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Plastivore

April 13, 2024

A plastivore is an organism capable of degrading and metabolising plastic.[1][2][3][4] While plastic is normally thought of as non-biodegradable, a variety of bacteria, fungi and insects have been found to degrade it.

Mealworms, an example of a plastivore

Definition edit

Plastivores are "organisms that use plastic as their primary carbon and energy source".[3] This does not necessarily mean being able to fulfill all biological needs from plastic alone. For example, mealworms fed only on plastic show very little weight gain, unlike mealworms fed on a normal diet of bran.[5] This is due to plastic lacking water and nutrients needed to grow.[5] Plastic-fed mealworms can still derive energy from their diet, so they do not lose weight like starved mealworms do.[5]

Mechanisms edit

For both bacterial and fungal plastivores, the first step is adhesion of spores to the plastic surface via hydrophobic interactions.[6]

 
Diagram showing how Ideonella sakaiensis metabolises plastic

Bacterial plastivores, when cultured on plastic, form biofilms on the surface as the second step.[7][8][9] Using enzymes, they increase the roughness of the surface and oxidize the plastic.[7][8][9] Oxidation forms oxygenated groups such as carbonyl groups, used by the bacteria for carbon and energy, and also converts the plastic into smaller molecules (depolymerization).[7][8]

For fungal plastivores, the second step is growth of mycelia (root-like structures of fungi, composed of thread-like hyphae) on the surface, while the third step is secretion of enzymes.[6] Both the enzymes as well as the mechanical force produced by fungal hyphae degrades the plastic.[6]

The same basic steps of oxidation and depolymerization also occur in insect plastivores.[10] For insects, the bacteria in their guts plays a role in digesting plastic. In mealworms, inhibiting these bacteria by giving antibiotics removes the ability to digest polystyrene, but low-density polyethylene can still be digested to an extent.[9][10] The insects themselves also play a role: saliva of waxworms contains enzymes that oxidize and depolymerize polyethylene.[11]

Examples edit

The following is not an exhaustive list. Plastivorous activity seems to be quite common in nature, with a 2011 sampling of endophytic fungi in the Amazon finding that almost half of the fungi showed some activity.[12]

Bacteria edit

Further information: Plastic degradation by marine bacteria

The plastic pollution in the oceans supports many species of bacteria.

The alkaliphilic bacteria Bacillus pseudofirmus and Salipaludibacillus agaradhaerens can degrade low-density polyethylene (LDPE). These bacteria can degrade LDPE on their own but work more quickly as a consortium of both species, and degradation is faster still when iron oxide nanoparticles are added.[7]

Exiguobacterium sibiricum and E. undae, isolated from a wetland in India, can degrade polystyrene.[8] Similarly, Exiguobacterium sp. strain YT2 has been isolated from the gut of mealworms, which are themselves plastivores, and can degrade polystyrene on its own, though less quickly than mealworms.[9]

Acinetobacter sp. AnTc-1, isolated from the gut of plastivorous red flour beetle larvae, can likewise degrade polystyrene on its own.[13]

Ideonella sakaiensis and Comamonas testosteroni can degrade polyethylene terephthalate.[14][15]

Fungi edit

Aspergillus tubingensis and several isolates of Pestalotiopsis are capable of degrading polyurethane.[6][12]

Polycarbonate, the main material in CDs, is attacked by a range of fungi: Bjerkandera adusta[16] (initially misidentified as Geotrichum sp.[17]), Chaetomium globosum, Trichoderma atroviride, Coniochaeta sp., Cladosporium cladosporioides and Penicillium chrysogenum.[18]

Insects edit

Mealworms (Tenebrio molitor), a species commonly used as animal feed, can consume polyethylene and polystyrene.[5][9][10] Its congener T. obscurus can also consume polystyrene,[19] as can superworm (Zophobas morio) and red flour beetle (Tribolium castaneum) from different genera in the same family.[20][13]

 
A waxworm

Plastivory also occurs in Lepidoptera, with waxworms (Galleria mellonella) able to consume polyethylene.[11][21] Even homogenising waxworms and applying the homogenate to polyethylene can cause degradation.[21] This species is the fastest known organism to chemically modify polyethylene, with oxidation occurring within one hour from exposure.[11]

References edit

  1. ^ Sanchez-Hernandez, Juan C. (2021). "A toxicological perspective of plastic biodegradation by insect larvae". Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part C: Toxicology & Pharmacology. 248: 109117. doi:10.1016/j.cbpc.2021.109117. PMID 34186180.
  2. ^ "Plastivores: Plastic-Degrading Super-Microbes and Enzymes". Wyss Institute. 2023-10-19. Retrieved 2024-02-26.
  3. ^ a b "Why scientists say 'plastivores' could be the solution to plastic pollution". WHYY. Retrieved 2024-02-26.
  4. ^ Yirka, Bob; Phys.org. "The caterpillar larvae 'plastivores' that consume and metabolize polyethylene". phys.org. Retrieved 2024-02-26.
  5. ^ a b c d Yang, Yu; Yang, Jun; Wu, Wei-Min; Zhao, Jiao; Song, Yiling; Gao, Longcheng; Yang, Ruifu; Jiang, Lei (2015-10-20). "Biodegradation and Mineralization of Polystyrene by Plastic-Eating Mealworms: Part 1. Chemical and Physical Characterization and Isotopic Tests". Environmental Science & Technology. 49 (20): 12080–12086. Bibcode:2015EnST...4912080Y. doi:10.1021/acs.est.5b02661. ISSN 0013-936X. PMID 26390034.
  6. ^ a b c d Khan, Sehroon; Nadir, Sadia; Shah, Zia Ullah; Shah, Aamer Ali; Karunarathna, Samantha C.; Xu, Jianchu; Khan, Afsar; Munir, Shahzad; Hasan, Fariha (2017). "Biodegradation of polyester polyurethane by Aspergillus tubingensis". Environmental Pollution. 225: 469–480. doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2017.03.012. PMID 28318785.
  7. ^ a b c d G. Cada, Erika Joy (June 2019). "Enhanced in vitro biodegradation of low-density polyethylene using alkaliphilic bacterial consortium supplemented with iron oxide nanoparticles" (PDF). Philippine Science Letters. 12.
  8. ^ a b c d Chauhan, Deepika; Agrawal, Guncha; Deshmukh, Sujit; Roy, Susanta Sinha; Priyadarshini, Richa (2018). "Biofilm formation by Exiguobacterium sp. DR11 and DR14 alter polystyrene surface properties and initiate biodegradation". RSC Advances. 8 (66): 37590–37599. Bibcode:2018RSCAd...837590C. doi:10.1039/C8RA06448B. ISSN 2046-2069. PMC 9089450. PMID 35558609.
  9. ^ a b c d e Yang, Yu; Yang, Jun; Wu, Wei-Min; Zhao, Jiao; Song, Yiling; Gao, Longcheng; Yang, Ruifu; Jiang, Lei (2015-10-20). "Biodegradation and Mineralization of Polystyrene by Plastic-Eating Mealworms: Part 2. Role of Gut Microorganisms". Environmental Science & Technology. 49 (20): 12087–12093. Bibcode:2015EnST...4912087Y. doi:10.1021/acs.est.5b02663. ISSN 0013-936X. PMID 26390390.
  10. ^ a b c Yang, Li; Gao, Jie; Liu, Ying; Zhuang, Guoqiang; Peng, Xiawei; Wu, Wei-Min; Zhuang, Xuliang (2021). "Biodegradation of expanded polystyrene and low-density polyethylene foams in larvae of Tenebrio molitor Linnaeus (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae): Broad versus limited extent depolymerization and microbe-dependence versus independence". Chemosphere. 262: 127818. Bibcode:2021Chmsp.26227818Y. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.127818. PMID 32771707. S2CID 224882094.
  11. ^ a b c Sanluis-Verdes, A.; Colomer-Vidal, P.; Rodriguez-Ventura, F.; Bello-Villarino, M.; Spinola-Amilibia, M.; Ruiz-Lopez, E.; Illanes-Vicioso, R.; Castroviejo, P.; Aiese Cigliano, R.; Montoya, M.; Falabella, P.; Pesquera, C.; Gonzalez-Legarreta, L.; Arias-Palomo, E.; Solà, M. (2022-10-04). "Wax worm saliva and the enzymes therein are the key to polyethylene degradation by Galleria mellonella". Nature Communications. 13 (1): 5568. Bibcode:2022NatCo..13.5568S. doi:10.1038/s41467-022-33127-w. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 9532405. PMID 36195604.
  12. ^ a b Russell, Jonathan R.; Huang, Jeffrey; Anand, Pria; Kucera, Kaury; Sandoval, Amanda G.; Dantzler, Kathleen W.; Hickman, DaShawn; Jee, Justin; Kimovec, Farrah M.; Koppstein, David; Marks, Daniel H.; Mittermiller, Paul A.; Núñez, Salvador Joel; Santiago, Marina; Townes, Maria A. (2011). "Biodegradation of Polyester Polyurethane by Endophytic Fungi". Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 77 (17): 6076–6084. Bibcode:2011ApEnM..77.6076R. doi:10.1128/AEM.00521-11. ISSN 0099-2240. PMC 3165411. PMID 21764951.
  13. ^ a b Wang, Zhe; Xin, Xin; Shi, Xiaofan; Zhang, Yalin (2020-07-15). "A polystyrene-degrading Acinetobacter bacterium isolated from the larvae of Tribolium castaneum". Science of the Total Environment. 726: 138564. Bibcode:2020ScTEn.726m8564W. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138564. ISSN 0048-9697. PMID 32315854. S2CID 216075743.
  14. ^ Yoshida, Shosuke; Hiraga, Kazumi; Takehana, Toshihiko; Taniguchi, Ikuo; Yamaji, Hironao; Maeda, Yasuhito; Toyohara, Kiyotsuna; Miyamoto, Kenji; Kimura, Yoshiharu; Oda, Kohei (2016-03-11). "A bacterium that degrades and assimilates poly(ethylene terephthalate)". Science. 351 (6278): 1196–1199. Bibcode:2016Sci...351.1196Y. doi:10.1126/science.aad6359. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 26965627. S2CID 31146235.
  15. ^ Gong, Jixian; Kong, Tongtong; Li, Yuqiang; Li, Qiujin; Li, Zheng; Zhang, Jianfei (2018-11-30). "Biodegradation of Microplastic Derived from Poly(ethylene terephthalate) with Bacterial Whole-Cell Biocatalysts". Polymers. 10 (12): 1326. doi:10.3390/polym10121326. ISSN 2073-4360. PMC 6401706. PMID 30961251.
  16. ^ Romero, Elvira; Speranza, Mariela; García-Guinea, Javier; Martínez, Ángel T.; Martínez, María Jesús (2007). "An anamorph of the white-rot fungus Bjerkandera adusta capable of colonizing and degrading compact disc components". FEMS Microbiology Letters. 275 (1): 122–129. doi:10.1111/j.1574-6968.2007.00876.x. hdl:10261/47650. PMID 17854471.
  17. ^ Garcia-Guinea, Javier; Cárdenes, Victor; Martínez, Angel T.; Martínez, Maria (2001). "Fungal bioturbation paths in a compact disk". Naturwissenschaften. 88 (8): 351–354. Bibcode:2001NW.....88..351G. doi:10.1007/s001140100249. ISSN 0028-1042. PMID 11572018. S2CID 7599290.
  18. ^ Palermo, Anna M.; Gentile, Antonio; Pellegrino, Giuseppe (2021). "Documentary heritage: fungal deterioration in Compact Discs". Heritage Science. 9 (1). doi:10.1186/s40494-021-00609-x. ISSN 2050-7445.
  19. ^ Peng, Bo-Yu; Su, Yiming; Chen, Zhibin; Chen, Jiabin; Zhou, Xuefei; Benbow, Mark Eric; Criddle, Craig S.; Wu, Wei-Min; Zhang, Yalei (2019-05-07). "Biodegradation of Polystyrene by Dark ( Tenebrio obscurus ) and Yellow ( Tenebrio molitor ) Mealworms (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae)". Environmental Science & Technology. 53 (9): 5256–5265. Bibcode:2019EnST...53.5256P. doi:10.1021/acs.est.8b06963. ISSN 0013-936X. PMID 30990998. S2CID 119102958.
  20. ^ Sun, Jiarui; Prabhu, Apoorva; Aroney, Samuel T. N.; Rinke, Christian (2022-06-30). "Insights into plastic biodegradation: community composition and functional capabilities of the superworm (Zophobas morio) microbiome in styrofoam feeding trials". Microbial Genomics. 8 (6). doi:10.1099/mgen.0.000842. ISSN 2057-5858. PMC 9455710. PMID 35678705.
  21. ^ a b Bombelli, Paolo; Howe, Christopher J.; Bertocchini, Federica (2017). "Polyethylene bio-degradation by caterpillars of the wax moth Galleria mellonella". Current Biology. 27 (8): R292–R293. Bibcode:2017CBio...27.R292B. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2017.02.060. hdl:10261/164618. PMID 28441558.

April 13, 2024
plastivore, plastivore, organism, capable, degrading, metabolising, plastic, while, plastic, normally, thought, biodegradable, variety, bacteria, fungi, insects, have, been, found, degrade, mealworms, example, plastivore, contents, definition, mechanisms, exam. A plastivore is an organism capable of degrading and metabolising plastic 1 2 3 4 While plastic is normally thought of as non biodegradable a variety of bacteria fungi and insects have been found to degrade it Mealworms an example of a plastivore Contents 1 Definition 2 Mechanisms 3 Examples 3 1 Bacteria 3 2 Fungi 3 3 Insects 4 ReferencesDefinition editPlastivores are organisms that use plastic as their primary carbon and energy source 3 This does not necessarily mean being able to fulfill all biological needs from plastic alone For example mealworms fed only on plastic show very little weight gain unlike mealworms fed on a normal diet of bran 5 This is due to plastic lacking water and nutrients needed to grow 5 Plastic fed mealworms can still derive energy from their diet so they do not lose weight like starved mealworms do 5 Mechanisms editFor both bacterial and fungal plastivores the first step is adhesion of spores to the plastic surface via hydrophobic interactions 6 nbsp Diagram showing how Ideonella sakaiensis metabolises plasticBacterial plastivores when cultured on plastic form biofilms on the surface as the second step 7 8 9 Using enzymes they increase the roughness of the surface and oxidize the plastic 7 8 9 Oxidation forms oxygenated groups such as carbonyl groups used by the bacteria for carbon and energy and also converts the plastic into smaller molecules depolymerization 7 8 For fungal plastivores the second step is growth of mycelia root like structures of fungi composed of thread like hyphae on the surface while the third step is secretion of enzymes 6 Both the enzymes as well as the mechanical force produced by fungal hyphae degrades the plastic 6 The same basic steps of oxidation and depolymerization also occur in insect plastivores 10 For insects the bacteria in their guts plays a role in digesting plastic In mealworms inhibiting these bacteria by giving antibiotics removes the ability to digest polystyrene but low density polyethylene can still be digested to an extent 9 10 The insects themselves also play a role saliva of waxworms contains enzymes that oxidize and depolymerize polyethylene 11 Examples editThe following is not an exhaustive list Plastivorous activity seems to be quite common in nature with a 2011 sampling of endophytic fungi in the Amazon finding that almost half of the fungi showed some activity 12 Bacteria edit Further information Plastic degradation by marine bacteria The plastic pollution in the oceans supports many species of bacteria The alkaliphilic bacteria Bacillus pseudofirmus and Salipaludibacillus agaradhaerens can degrade low density polyethylene LDPE These bacteria can degrade LDPE on their own but work more quickly as a consortium of both species and degradation is faster still when iron oxide nanoparticles are added 7 Exiguobacterium sibiricum and E undae isolated from a wetland in India can degrade polystyrene 8 Similarly Exiguobacterium sp strain YT2 has been isolated from the gut of mealworms which are themselves plastivores and can degrade polystyrene on its own though less quickly than mealworms 9 Acinetobacter sp AnTc 1 isolated from the gut of plastivorous red flour beetle larvae can likewise degrade polystyrene on its own 13 Ideonella sakaiensis and Comamonas testosteroni can degrade polyethylene terephthalate 14 15 Fungi edit Aspergillus tubingensis and several isolates of Pestalotiopsis are capable of degrading polyurethane 6 12 Polycarbonate the main material in CDs is attacked by a range of fungi Bjerkandera adusta 16 initially misidentified as Geotrichum sp 17 Chaetomium globosum Trichoderma atroviride Coniochaeta sp Cladosporium cladosporioides and Penicillium chrysogenum 18 Insects edit Mealworms Tenebrio molitor a species commonly used as animal feed can consume polyethylene and polystyrene 5 9 10 Its congener T obscurus can also consume polystyrene 19 as can superworm Zophobas morio and red flour beetle Tribolium castaneum from different genera in the same family 20 13 nbsp A waxwormPlastivory also occurs in Lepidoptera with waxworms Galleria mellonella able to consume polyethylene 11 21 Even homogenising waxworms and applying the homogenate to polyethylene can cause degradation 21 This species is the fastest known organism to chemically modify polyethylene with oxidation occurring within one hour from exposure 11 References edit Sanchez Hernandez Juan C 2021 A toxicological perspective of plastic biodegradation by insect larvae Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part C Toxicology amp Pharmacology 248 109117 doi 10 1016 j cbpc 2021 109117 PMID 34186180 Plastivores Plastic Degrading Super Microbes and Enzymes Wyss Institute 2023 10 19 Retrieved 2024 02 26 a b Why scientists say plastivores could be the solution to plastic pollution WHYY Retrieved 2024 02 26 Yirka Bob Phys org The caterpillar larvae plastivores that consume and metabolize polyethylene phys org Retrieved 2024 02 26 a b c d Yang Yu Yang Jun Wu Wei Min Zhao Jiao Song Yiling Gao Longcheng Yang Ruifu Jiang Lei 2015 10 20 Biodegradation and Mineralization of Polystyrene by Plastic Eating Mealworms Part 1 Chemical and Physical Characterization and Isotopic Tests Environmental Science amp Technology 49 20 12080 12086 Bibcode 2015EnST 4912080Y doi 10 1021 acs est 5b02661 ISSN 0013 936X PMID 26390034 a b c d Khan Sehroon Nadir Sadia Shah Zia Ullah Shah Aamer Ali Karunarathna Samantha C Xu Jianchu Khan Afsar Munir Shahzad Hasan Fariha 2017 Biodegradation of polyester polyurethane by Aspergillus tubingensis Environmental Pollution 225 469 480 doi 10 1016 j envpol 2017 03 012 PMID 28318785 a b c d G Cada Erika Joy June 2019 Enhanced in vitro biodegradation of low density polyethylene using alkaliphilic bacterial consortium supplemented with iron oxide nanoparticles PDF Philippine Science Letters 12 a b c d Chauhan Deepika Agrawal Guncha Deshmukh Sujit Roy Susanta Sinha Priyadarshini Richa 2018 Biofilm formation by Exiguobacterium sp DR11 and DR14 alter polystyrene surface properties and initiate biodegradation RSC Advances 8 66 37590 37599 Bibcode 2018RSCAd 837590C doi 10 1039 C8RA06448B ISSN 2046 2069 PMC 9089450 PMID 35558609 a b c d e Yang Yu Yang Jun Wu Wei Min Zhao Jiao Song Yiling Gao Longcheng Yang Ruifu Jiang Lei 2015 10 20 Biodegradation and Mineralization of Polystyrene by Plastic Eating Mealworms Part 2 Role of Gut Microorganisms Environmental Science amp Technology 49 20 12087 12093 Bibcode 2015EnST 4912087Y doi 10 1021 acs est 5b02663 ISSN 0013 936X PMID 26390390 a b c Yang Li Gao Jie Liu Ying Zhuang Guoqiang Peng Xiawei Wu Wei Min Zhuang Xuliang 2021 Biodegradation of expanded polystyrene and low density polyethylene foams in larvae of Tenebrio molitor Linnaeus Coleoptera Tenebrionidae Broad versus limited extent depolymerization and microbe dependence versus independence Chemosphere 262 127818 Bibcode 2021Chmsp 26227818Y doi 10 1016 j chemosphere 2020 127818 PMID 32771707 S2CID 224882094 a b c Sanluis Verdes A Colomer Vidal P Rodriguez Ventura F Bello Villarino M Spinola Amilibia M Ruiz Lopez E Illanes Vicioso R Castroviejo P Aiese Cigliano R Montoya M Falabella P Pesquera C Gonzalez Legarreta L Arias Palomo E Sola M 2022 10 04 Wax worm saliva and the enzymes therein are the key to polyethylene degradation by Galleria mellonella Nature Communications 13 1 5568 Bibcode 2022NatCo 13 5568S doi 10 1038 s41467 022 33127 w ISSN 2041 1723 PMC 9532405 PMID 36195604 a b Russell Jonathan R Huang Jeffrey Anand Pria Kucera Kaury Sandoval Amanda G Dantzler Kathleen W Hickman DaShawn Jee Justin Kimovec Farrah M Koppstein David Marks Daniel H Mittermiller Paul A Nunez Salvador Joel Santiago Marina Townes Maria A 2011 Biodegradation of Polyester Polyurethane by Endophytic Fungi Applied and Environmental Microbiology 77 17 6076 6084 Bibcode 2011ApEnM 77 6076R doi 10 1128 AEM 00521 11 ISSN 0099 2240 PMC 3165411 PMID 21764951 a b Wang Zhe Xin Xin Shi Xiaofan Zhang Yalin 2020 07 15 A polystyrene degrading Acinetobacter bacterium isolated from the larvae of Tribolium castaneum Science of the Total Environment 726 138564 Bibcode 2020ScTEn 726m8564W doi 10 1016 j scitotenv 2020 138564 ISSN 0048 9697 PMID 32315854 S2CID 216075743 Yoshida Shosuke Hiraga Kazumi Takehana Toshihiko Taniguchi Ikuo Yamaji Hironao Maeda Yasuhito Toyohara Kiyotsuna Miyamoto Kenji Kimura Yoshiharu Oda Kohei 2016 03 11 A bacterium that degrades and assimilates poly ethylene terephthalate Science 351 6278 1196 1199 Bibcode 2016Sci 351 1196Y doi 10 1126 science aad6359 ISSN 0036 8075 PMID 26965627 S2CID 31146235 Gong Jixian Kong Tongtong Li Yuqiang Li Qiujin Li Zheng Zhang Jianfei 2018 11 30 Biodegradation of Microplastic Derived from Poly ethylene terephthalate with Bacterial Whole Cell Biocatalysts Polymers 10 12 1326 doi 10 3390 polym10121326 ISSN 2073 4360 PMC 6401706 PMID 30961251 Romero Elvira Speranza Mariela Garcia Guinea Javier Martinez Angel T Martinez Maria Jesus 2007 An anamorph of the white rot fungus Bjerkandera adusta capable of colonizing and degrading compact disc components FEMS Microbiology Letters 275 1 122 129 doi 10 1111 j 1574 6968 2007 00876 x hdl 10261 47650 PMID 17854471 Garcia Guinea Javier Cardenes Victor Martinez Angel T Martinez Maria 2001 Fungal bioturbation paths in a compact disk Naturwissenschaften 88 8 351 354 Bibcode 2001NW 88 351G doi 10 1007 s001140100249 ISSN 0028 1042 PMID 11572018 S2CID 7599290 Palermo Anna M Gentile Antonio Pellegrino Giuseppe 2021 Documentary heritage fungal deterioration in Compact Discs Heritage Science 9 1 doi 10 1186 s40494 021 00609 x ISSN 2050 7445 Peng Bo Yu Su Yiming Chen Zhibin Chen Jiabin Zhou Xuefei Benbow Mark Eric Criddle Craig S Wu Wei Min Zhang Yalei 2019 05 07 Biodegradation of Polystyrene by Dark Tenebrio obscurus and Yellow Tenebrio molitor Mealworms Coleoptera Tenebrionidae Environmental Science amp Technology 53 9 5256 5265 Bibcode 2019EnST 53 5256P doi 10 1021 acs est 8b06963 ISSN 0013 936X PMID 30990998 S2CID 119102958 Sun Jiarui Prabhu Apoorva Aroney Samuel T N Rinke Christian 2022 06 30 Insights into plastic biodegradation community composition and functional capabilities of the superworm Zophobas morio microbiome in styrofoam feeding trials Microbial Genomics 8 6 doi 10 1099 mgen 0 000842 ISSN 2057 5858 PMC 9455710 PMID 35678705 a b Bombelli Paolo Howe Christopher J Bertocchini Federica 2017 Polyethylene bio degradation by caterpillars of the wax moth Galleria mellonella Current Biology 27 8 R292 R293 Bibcode 2017CBio 27 R292B doi 10 1016 j cub 2017 02 060 hdl 10261 164618 PMID 28441558 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Plastivore amp oldid 1215859840, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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