025 teobrs 2 0 co 2 ISSN 1939 9170 Weatherhead Patrick J Sperry Jinelle H Carfagno Gerardo L F Blouin Demers Gabriel 2012 Latitudinal variation in thermal ecology of North American ratsnakes and its implications for the effect of climate warming on snakes Journal of Thermal Biology 37 4 273 281 doi 10 1016 j jtherbio 2011 03 008 Blouin Demers Gabriel Prior Kent A Weatherhead Patrick J 1 January 2002 Comparative demography of black rat snakes Elaphe obsoleta in Ontario and Maryland Journal of Zoology 256 1 1 10 doi 10 1017 s0952836902000018 ISSN 1469 7998 S2CID 85958037 Black Rat Snake www psu edu Retrieved 9 April 2018 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Rat snake amp oldid 1216939590, wikipedia, wiki, book, 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