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Primate cognition

January 29, 2023

Primate cognition is the study of the intellectual and behavioral skills of non-human primates, particularly in the fields of psychology, behavioral biology, primatology, and anthropology.[1]

Primates are capable of high levels of cognition; some make tools and use them to acquire foods and for social displays;[2][3] some have sophisticated hunting strategies requiring cooperation, influence and rank;[4] they are status conscious, manipulative and capable of deception;[5] they can recognise kin and conspecifics;[6][7] they can learn to use symbols and understand aspects of human language including some relational syntax, concepts of number and numerical sequence.[8][9][10]

Studies in primate cognition

Theory of Mind

Theory of mind (also known as mental state attribution, mentalizing, or mindreading) can be defined as the "ability to track the unobservable mental states, like desires and beliefs, that guide others' actions".[11] Premack and Woodruff's 1978 article "Does the chimpanzee have a theory of mind?" sparked a contentious issue because of the problem of inferring from animal behavior the existence of thinking, of the existence of a concept of self or self-awareness, or of particular thoughts.[12]

Non-human research still has a major place in this field, however, and is especially useful in illuminating which nonverbal behaviors signify components of theory of mind, and in pointing to possible stepping points in the evolution of what many claim to be a uniquely human aspect of social cognition.[13][14][15] While it is difficult to study human-like theory of mind and mental states in species which we do not yet describe as "minded" at all, and about whose potential mental states we have an incomplete understanding, researchers can focus on simpler components of more complex capabilities.

For example, many researchers focus on animals' understanding of intention, gaze, perspective, or knowledge (or rather, what another being has seen). Part of the difficulty in this line of research is that observed phenomena can often be explained as simple stimulus-response learning, since mental states can often be inferred based on observed behavioural cues.[11] Recently, most non-human theory of mind research has focused on monkeys and great apes, who are of most interest in the study of the evolution of human social cognition. Research can be categorized in to three subsections of theory of mind: attribution of intentions, attribution of knowledge (and perception), and attribution of belief.

Attribution of Intentions

Research on chimpanzees, capuchin monkeys, and Tonkean macaques (Macaca tokeana) has provided evidence that they are sensitive to the goals and intentions of others and are able to differentiate between when an experimenter is unable to give them food versus when the experimenter is just unwilling to.[16][17]

Attribution of Knowledge (and Perception)

Hare et al. (2001) demonstrates that chimpanzees are aware of what other individuals know. They can also understand what another perceives, and they selectively choose food that is not visible to their competitor.[18]

Attribution of Belief

A false-belief test is a comprehensive test used to test for an individual's theory of mind. Understanding language is a key component to being able to understand the directions for the false-belief test, and researchers have had to get creative to utilize this test in the research of non-human primates' theory of mind. Recent technology has enabled researchers to closely resemble the false-belief task without needing to use language. In Krupenye et al. (2016), an advanced eye-tracking technology was used to test for false-belief understanding in apes. The findings of this experiment showed that apes understood and accurately anticipated the behavior of an individual who held a false belief.[19]

There has been some controversy over the interpretation of evidence purporting to show theory of mind ability—or inability—in animals. Part of this debate has involved whether animals are really able to associate cognitive abilities with another individual, or if they are just able to read and understand behavior.[20][21] Povinelli et al. (1990) points out that most evidence in support of great ape theory of mind involves naturalistic settings to which the apes have already adapted through past learning. Their "reinterpretation hypothesis" explains away evidence supporting attribution of mental states to others in chimpanzees as merely evidence of risk-based learning; that is, the chimpanzees learn through experience that certain behaviors in other chimpanzees have a probability of leading to certain responses, without necessarily attributing knowledge or other intentional states to those other chimpanzees. They have proposed testing theory of mind abilities in great apes in novel, and not naturalistic settings.[22] Experimenters since then, such as demonstrated in Krupenye et al. (2016), have gone to extensive lengths to control for behavioral cues by placing the apes in novel settings as suggested by Povinelli and colleagues. Research has shown that there is substantial evidence for some non-human primates to track the mental state, like desires and beliefs, of other individuals that cannot be deduced to a response of learned behavioural cues.[19]

Communication in the wild

For most of the 20th century, scientists who studied primates thought of vocalizations as physical responses to emotions and external stimuli.[23] The first observations of primate vocalizations representing and referring to events in the exterior world were observed in vervet monkeys in 1967.[24] Calls with specific intent, such as alarm calls or mating calls has been observed in many orders of animals, including primates. Researchers began to study vervet monkey vocalizations in more depth as a result of this finding. In the seminal study on vervet monkeys, researchers played recordings of three different types of vocalizations they use as alarm calls for leopards, eagles, and pythons. Vervet monkeys in this study responded to each call accordingly: going up trees for leopard calls, searching for predators in the sky for eagle calls, and looking down for snake calls.[25] This indicated a clear communication that there is a predator nearby and what kind of predator it is, eliciting a specific response. The use of recorded sounds, as opposed to observations in the wild, gave researchers insight into the fact that these calls contain meaning about the external world.[26] This study also produced evidence that suggests vervet monkeys improve in their ability to classify different predators and produce alarm calls for each predator as they get older. Further research into this phenomenon has discovered that infant vervet monkeys produce alarm calls for a wider variety of species than adults. Adults only use alarm calls for leopards, eagles, and pythons while infants produce alarm calls for land mammals, birds, and snakes respectively. Data suggests that infants learn how to use and respond to alarm calls by watching their parents.[27]

A different species of monkeys, the wild Campbell's monkeys have also been known to produce a sequence of vocalization that require a specific order to elicit a specific behaviour in other monkeys. Changing the order of the sounds changes the resulting behaviour, or meaning, of the call. Diana monkeys were studied in a habituation-dishabituation experiment that demonstrated the ability to attend to the semantic content of calls rather than simply to acoustic nature. Primates have also been observed responding to alarm calls of other species. Crested Guinea fowl, a ground-dwelling fowl, produce a single type of alarm call for all predators it detects. Diana monkeys have been observed to respond to the most likely reason for the call, typically a human or leopard, based on the situation and respond according to that. If they deem a leopard is the more likely predator in the vicinity they will produce their own leopard-specific alarm call but if they think it is a human, they will remain silent and hidden.

The ability for non-human primates to understand call systems that belong to a different species of monkey happens but to a limited extent. In this case Diana monkeys and Campbell's monkeys often form mixed species groups but they seem to only respond to each other's danger related calls.[28]

Tool use

Further information: Tool use by animals § Primates
 
Tool use by a gorilla

There are many reports of primates making or using tools, both in the wild or when captive. Chimpanzees, gorillas, orangutans, capuchin monkeys, baboons, and mandrills have all been reported as using tools. The use of tools by primates is varied and includes hunting (mammals, invertebrates,[29] fish), collecting honey,[30] processing food (nuts, fruits, vegetables and seeds), collecting water, weapons and shelter.

Tool making is much rarer, but has been documented in orangutans,[31] bonobos and bearded capuchin monkeys. Research in 2007 shows that chimpanzees in the Fongoli savannah sharpen sticks to use as spears when hunting, considered the first evidence of systematic use of weapons in a species other than humans.[32][33] Captive gorillas have made a variety of tools.[34] In the wild, mandrills have been observed to clean their ears with modified tools. Scientists filmed a large male mandrill at Chester Zoo (UK) stripping down a twig, apparently to make it narrower, and then using the modified stick to scrape dirt from underneath its toenails.[35][36]

There is some controversy over whether tool use represents a higher level of physical cognition. Some studies suggest primates could use tools due to environmental or motivational clues, rather than an understanding of folk physics or a capacity for future planning.[37]

Problem solving

In 1913, Wolfgang Köhler started writing a book on problem solving titled The Mentality of Apes (1917). In this research, Köhler observed the manner in which chimpanzees solve problems, such as that of retrieving bananas when positioned out of reach. He found that they stacked wooden crates to use as makeshift ladders in order to retrieve the food. If the bananas were placed on the ground outside of the cage, they used sticks to lengthen the reach of their arms.

Köhler concluded that the chimps had not arrived at these methods through trial-and-error (which American psychologist Edward Thorndike had claimed to be the basis of all animal learning, through his law of effect), but rather that they had experienced an insight (sometimes known as the Eureka effect or an "aha" experience), in which, having realized the answer, they then proceeded to carry it out in a way that was, in Köhler's words, "unwaveringly purposeful."

Asking questions and giving negative answers

In the 1970s and the 1980s there had been suggestions that apes are unable to ask questions and to give negative answers. According to numerous published studies, apes are able to answer human questions, and the vocabulary of the acculturated apes contains question words.[38][39][40][41][42] Despite these abilities, according to the published research literature, apes are not able to ask questions themselves, and in human-primate conversations, questions are asked by the humans only. Ann and David Premack's designed a potentially promising methodology to teach apes to ask questions in the 1970s: "In principle interrogation can be taught either by removing an element from a familiar situation in the animal's world or by removing the element from a language that maps the animal's world. It is probable that one can induce questions by purposefully removing key elements from a familiar situation. Suppose a chimpanzee received its daily ration of food at a specific time and place, and then one day the food was not there. A chimpanzee trained in the interrogative might inquire "Where is my food?" or, in Sarah's case, "My food is?" Sarah was never put in a situation that might induce such interrogation because for our purposes it was easier to teach Sarah to answer questions".[43]

A decade later Premacks wrote: "Though she [Sarah] understood the question, she did not herself ask any questions—unlike the child who asks interminable questions, such as What that? Who making noise? When Daddy come home? Me go Granny's house? Where puppy? Toy? Sarah never delayed the departure of her trainer after her lessons by asking where the trainer was going, when she was returning, or anything else".[44]

Despite all their achievements, Kanzi and Panbanisha also have not demonstrated the ability to ask questions so far. Joseph Jordania suggested that the ability to ask questions could be the crucial cognitive threshold between human and other ape mental abilities.[45] Jordania suggested that asking questions is not a matter of the ability to use syntactic structures, that it is primarily a matter of cognitive ability.

g factor of intelligence in primates

Main article: g factor in non-humans

The general factor of intelligence, or g factor, is a psychometric construct that summarizes the correlations observed between an individual's scores on various measures of cognitive abilities. First described in humans, the g factor has since been identified in a number of nonhuman species.[46]

Primates in particular have been the focus of g research due to their close taxonomic links to humans. A principal component analysis run in a meta-analysis of 4,000 primate behaviour papers including 62 species found that 47% of the individual variance in cognitive ability tests was accounted for by a single factor, controlling for socio-ecological variables.[46] This value fits within the accepted range of the influence of g on IQ.[47]

However, there is some debate as to the influence of g on all primates equally. A 2012 study identifying individual chimpanzees that consistently performed highly on cognitive tasks found clusters of abilities instead of a general factor of intelligence.[48] This study used individual-based data and claim that their results are not directly comparable to previous studies using group data that have found evidence for g. Further research is required to identify the exact nature of g in primates.

See also

References

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Further reading

  • Gouteux S, Thinus-Blanc C, Vauclair J (2001). "Rhesus monkeys use geometric and nongeometric information during a reorientation task". Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. 130 (3): 505–519. doi:10.1037/0096-3445.130.3.505.
  • Call J (June 2001). "Object permanence in orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus), chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes), and children (Homo sapiens)". Journal of Comparative Psychology. 115 (2): 159–171. doi:10.1037/0735-7036.115.2.159. PMID 11459163.
  • de Blois ST, Novak MA, Bond M (June 1998). "Object permanence in orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus) and squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus)". Journal of Comparative Psychology. 112 (2): 137–152. doi:10.1037/0735-7036.112.2.137. PMID 9642783.
  • Neiworth JJ, Steinmark E, Basile BM, Wonders R, Steely F, DeHart C (March 2003). "A test of object permanence in a new-world monkey species, cotton top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus)". Animal Cognition. 6 (1): 27–37. doi:10.1007/s10071-003-0162-2. PMID 12658533. S2CID 3070975.
  • Westergaard GC, Lundquist AL, Haynie MK, Kuhn HE, Suomi SJ (June 1998). "Why some capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella) use probing tools (and others do not)". Journal of Comparative Psychology. 112 (2): 207–211. doi:10.1037/0735-7036.112.2.207. PMID 9642788.
  • Brown DA, Boysen ST (December 2000). "Spontaneous discrimination of natural stimuli by chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)". Journal of Comparative Psychology. 114 (4): 392–400. doi:10.1037/0735-7036.114.4.392. PMID 11149543.
  • Neiworth JJ, Parsons RR, Hassett JM (April 2004). "A test of the generality of perceptually based categories found in infants: attentional differences toward natural kinds by New World monkeys". Developmental Science. 7 (2): 185–193. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2004.00337.x. PMID 15320378.
  • Parr LA, de Waal FB (June 1999). "Visual kin recognition in chimpanzees". Nature. 399 (6737): 647–648. Bibcode:1999Natur.399..647P. doi:10.1038/21345. PMID 10385114. S2CID 4424086.
  • Fujita K, Watanabe K, Widarto TH, Suryobroto B (1997). "Discrimination of macaques by macaques: The case of sulawesi species". Primates. 38 (3): 233–245. doi:10.1007/BF02381612. S2CID 21042762.
  • Parr LA, Winslow JT, Hopkins WD, de Waal FB (March 2000). "Recognizing facial cues: individual discrimination by chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta)". Journal of Comparative Psychology. 114 (1): 47–60. doi:10.1037/0735-7036.114.1.47. PMC 2018744. PMID 10739311.
  • Pascalis O, Bachevalier J (April 1998). "Face recognition in primates: a cross-species study". Behavioural Processes. 43 (1): 87–96. doi:10.1016/S0376-6357(97)00090-9. PMID 24897644. S2CID 16819043.
  • Paar LA, Winslow JT, Hopkins WD (1999). "Is the inversion effect in rhesus monkeys face-specific?". Animal Cognition. 2 (3): 123–129. doi:10.1007/s100710050032. S2CID 18435189.
  • Uller C, Hauser M, Carey S (September 2001). "Spontaneous representation of number in cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus)". Journal of Comparative Psychology. 115 (3): 248–257. doi:10.1037/0735-7036.115.3.248. PMID 11594494.
  • Beran MJ (June 2001). "Summation and numerousness judgments of sequentially presented sets of items by chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)". Journal of Comparative Psychology. 115 (2): 181–191. doi:10.1037/0735-7036.115.2.181. PMID 11459165.
  • Hauser MD, Kralik J, Botto-Mahan C, Garrett M, Oser J (November 1995). "Self-recognition in primates: phylogeny and the salience of species-typical features". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 92 (23): 10811–10814. Bibcode:1995PNAS...9210811H. doi:10.1073/pnas.92.23.10811. PMC 40702. PMID 7479889.
  • Heyes CM (1995). "Self-recognition in primates: Further reflections create a hall of mirrors". Animal Behaviour. 50 (6): 1533–1542. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.558.5485. doi:10.1016/0003-3472(95)80009-3. S2CID 20290540.
  • Anderson JR (December 1997). "Self-recognition in Saguinus? A critical essay". Animal Behaviour. 54 (6): 1563–1567. doi:10.1006/anbe.1997.0548. PMID 9521801. S2CID 43373261.
  • Hauser MD, Kralik J (December 1997). "Life beyond the mirror: a reply to Anderson & Gallup". Animal Behaviour. 54 (6): 1568–1571. doi:10.1006/anbe.1997.0549. PMID 9521802. S2CID 22836237.
  • Neiworth JJ, Anders SL, Parsons RR (December 2001). "Tracking responses related to self-recognition: a frequency comparison of responses to mirrors, photographs, and videotapes by cotton top tamanins (Saguinus oedipus)". Journal of Comparative Psychology. 115 (4): 432–438. doi:10.1037/0735-7036.115.4.432. PMID 11824907.
  • de Waal FB, Dindo M, Freeman CA, Hall MJ (August 2005). "The monkey in the mirror: hardly a stranger". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 102 (32): 11140–11147. Bibcode:2005PNAS..10211140D. doi:10.1073/pnas.0503935102. PMC 1183568. PMID 16055557.
  • Anderson JR, Mitchell RW (1999). "Macaques but not lemurs co-orient visually with humans". Folia Primatologica; International Journal of Primatology. 70 (1): 17–22. doi:10.1159/000021670. PMID 10050063. S2CID 46268265.
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January 29, 2023
primate, cognition, this, article, needs, additional, citations, verification, please, help, improve, this, article, adding, citations, reliable, sources, unsourced, material, challenged, removed, find, sources, news, newspapers, books, scholar, jstor, march, . This article needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed Find sources Primate cognition news newspapers books scholar JSTOR March 2012 Learn how and when to remove this template message Primate cognition is the study of the intellectual and behavioral skills of non human primates particularly in the fields of psychology behavioral biology primatology and anthropology 1 Primates are capable of high levels of cognition some make tools and use them to acquire foods and for social displays 2 3 some have sophisticated hunting strategies requiring cooperation influence and rank 4 they are status conscious manipulative and capable of deception 5 they can recognise kin and conspecifics 6 7 they can learn to use symbols and understand aspects of human language including some relational syntax concepts of number and numerical sequence 8 9 10 Contents 1 Studies in primate cognition 1 1 Theory of Mind 1 1 1 Communication in the wild 1 2 Tool use 1 3 Problem solving 1 4 Asking questions and giving negative answers 2 g factor of intelligence in primates 3 See also 4 References 5 Further readingStudies in primate cognition EditTheory of Mind Edit Theory of mind also known as mental state attribution mentalizing or mindreading can be defined as the ability to track the unobservable mental states like desires and beliefs that guide others actions 11 Premack and Woodruff s 1978 article Does the chimpanzee have a theory of mind sparked a contentious issue because of the problem of inferring from animal behavior the existence of thinking of the existence of a concept of self or self awareness or of particular thoughts 12 Non human research still has a major place in this field however and is especially useful in illuminating which nonverbal behaviors signify components of theory of mind and in pointing to possible stepping points in the evolution of what many claim to be a uniquely human aspect of social cognition 13 14 15 While it is difficult to study human like theory of mind and mental states in species which we do not yet describe as minded at all and about whose potential mental states we have an incomplete understanding researchers can focus on simpler components of more complex capabilities For example many researchers focus on animals understanding of intention gaze perspective or knowledge or rather what another being has seen Part of the difficulty in this line of research is that observed phenomena can often be explained as simple stimulus response learning since mental states can often be inferred based on observed behavioural cues 11 Recently most non human theory of mind research has focused on monkeys and great apes who are of most interest in the study of the evolution of human social cognition Research can be categorized in to three subsections of theory of mind attribution of intentions attribution of knowledge and perception and attribution of belief Attribution of IntentionsResearch on chimpanzees capuchin monkeys and Tonkean macaques Macaca tokeana has provided evidence that they are sensitive to the goals and intentions of others and are able to differentiate between when an experimenter is unable to give them food versus when the experimenter is just unwilling to 16 17 Attribution of Knowledge and Perception Hare et al 2001 demonstrates that chimpanzees are aware of what other individuals know They can also understand what another perceives and they selectively choose food that is not visible to their competitor 18 Attribution of BeliefA false belief test is a comprehensive test used to test for an individual s theory of mind Understanding language is a key component to being able to understand the directions for the false belief test and researchers have had to get creative to utilize this test in the research of non human primates theory of mind Recent technology has enabled researchers to closely resemble the false belief task without needing to use language In Krupenye et al 2016 an advanced eye tracking technology was used to test for false belief understanding in apes The findings of this experiment showed that apes understood and accurately anticipated the behavior of an individual who held a false belief 19 There has been some controversy over the interpretation of evidence purporting to show theory of mind ability or inability in animals Part of this debate has involved whether animals are really able to associate cognitive abilities with another individual or if they are just able to read and understand behavior 20 21 Povinelli et al 1990 points out that most evidence in support of great ape theory of mind involves naturalistic settings to which the apes have already adapted through past learning Their reinterpretation hypothesis explains away evidence supporting attribution of mental states to others in chimpanzees as merely evidence of risk based learning that is the chimpanzees learn through experience that certain behaviors in other chimpanzees have a probability of leading to certain responses without necessarily attributing knowledge or other intentional states to those other chimpanzees They have proposed testing theory of mind abilities in great apes in novel and not naturalistic settings 22 Experimenters since then such as demonstrated in Krupenye et al 2016 have gone to extensive lengths to control for behavioral cues by placing the apes in novel settings as suggested by Povinelli and colleagues Research has shown that there is substantial evidence for some non human primates to track the mental state like desires and beliefs of other individuals that cannot be deduced to a response of learned behavioural cues 19 Communication in the wild Edit For most of the 20th century scientists who studied primates thought of vocalizations as physical responses to emotions and external stimuli 23 The first observations of primate vocalizations representing and referring to events in the exterior world were observed in vervet monkeys in 1967 24 Calls with specific intent such as alarm calls or mating calls has been observed in many orders of animals including primates Researchers began to study vervet monkey vocalizations in more depth as a result of this finding In the seminal study on vervet monkeys researchers played recordings of three different types of vocalizations they use as alarm calls for leopards eagles and pythons Vervet monkeys in this study responded to each call accordingly going up trees for leopard calls searching for predators in the sky for eagle calls and looking down for snake calls 25 This indicated a clear communication that there is a predator nearby and what kind of predator it is eliciting a specific response The use of recorded sounds as opposed to observations in the wild gave researchers insight into the fact that these calls contain meaning about the external world 26 This study also produced evidence that suggests vervet monkeys improve in their ability to classify different predators and produce alarm calls for each predator as they get older Further research into this phenomenon has discovered that infant vervet monkeys produce alarm calls for a wider variety of species than adults Adults only use alarm calls for leopards eagles and pythons while infants produce alarm calls for land mammals birds and snakes respectively Data suggests that infants learn how to use and respond to alarm calls by watching their parents 27 A different species of monkeys the wild Campbell s monkeys have also been known to produce a sequence of vocalization that require a specific order to elicit a specific behaviour in other monkeys Changing the order of the sounds changes the resulting behaviour or meaning of the call Diana monkeys were studied in a habituation dishabituation experiment that demonstrated the ability to attend to the semantic content of calls rather than simply to acoustic nature Primates have also been observed responding to alarm calls of other species Crested Guinea fowl a ground dwelling fowl produce a single type of alarm call for all predators it detects Diana monkeys have been observed to respond to the most likely reason for the call typically a human or leopard based on the situation and respond according to that If they deem a leopard is the more likely predator in the vicinity they will produce their own leopard specific alarm call but if they think it is a human they will remain silent and hidden The ability for non human primates to understand call systems that belong to a different species of monkey happens but to a limited extent In this case Diana monkeys and Campbell s monkeys often form mixed species groups but they seem to only respond to each other s danger related calls 28 Tool use Edit Further information Tool use by animals Primates Tool use by a gorilla There are many reports of primates making or using tools both in the wild or when captive Chimpanzees gorillas orangutans capuchin monkeys baboons and mandrills have all been reported as using tools The use of tools by primates is varied and includes hunting mammals invertebrates 29 fish collecting honey 30 processing food nuts fruits vegetables and seeds collecting water weapons and shelter Tool making is much rarer but has been documented in orangutans 31 bonobos and bearded capuchin monkeys Research in 2007 shows that chimpanzees in the Fongoli savannah sharpen sticks to use as spears when hunting considered the first evidence of systematic use of weapons in a species other than humans 32 33 Captive gorillas have made a variety of tools 34 In the wild mandrills have been observed to clean their ears with modified tools Scientists filmed a large male mandrill at Chester Zoo UK stripping down a twig apparently to make it narrower and then using the modified stick to scrape dirt from underneath its toenails 35 36 There is some controversy over whether tool use represents a higher level of physical cognition Some studies suggest primates could use tools due to environmental or motivational clues rather than an understanding of folk physics or a capacity for future planning 37 Problem solving Edit In 1913 Wolfgang Kohler started writing a book on problem solving titled The Mentality of Apes 1917 In this research Kohler observed the manner in which chimpanzees solve problems such as that of retrieving bananas when positioned out of reach He found that they stacked wooden crates to use as makeshift ladders in order to retrieve the food If the bananas were placed on the ground outside of the cage they used sticks to lengthen the reach of their arms Kohler concluded that the chimps had not arrived at these methods through trial and error which American psychologist Edward Thorndike had claimed to be the basis of all animal learning through his law of effect but rather that they had experienced an insight sometimes known as the Eureka effect or an aha experience in which having realized the answer they then proceeded to carry it out in a way that was in Kohler s words unwaveringly purposeful Asking questions and giving negative answers Edit In the 1970s and the 1980s there had been suggestions that apes are unable to ask questions and to give negative answers According to numerous published studies apes are able to answer human questions and the vocabulary of the acculturated apes contains question words 38 39 40 41 42 Despite these abilities according to the published research literature apes are not able to ask questions themselves and in human primate conversations questions are asked by the humans only Ann and David Premack s designed a potentially promising methodology to teach apes to ask questions in the 1970s In principle interrogation can be taught either by removing an element from a familiar situation in the animal s world or by removing the element from a language that maps the animal s world It is probable that one can induce questions by purposefully removing key elements from a familiar situation Suppose a chimpanzee received its daily ration of food at a specific time and place and then one day the food was not there A chimpanzee trained in the interrogative might inquire Where is my food or in Sarah s case My food is Sarah was never put in a situation that might induce such interrogation because for our purposes it was easier to teach Sarah to answer questions 43 A decade later Premacks wrote Though she Sarah understood the question she did not herself ask any questions unlike the child who asks interminable questions such as What that Who making noise When Daddy come home Me go Granny s house Where puppy Toy Sarah never delayed the departure of her trainer after her lessons by asking where the trainer was going when she was returning or anything else 44 Despite all their achievements Kanzi and Panbanisha also have not demonstrated the ability to ask questions so far Joseph Jordania suggested that the ability to ask questions could be the crucial cognitive threshold between human and other ape mental abilities 45 Jordania suggested that asking questions is not a matter of the ability to use syntactic structures that it is primarily a matter of cognitive ability g factor of intelligence in primates EditMain article g factor in non humans The general factor of intelligence or g factor is a psychometric construct that summarizes the correlations observed between an individual s scores on various measures of cognitive abilities First described in humans the g factor has since been identified in a number of nonhuman species 46 Primates in particular have been the focus of g research due to their close taxonomic links to humans A principal component analysis run in a meta analysis of 4 000 primate behaviour papers including 62 species found that 47 of the individual variance in cognitive ability tests was accounted for by a single factor controlling for socio ecological variables 46 This value fits within the accepted range of the influence of g on IQ 47 However there is some debate as to the influence of g on all primates equally A 2012 study identifying individual chimpanzees that consistently performed highly on cognitive tasks found clusters of abilities instead of a general factor of intelligence 48 This study used individual based data and claim that their results are not directly comparable to previous studies using group data that have found evidence for g Further research is required to identify the exact nature of g in primates See also EditAnimal cognition Deep social mind Hominid intelligence Great ape language Primate empathyReferences Edit Michael Tomasello Josep Call 1997 Primate cognition ISBN 978 0 19 510624 4 Boesch C Boesch H 1990 Tool use and tool making in wild chimpanzees Folia Primatologica International Journal of Primatology 54 1 2 86 99 doi 10 1159 000156428 PMID 2157651 Westergaard GC Lundquist AL Haynie MK Kuhn HE Suomi SJ June 1998 Why some capuchin monkeys Cebus apella use probing tools and others do not Journal of Comparative Psychology 112 2 207 211 doi 10 1037 0735 7036 112 2 207 PMID 9642788 de Waal FB Davis JM 2003 Capuchin cognitive ecology cooperation based on projected returns Neuropsychologia 41 2 221 228 CiteSeerX 10 1 1 496 9719 doi 10 1016 S0028 3932 02 00152 5 PMID 12459220 S2CID 8190458 Parr LA Winslow JT Hopkins WD de Waal FB March 2000 Recognizing facial cues individual discrimination by chimpanzees Pan troglodytes and rhesus monkeys Macaca mulatta Journal of Comparative Psychology 114 1 47 60 doi 10 1037 0735 7036 114 1 47 PMC 2018744 PMID 10739311 Parr LA de Waal FB June 1999 Visual kin recognition in chimpanzees Nature 399 6737 647 648 Bibcode 1999Natur 399 647P doi 10 1038 21345 PMID 10385114 S2CID 4424086 Fujita K Watanabe K Widarto TH Suryobroto B 1997 Discrimination of macaques by macaques The case of sulawesi species Primates 38 3 233 245 doi 10 1007 BF02381612 S2CID 21042762 Call J June 2001 Object permanence in orangutans Pongo pygmaeus chimpanzees Pan troglodytes and children Homo sapiens Journal of Comparative Psychology 115 2 159 171 doi 10 1037 0735 7036 115 2 159 PMID 11459163 Itakura S Tanaka M June 1998 Use of experimenter given cues during object choice tasks by chimpanzees Pan troglodytes an orangutan Pongo pygmaeus and human infants Homo sapiens Journal of Comparative Psychology 112 2 119 126 doi 10 1037 0735 7036 112 2 119 PMID 9642782 Gouteux S Thinus Blanc C Vauclair J 2001 Rhesus monkeys use geometric and nongeometric information during a reorientation task Journal of Experimental Psychology General 130 3 505 519 doi 10 1037 0096 3445 130 3 505 a b Lewis L Krupenye C 2021 06 24 Theory of Mind in Nonhuman Primates PsyArXiv doi 10 31234 osf io c568f S2CID 237857077 Premack D Woodruff G December 1978 Does the chimpanzee have a theory of mind Behavioral and Brain Sciences 1 4 515 526 doi 10 1017 S0140525X00076512 S2CID 141321709 Anderson JR Montant M Schmitt D August 1996 Rhesus monkeys fail to use gaze direction as an experimenter given cue in an object choice task Behavioural Processes 37 1 47 55 doi 10 1016 0376 6357 95 00074 7 PMID 24897158 S2CID 19504558 Byrne RW Whiten A June 1988 Toward the next generation in data quality A new survey of primate tactical deception Behavioral and Brain Sciences 11 2 267 273 doi 10 1017 S0140525X00049955 S2CID 143667510 Herrmann E Call J Hernandez Lloreda MV Hare B Tomasello M September 2007 Humans have evolved specialized skills of social cognition the cultural intelligence hypothesis Science 317 5843 1360 1366 Bibcode 2007Sci 317 1360H doi 10 1126 science 1146282 PMID 17823346 S2CID 686663 Call J Hare B Carpenter M Tomasello M September 2004 Unwilling versus unable chimpanzees understanding of human intentional action Developmental Science 7 4 488 498 doi 10 1111 j 1467 7687 2004 00368 x PMID 15484596 Canteloup C Meunier H 2017 05 03 Unwilling versus unable Tonkean macaques understanding of human goal directed actions PeerJ 5 e3227 doi 10 7717 peerj 3227 PMC 5419206 PMID 28480137 Hare B Call J Tomasello M January 2001 Do chimpanzees know what conspecifics know Animal Behaviour 61 1 139 151 doi 10 1006 anbe 2000 1518 PMID 11170704 S2CID 3402554 a b Krupenye C Kano F Hirata S Call J Tomasello M October 2016 Great apes anticipate that other individuals will act according to false beliefs Science 354 6308 110 114 Bibcode 2016Sci 354 110K doi 10 1126 science aaf8110 hdl 10161 13632 PMID 27846501 S2CID 19959653 Heyes C April 2015 Animal mindreading what s the problem Psychonomic Bulletin amp Review 22 2 313 327 doi 10 3758 s13423 014 0704 4 PMID 25102928 S2CID 37581900 Penn DC Povinelli DJ April 2007 On the lack of evidence that non human animals possess anything remotely resembling a theory of mind Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London Series B Biological Sciences 362 1480 731 744 doi 10 1098 rstb 2006 2023 PMC 2346530 PMID 17264056 Povinelli DJ Nelson KE Boysen ST September 1990 Inferences about guessing and knowing by chimpanzees Pan troglodytes Journal of Comparative Psychology 104 3 203 210 doi 10 1037 0735 7036 104 3 203 PMID 2225758 Cheney DL Seyfarth RM 2007 Baboon Metaphysics University of Chicago Press doi 10 7208 chicago 9780226102429 001 0001 ISBN 978 0 226 10244 3 Struhsaker TT June 1967 Behavior of vervet monkeys and other cercopithecines New data show structural uniformities in the gestures of semiarboreal and terrestrial cercopithecines Science 156 3779 1197 1203 Bibcode 1967Sci 156 1197S doi 10 1126 science 156 3779 1197 PMID 4960943 S2CID 84150741 Seyfarth RM Cheney DL Marler P November 1980 Monkey responses to three different alarm calls evidence of predator classification and semantic communication Science 210 4471 801 803 Bibcode 1980Sci 210 801S doi 10 1126 science 7433999 PMID 7433999 Robert Seyfarth Can Monkeys Talk YouTube www youtube com Retrieved 2020 11 02 Seyfarth RM Cheney DL 2010 04 26 The Ontogeny of Vervet Monkey Alarm Calling Behavior A Preliminary Report Zeitschrift fur Tierpsychologie 54 1 37 56 doi 10 1111 j 1439 0310 1980 tb01062 x Zuberbuhler K April 2000 Interspecies semantic communication in two forest primates Proceedings Biological Sciences 267 1444 713 718 doi 10 1098 rspb 2000 1061 PMC 1690588 PMID 10821618 Chimps craft ultimate fishing rod Mar 3 2009 Retrieved May 21 2020 via news bbc co uk Armed chimp gets honey reward Mar 18 2009 Retrieved May 21 2020 via news bbc co uk van Schaik CP Fox EA Sitompul AF April 1996 Manufacture and use of tools in wild Sumatran orangutans Implications for human evolution Die Naturwissenschaften 83 4 186 188 Bibcode 1996NW 83 186V doi 10 1007 BF01143062 PMID 8643126 S2CID 27180148 Pruetz JD Bertolani P March 2007 Savanna chimpanzees Pan troglodytes verus hunt with tools Current Biology 17 5 412 417 doi 10 1016 j cub 2006 12 042 PMID 17320393 S2CID 16551874 Amanda Pachniewska November 2015 Spear Hunting Chimps Animal Cognition Chimps Use Spears to Hunt Mammals Study Says Science Feb 27 2007 Retrieved May 21 2020 Vancatova M 2008 Gorillas and Tools Part I Retrieved August 4 2013 Gill V 22 July 2011 Mandrill monkey makes pedicuring tool BBC Retrieved 11 August 2013 Mandrill using a tool to clean under its nails Retrieved May 21 2020 Emery NJ Clayton NS February 2009 Tool use and physical cognition in birds and mammals Current Opinion in Neurobiology 19 1 27 33 doi 10 1016 j conb 2009 02 003 PMID 19328675 S2CID 18277620 Terrace HS 1980 Nim London Eyre Methuen Gardner RA Gardner RA Gardner BT 2013 The Structure of Learning From Sign Stimuli To Sign Language Hoboken Taylor and Francis ISBN 978 1 134 80514 3 Premack D 1976 Language and intelligence in ape and man Hillsdale NJ Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Rumbaugh DM Gill TV 1977 Use of Stock sentences for other than the originally intended purpose In Rumbaugh DM ed Language learning by a chimpanzee The Lana project New York Academic Press pp 172 192 Patterson F Linden E 1981 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2753 2761 doi 10 1098 rstb 2012 0191 PMC 3427546 PMID 22927574 Further reading EditGouteux S Thinus Blanc C Vauclair J 2001 Rhesus monkeys use geometric and nongeometric information during a reorientation task Journal of Experimental Psychology General 130 3 505 519 doi 10 1037 0096 3445 130 3 505 Call J June 2001 Object permanence in orangutans Pongo pygmaeus chimpanzees Pan troglodytes and children Homo sapiens Journal of Comparative Psychology 115 2 159 171 doi 10 1037 0735 7036 115 2 159 PMID 11459163 de Blois ST Novak MA Bond M June 1998 Object permanence in orangutans Pongo pygmaeus and squirrel monkeys Saimiri sciureus Journal of Comparative Psychology 112 2 137 152 doi 10 1037 0735 7036 112 2 137 PMID 9642783 Neiworth JJ Steinmark E Basile BM Wonders R Steely F DeHart C March 2003 A test of object permanence in a new world monkey species cotton top tamarins Saguinus oedipus Animal Cognition 6 1 27 37 doi 10 1007 s10071 003 0162 2 PMID 12658533 S2CID 3070975 Westergaard GC Lundquist AL Haynie MK Kuhn HE Suomi SJ June 1998 Why some capuchin monkeys Cebus apella use probing tools and others do not Journal of Comparative Psychology 112 2 207 211 doi 10 1037 0735 7036 112 2 207 PMID 9642788 Brown DA Boysen ST December 2000 Spontaneous discrimination of natural stimuli by chimpanzees Pan troglodytes Journal of Comparative Psychology 114 4 392 400 doi 10 1037 0735 7036 114 4 392 PMID 11149543 Neiworth JJ Parsons RR Hassett JM April 2004 A test of the generality of perceptually based categories found in infants attentional differences toward natural kinds by New World monkeys Developmental Science 7 2 185 193 doi 10 1111 j 1467 7687 2004 00337 x PMID 15320378 Parr LA de Waal FB June 1999 Visual kin recognition in chimpanzees Nature 399 6737 647 648 Bibcode 1999Natur 399 647P doi 10 1038 21345 PMID 10385114 S2CID 4424086 Fujita K Watanabe K Widarto TH Suryobroto B 1997 Discrimination of macaques by macaques The case of sulawesi species Primates 38 3 233 245 doi 10 1007 BF02381612 S2CID 21042762 Parr LA Winslow JT Hopkins WD de Waal FB March 2000 Recognizing facial cues individual discrimination by chimpanzees Pan troglodytes and rhesus monkeys Macaca mulatta Journal of Comparative Psychology 114 1 47 60 doi 10 1037 0735 7036 114 1 47 PMC 2018744 PMID 10739311 Pascalis O Bachevalier J April 1998 Face recognition in primates a cross species study Behavioural Processes 43 1 87 96 doi 10 1016 S0376 6357 97 00090 9 PMID 24897644 S2CID 16819043 Paar LA Winslow JT Hopkins WD 1999 Is the inversion effect in rhesus monkeys face specific Animal Cognition 2 3 123 129 doi 10 1007 s100710050032 S2CID 18435189 Uller C Hauser M Carey S September 2001 Spontaneous representation of number in cotton top tamarins Saguinus oedipus Journal of Comparative Psychology 115 3 248 257 doi 10 1037 0735 7036 115 3 248 PMID 11594494 Beran MJ June 2001 Summation and numerousness judgments of sequentially presented sets of items by chimpanzees Pan troglodytes Journal of Comparative Psychology 115 2 181 191 doi 10 1037 0735 7036 115 2 181 PMID 11459165 Hauser MD Kralik J Botto Mahan C Garrett M Oser J November 1995 Self recognition in primates phylogeny and the salience of species typical features Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 92 23 10811 10814 Bibcode 1995PNAS 9210811H doi 10 1073 pnas 92 23 10811 PMC 40702 PMID 7479889 Heyes CM 1995 Self recognition in primates Further reflections create a hall of mirrors Animal Behaviour 50 6 1533 1542 CiteSeerX 10 1 1 558 5485 doi 10 1016 0003 3472 95 80009 3 S2CID 20290540 Anderson JR December 1997 Self recognition in Saguinus A critical essay Animal Behaviour 54 6 1563 1567 doi 10 1006 anbe 1997 0548 PMID 9521801 S2CID 43373261 Hauser MD Kralik J December 1997 Life beyond the mirror a reply to Anderson amp Gallup Animal Behaviour 54 6 1568 1571 doi 10 1006 anbe 1997 0549 PMID 9521802 S2CID 22836237 Neiworth JJ Anders SL Parsons RR December 2001 Tracking responses related to self recognition a frequency comparison of responses to mirrors photographs and videotapes by cotton top tamanins Saguinus oedipus Journal of Comparative Psychology 115 4 432 438 doi 10 1037 0735 7036 115 4 432 PMID 11824907 de Waal FB Dindo M Freeman CA Hall MJ August 2005 The monkey in the mirror hardly a stranger Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 102 32 11140 11147 Bibcode 2005PNAS 10211140D doi 10 1073 pnas 0503935102 PMC 1183568 PMID 16055557 Anderson JR Mitchell RW 1999 Macaques but not lemurs co orient visually with humans Folia Primatologica International Journal of Primatology 70 1 17 22 doi 10 1159 000021670 PMID 10050063 S2CID 46268265 Itakura S Tanaka M June 1998 Use of experimenter given cues during object choice tasks by chimpanzees Pan troglodytes an orangutan Pongo pygmaeus and human infants Homo sapiens Journal of Comparative Psychology 112 2 119 126 doi 10 1037 0735 7036 112 2 119 PMID 9642782 Neiworth JJ Burman MA Basile BM Lickteig MT March 2002 Use of experimenter given cues in visual co orienting and in an object choice task by a new world monkey species cotton top tamarins Saguinus oedipus Journal of Comparative Psychology 116 1 3 11 doi 10 1037 0735 7036 116 1 3 PMID 11926682 Tomasello M Call J Hare B April 1998 Five primate species follow the visual gaze of conspecifics Animal Behaviour 55 4 1063 1069 doi 10 1006 anbe 1997 0636 PMID 9632490 S2CID 3407611 Brosnan SF De Waal FB September 2003 Monkeys reject unequal pay Nature 425 6955 297 299 Bibcode 2003Natur 425 297B doi 10 1038 nature01963 PMID 13679918 S2CID 4425495 de Waal FB Davis JM 2003 Capuchin cognitive ecology cooperation based on projected returns Neuropsychologia 41 2 221 228 CiteSeerX 10 1 1 496 9719 doi 10 1016 S0028 3932 02 00152 5 PMID 12459220 S2CID 8190458 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Primate cognition amp oldid 1132566026, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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