Pacific hurricane

This article is about tropical cyclones that form in the Northern Hemisphere east of the International Date Line. For storms that form in the southern hemisphere, also occasionally known as hurricanes, see South Pacific tropical cyclone.

A Pacific hurricane is a mature tropical cyclone that develops within the northeastern and central Pacific Ocean to the east of 180°W, north of the equator. For tropical cyclone warning purposes, the northern Pacific is divided into three regions: the eastern (North America to 140°W), central (140°W to 180°), and western (180° to 100°E), while the southern Pacific is divided into 2 sections, the Australian region (90E to 160°E) and the southern Pacific basin between 160°E and 120°W.^[1] Identical phenomena in the western north Pacific are called typhoons. This separation between the two basins has a practical convenience, however, as tropical cyclones rarely form in the central north Pacific due to high vertical wind shear, and few cross the dateline.

Cumulative average number of tropical cyclones in the north Pacific

List of seasons

Historical storm formation by month between 1990 and 2020

25 50 75 100 125 150 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec   Category 5   Category 4   Category 3   Category 2   Category 1   Tropical storm   Tropical depression

Period	Seasons
Pre-1920s	Before 1900, 1900s, 1910s
1920s	1920–1924, 1925, 1926, 1927, 1928, 1929
1930s	1930, 1931, 1932, 1933, 1934, 1935, 1936, 1937, 1938, 1939
1940s	1940, 1941, 1942–1948, 1949
1950s	1950, 1951, 1952, 1953, 1954, 1955, 1956, 1957, 1958, 1959
1960s	1960, 1961, 1962, 1963, 1964, 1965, 1966, 1967, 1968, 1969
1970s	1970, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1974, 1975, 1976, 1977, 1978, 1979
1980s	1980, 1981, 1982, 1983, 1984, 1985, 1986, 1987, 1988, 1989
1990s	1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999
2000s	2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009
2010s	2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019
2020s	2020, 2021, 2022, 2023

1950s

Track map	Year	TD	TS	HU	MH	Strongest storm	Deaths	Damages (USD)	Notes
	1950	--	7	6	0	1  Hiki	1	Unknown	Includes Hiki, the third wettest tropical cyclone in the United States
	1951	--	9	2	0	1  Two and Eight	0	Unknown
	1952	--	7	3	0	1  Five and Seven	0	Unknown
	1953	--	4	2	0	TS  One	0	Unknown
	1954	11	11	3	0	TS  Seven	40	Unknown
	1955	--	6	2	0	1  One	0	Unknown
	1956	--	11	7	0	1  One	0	Unknown
	1957	--	13	9	1	4  Twelve	21	$100,000
	1958	14	14	5	0	1  Eleven	0	Unknown
	1959	15	15	5	3	5  Patsy	>1,800	$280 million	Patsy was the first known Category 5 hurricane in the Central Pacific basin Includes the deadliest tropical cyclone in the Eastern Pacific, the 1959 Mexico hurricane
							>1,862	$280.10 million

1960s

Track map	Year	TD	TS	HU	MH	Strongest storm	Deaths	Damages (USD)	Notes
	1960	8	8	5	0	1  Estelle	0	Unknown
	1961	11	10	2	0	1  Iva	436	$16 million
	1962	18	12	2	0	1  Doreen	Unknown	$11 million
	1963	8	8	4	0	1  Mona	Unknown	Unknown
	1964	6	6	2	0	2  Odessa	Unknown	Unknown	Least active season since 1953
	1965	11	10	1	0	1  Emily	6	$10 million
	1966	18	13	8	0	1  Connie	9+	$5.6 million	Includes the farthest traveled storm in the Eastern Pacific, Hurricane Blanca
	1967	17	17	6	1	3  Olivia	121	Unknown
	1968	26	20	6	0	1  Rebecca	9	Unknown	Tied with 2009 for having the most storms named in the month of August
	1969	15	10	4	0	1  Doreen	10	Unknown	Includes latest first named storm, Tropical Storm Ava, which formed in July
							591	$42.6 million

1970s

Year	TD	TS	HU	MH	ACE Index	Strongest storm	Deaths	Damages (USD)	Notes
1970	21	19	5	0		2  Lorraine	22	Unknown
1971	22	18	12	6	139	3  Olivia	52	$40 million
1972	20	14	9	4	136	4  Celeste	1	$75,000
1973	18	12	7	3	114	5  Ava	0	Unknown	Featured the strongest hurricane in the basin at the time and the earliest category five in the Eastern Pacific on record
1974	25	18	11	3	90	4  Maggie	18–33	$4 million	Featured one of the most active periods of tropical cyclones on record with five existing simultaneously (Ione, Joyce, Kirsten, Lorraine, and Maggie)
1975	21	17	9	4	112	4  Denise	30	$20 million
1976	19	15	9	5	121	4  Annette	614–964	$360 million
1977	17	8	4	0	22	2  Florence	8	$39.6 million	Least active season until 2010, Featured no major hurricanes, tied with 2003
1978	25	19	14	7	207	4  Fico, Hector, Norman	4	$301 million	First season to use masculine and feminine names.
1979	13	10	6	4	57	4  Ignacio	Unknown	Unknown	Most recent year in which no tropical cyclones crossed into the Central Pacific basin
Totals	201	150	86	36	1110	Ava	767–1,102	$385.075 million

1980s

Year	TD	TS	HU	MH	ACE Index	Strongest storm	Deaths	Damages (USD)	Notes
1980	16	15	7	3	77	4  Kay	0	Unknown
1981	17	15	8	1	72	3  Norma	79	$134 million
1982	30	23	12	5	161	4  Olivia	1,937	$1.3 billion	Fifth most active season on record
1983	26	21	12	8	206	4  Kiko and Raymond	168	$303.33 million	Tied with 1984 for the fourth most active season at the time
1984	26	21	13	7	193	4  Douglas	21	Unknown	Tied with 1983 for the fourth most active season at the time
1985	28	24	12	8	192	4  Rick	1	$1 million	Third most active season on record Tied with 2018 for having five named storms in the month of June Tied with 2015 and 2016 for the most active month of July since reliable records began
1986	26	17	9	3	107	4  Roslyn	2	$352 million
1987	20	20	10	4	132	4  Max	3	$144.22 million	Last year in which the Eastern Pacific Hurricane Center was the primary warning center for tropical cyclones in the eastern Pacific Ocean
1988	23	15	7	3	127	4  Hector	24	Unknown	Hurricane Joan crossed over Central America and was named Miriam in the Eastern Pacific basin
1989	25	18	9	4	110	4  Raymond	14	$1.75 million
Totals:	237	189	99	46	1377	Max	2,250	$2.240 billion

1990s

Year	TD	TS	HU	MH	ACE Index	Strongest storm	Deaths	Damages (USD)	Notes
1990	27	21	16	6	245	4  Trudy	19	$12.5 million	Fifth most active season on record and third most active in terms of ACE indices Tied with 1992, 2014, and 2015 for the most hurricanes in a single season
1991	16	14	10	5	178	4  Kevin	11	Unknown
1992	30	27	16	10	295	4  Tina	25	$3.15 billion	The second-most active Pacific hurricane season on record in terms of ACE Tied with 1990, 2014, and 2015 for the most hurricanes in a single season Includes the costliest hurricane in the East/Central Pacific, Hurricane Iniki Includes the longest-lasting Pacific hurricane, Tina Hurricane Ekeka is the most intense off-season hurricane in the Pacific basin
1993	18	15	11	9	201	4  Lidia	50	$40 million
1994	23	20	10	5	185	5  Gilma	26	$735 million	Tied with 2002 and 2018 for having the most category 5 hurricanes in a single season Includes both the farthest distance and longest-lasting tropical cyclone ever observed, Hurricane John
1995	11	10	7	3	100	4  Juliette	124	$31 million	Least active season since 1979
1996	14	9	5	2	53	4  Douglas	48	$813,000	Saw a record of four Pacific hurricanes strike Mexico, the most in a single season Hurricane Cesar crossed over from Central America and was renamed Douglas in the Pacific basin
1997	24	19	9	7	167	5  Linda	261–531	$551 million	Two category 5 hurricanes formed: Linda and Guillermo Hurricane Linda was the most intense hurricane in the Pacific basin until Patricia of 2015
1998	16	13	9	6	134	4  Howard	54	$760 million
1999	14	9	6	2	90	4  Dora	16	None
Totals:	193	157	99	55	1,648	Linda	581–853	$4.9 billion

2000s

Year	TD	TS	HU	MH	ACE Index	Strongest storm	Deaths	Damages (USD)	Notes
2000	21	19	6	2	95	4  Carlotta	27	$84 million
2001	19	15	8	2	90	4  Juliette	13	$401 million
2002	19	15	8	6	124	5  Kenna	7	$101 million	Tied with 1994 and 2018 for having the most category 5 hurricanes in a single season Includes the fourth most intense hurricane in the Pacific basin, Kenna
2003	17	16	7	0	56	2  Nora	23	$129 million	Featured no major hurricanes tied with 1977
2004	18	12	6	3	71	4  Javier	None	None
2005	17	15	7	2	96	4  Kenneth	6	$12 million
2006	25	19	11	6	155	5  Ioke	14	$355 million	Most active since 2000 Includes the most intense hurricane in the Central Pacific basin, Ioke
2007	15	11	4	1	52	4  Flossie	42	$80 million
2008	19	17	7	2	83	4  Norbert	45	$153 million
2009	23	20	8	5	127	5  Rick	16	$226 million	Most active since 1994 Tied with 1968 for having the most storms named in the month of August Includes the third most intense hurricane in the Pacific basin, Rick
Totals	192	159	72	29		Rick	193	≥$1.54 billion

2010s

Year	TD	TS	HU	MH	ACE Index	Strongest storm	Deaths	Damages (USD)	Notes
2010	13	8	3	2	52	5  Celia	268	$1.62 billion	Least active Pacific hurricane season on record tied with 1977 Including a Category 5 hurricane in the basin, Celia Including a rare-off season in the month of December, Omeka
2011	13	11	10	6	121	4  Dora	43	>$203.67 million
2012	17	17	10	5	98	4  Emilia	8	$27.9 million
2013	21	20	9	1	76	3  Raymond	194	$4.56 billion
2014	23	22	16	9	199	5  Marie	49	>$1.52 billion	Fourth most active season on record Tied with 1990, 1992, and 2015 for the most hurricanes in a single season.
2015	31	26	16	11	287	5  Patricia	45	$566 million	Second most active season on record Includes the most intense hurricane in the Pacific basin, Patricia Tied with 1990, 1992, and 2014 for the most hurricanes in a single season Tied with 1985 and 2016 for the most active month of July since reliable records began Latest ending to a season on record.
2016	23	22	13	6	183	4  Seymour	11	$95.8 million	Earliest start on record in the Pacific basin Fourth most active season on record Tied with 1985 and 2015 for the most active month of July since reliable records began
2017	20	18	9	4	100	4  Fernanda	45	$375.28 million
2018	26	23	13	10	318	5  Walaka	56	>$1.46 billion	Fourth-most active season on record Most active Pacific hurricane season on record in terms of ACE Tied with 1985 for the most named storms on record in the month of June (5). Tied with 1994 and 2002 for having the most Category 5 hurricanes in a single season
2019	21	19	7	4	97	4  Barbara	7	$16.1 million	Latest start since reliable records began in 1971
Totals:	208	186	106	58		Patricia	723	≥$10.2 billion

2020s

Year	TD	TS	HU	MH	ACE Index	Strongest storm	Deaths	Damages (USD)	Notes
2020	21	17	4	3	77.3	4  Marie	47	>$250 million	Least active season since 2011 First season in which no tropical cyclones formed in the Central Pacific basin Featuring one unnamed tropical storm which was operationally classified as a tropical depression.
2021	19	19	8	2	94	4  Felicia	13	>$255 million	Earliest start to a season east of 140°E on record, second earliest fifth named storm on record Second consecutive in which no tropical cyclones formed in the Central Pacific basin First season in a row to have at least five systems make landfall in Mexico.
2022	19	19	10	4	116.5	4  Darby	26	$54.2 million	Featuring two tropical cyclones that crossed over from the Atlantic (Bonnie and Julia) Third consecutive in which no tropical cyclones formed in the Central Pacific basin Second season in a row to have at least five systems make landfall.
2023	0	0	0	0	0		None	None
Totals	59	55	22	9		Felicia	86	≥$559 million

History

 

Tracks of East Pacific tropical cyclones (1980–2005)

Documentation of Pacific hurricanes dates to the Spanish colonization of Mexico, when the military and missions wrote about "tempestades". In 1730, such accounts indicated an understanding of the storms. After observing the rotating nature of tropical cyclones, meteorologist William Charles Redfield expanded his study to include storms in the eastern North Pacific Ocean in the middle of the 19th century. Between June and October 1850, Redfield observed five tropical cyclones along "the southwestern coast of North America", along with one in each of the three subsequent years. In 1895, Cleveland Abbe reported the presence of many storms between 5° to 15°–N in the eastern Pacific, although many such storms dissipated before affecting the Mexican coast. Two years later, the German Hydrography Office Deutsche Seewarte documented 45 storms from 1832 to 1892 off the west coast of Mexico.^[2]

Despite the documentation of storms in the region, the official position of the United States Weather Bureau denied the existence of such storms. In 1910, the agency reported on global tropical cyclones, noting that "the occurrence of tropical storms is confined to the summer and autumn months of the respective hemispheres and to the western parts of the several oceans." In 1913, the Weather Bureau reinforced their position by excluding Pacific storms among five tropical cyclone basins; however, the agency acknowledged the existence of "certain cyclones that have been traced for a relatively short distance along a northwest course... west of Central America."^[2]

After California became a state and the discovery of gold there in 1848, shipping traffic began increasing steadily in the eastern Pacific. Such activity increased further after the Panama Canal opened in 1914, and the shipping lanes moved closer to the coast. By around 1920, Pacific hurricanes were officially recognized due to widespread ship observations, radio service, and a newly created weather network in western Mexico. Within 60 years, further studies of the region's tropical activity indicated that the eastern Pacific is in fact the second most active basin in the world.^[2]

During the 1920s, a few documents in the Monthly Weather Review reported additional storms within 2,000 mi (3,200 km) off the Mexican coastline.^[3][4]

The Eastern and Central Pacific hurricane database

The Eastern Pacific hurricane best track database was initially compiled on magnetic tape in 1976 for the seasons between 1949 and 1975, at the NHC to help with the development of two tropical cyclone forecast models, which required tracks of past cyclones as a base for its predictions.^[5][6] The database was based on records held by the United States Navy and were interpolated from 12 hourly intervals to 6 hourly intervals based on a scheme devised by Hiroshi Akima in 1970.^[7][8] Initially tracks for the Central Pacific region and tracks for tropical depressions that did not develop into tropical storms or hurricanes were not included within the database.^[8] After the database had been created Arthur Pike of the NHC made some internal adjustments, while in 1980 a review was made by Arnold Court under contract from the United States National Weather Service and resulted in additions and/or modifications to 81 tracks in the database.^[7][9] Between 1976–1987, the NHC archived best track data from the Eastern Pacific Hurricane Center (EPHC), and in 1982 started including information on Central Pacific tropical storms and hurricanes started to be included in the database based on data from the Joint Typhoon Warning Center and research done by Samuel Shaw of the Central Pacific Hurricane Center (CPHC) in 1981.^[5][7]

The format of the database was completely revised by the NHC during 1984, so that the format could resemble the Atlantic database before they took over the warning responsibility from the EPHC for the Eastern Pacific during 1988.^[7][9][10] During 2008 and 2013 several revisions were made to the database to extend tracks in land, based on reports in the Mariners Weather Log and extrapolation of the tracks since the EPHC stopped issuing advisories on systems before they made landfall.^[11] The archives format was significantly changed during 2013 to include non-synoptic best track times, non-developing tropical depressions and wind radii.^[12] During February 2016, the NHC released the 1959 Mexico hurricane's reanalysis, which was the first system to be reassessed, using methods developed for the Atlantic reanalysis process.^[13]

Climatology

The presence of a semi-permanent high-pressure area known as the North Pacific High in the eastern Pacific is a dominant factor against the formation of tropical cyclones in the winter, as the Pacific High results in wind shear that causes unfavorable, environmental conditions for tropical cyclone formation. Its effects in the central Pacific basin are usually related to keeping cyclones away from the Hawaiian Islands. Due to westward trade winds, hurricanes in the Pacific rarely head eastward, unless recurved by a trough. A second factor preventing tropical cyclones from forming during the winter is the occupation of a semi-permanent low-pressure area designated the Aleutian Low between January and April. Its presence over western Canada and the northwestern United States contributes to the area's occurrences of precipitation in that duration. In addition, its effects in the central Pacific near 160° W causes tropical waves that form in the area to drift northward into the Gulf of Alaska and dissipate. The retreat of this low allows the Pacific High to also retreat into the central Pacific, leaving a warm and moist environment in its wake. The Intertropical Convergence Zone comes northward into the East Pacific in mid-May permitting the formation of the earliest tropical waves,^[14] coinciding with the start of the eastern Pacific hurricane season on May 15.^[15]

The El Niño-Southern Oscillation also influences the frequency and intensity of hurricanes in the Northeast Pacific basin. During El Niño events, sea surface temperatures increase in the Northeast Pacific and vertical wind shear decreases. Because of this, an increase in tropical cyclone activity occurs; the opposite happens in the Atlantic basin during El Niño, where increased wind shear creates an unfavorable environment for tropical cyclone formation.^[16] Contrary to El Niño, La Niña events increase wind shear and decreases sea surface temperatures over the eastern Pacific, while reducing wind shear and increasing sea surface temperatures over the Atlantic.^[14]

Eastern North Pacific

 

Historical East Pacific Seasonal Activity, 1971–2007. Data on ACE is considered reliable starting with the 1971 season

Hurricane season runs between May 15 and November 30 each year.^[17] These dates encompass the vast majority of tropical cyclone activity in this region.

The Regional Specialized Meteorological Center for this basin is the United States' National Hurricane Center.^[18] Previous forecasters are the Eastern Pacific Hurricane Center and the Joint Hurricane Warning Center. The RSMC monitors the eastern Pacific and issues reports, watches and warnings about tropical weather systems and cyclones as defined by the World Meteorological Organization.

This area is, on average, the second-most active basin in the world. There are an average of 16 tropical storms annually, with 9 becoming hurricanes, and 4 becoming major hurricanes.^[19] Tropical cyclones in this region frequently affect mainland Mexico and the Revillagigedo Islands. Less often, a system will affect the Continental United States or Central America. Northbound hurricanes typically reduce to tropical storms or dissipate before reaching the United States: there is only one recorded case of a Pacific system reaching California as a hurricane in almost 200 years of observations—the 1858 San Diego Hurricane.^[20]

Most east Pacific hurricanes originate from a tropical wave that drifts westward across the intertropical convergence zone, and across northern parts of South America. Once it reaches the Pacific, a surface low begins to develop, however, with only little or no convection. After reaching the Pacific, it starts to move north-westward and eventually west. By that time, it develops convection and thunderstorm activity from the warm ocean temperatures but remains disorganized. Once the tropical wave becomes organized, it becomes a tropical depression. Formation usually occurs from south of the Gulf of Tehuantepec to south of Baja California with a more westerly location earlier in the season. In the eastern Pacific, development is more centered than anywhere else. If wind shear is low, a tropical cyclone can undergo rapid intensification as a result of very warm oceans, becoming a major hurricane. Tropical cyclones weaken once they reach unfavorable areas for a tropical cyclone formation. Their remnants sometimes reach Hawaii and cause showers there.

There are a few types of Pacific hurricane tracks: one is a westerly track, another moves north-westward along Baja California and another moves north. Sometimes storms can move north-east either across Central America or mainland Mexico and possibly enter the Caribbean Sea becoming a North Atlantic basin tropical cyclone, but these are rare.

Central Pacific

Hurricane season runs from June 1 to November 30, with a strong peak in August and September. However, tropical cyclones have formed outside those dates.^[17] Should a tropical cyclone enter the central north Pacific from the western north Pacific, where they occur year-round, or from the eastern north Pacific, where the season starts in May, it is not known if such a system will be considered out of season or not.

The Central Pacific Hurricane Center is the RSMC for this basin and monitors the storms that develop or move into the defined area of responsibility. A previous forecaster was the Joint Hurricane Warning Center.

Central Pacific hurricanes are rare and on average 3 or 4 storms form or move in this area per year. Most often, storms that occur in the area are weak and often decline in strength upon entry. The only land masses impacted by tropical cyclones in this region are Hawaii and Johnston Atoll. Due to the small size of the islands in relation to the Pacific Ocean, direct hits and landfalls are rare.

Steering factors

See also: Tropical cyclone track forecasting and Subtropical ridge

Hurricanes in the Eastern Pacific tend to move westward out to sea, harming no land—unless they cross into the Central Pacific or Western Pacific basins, in which case they might harm land such as Hawaii or Japan. However, hurricanes can recurve to the north or northeast, hitting Central America or Mexico early and late in the hurricane season.

Extremes

Main article: List of Pacific hurricane records

• The strongest recorded Pacific hurricane was Hurricane Patricia (2015), with 1-minute maximum sustained winds of 215 mph (345 km/h) and a minimum barometric pressure of 872 mbar (hPa; 25.75 inHg). This ranks Patricia as the strongest tropical cyclone globally in terms of 1-minute sustained winds and the second strongest globally in terms of barometric pressure.^[21]
• Hurricane John (1994) was the farthest-travelling tropical cyclone worldwide, traversing 7,165 mi (13,280 km) in 30 days and 18 hours.^[22]
• The 1959 Mexico hurricane was the deadliest Pacific hurricane, causing 1,800 fatalities mostly in Colima and Jalisco.^[23]

See also

•  Tropical cyclones portal

• Atlantic hurricane
• Cordonazo wind
• Tropical cyclone
• Typhoon
• Atlantic hurricane season
• Pacific typhoon climatology
• Pacific typhoon season
• North Indian Ocean tropical cyclone season
• South-West Indian Ocean tropical cyclone season
• Australian region tropical cyclone season
• South Pacific tropical cyclone season
• South Atlantic tropical cyclone
• Mediterranean tropical-like cyclone
• List of tropical cyclone records

References

1. Chris Landsea (2011-07-15). "Subject: A1) What is a hurricane, typhoon, or tropical cyclone?". Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory. Retrieved 2012-07-02.
2. Arnold Court (1980). Tropical Cyclone Effects on California. NOAA technical memorandum NWS WR ;159. Northridge, California: California State University. pp. 2, 4, 6, 8, 34. Retrieved 2012-02-02.
3. Tingley, F. G. (1922). "North Pacific Ocean" (PDF). Monthly Weather Review. American Meteorological Society. 50 (3): 99. Bibcode:1929MWRv...57..121H. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1929)57<121:NPO>2.0.CO;2. ISSN 1520-0493. Retrieved 2010-12-20.
4. Hurd, Willis Edwin (1929-04-21). "Eastern North Pacific tropical cyclones" (PDF). Monthly Weather Review. American Meteorological Society. 57 (2): 98. Bibcode:1922MWRv...50...98T. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1922)50<98:NPO>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 2010-12-21.
5. Neumann, Charles J; Leftwhich, Preston W (August 1977). Statistical Guidance for the Prediction of Eastern North Pacific Tropical Cyclone Motion — Part I (PDF) (NOAA Technical Memorandum NWS WR-124). United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's National Weather Service — Western Region. p. 14. (PDF) from the original on March 1, 2013. Retrieved July 27, 2013.
6. Brown, Gail M; Leftwhich, Preston W; National Hurricane Center (August 1982). A Compilation of Eastern and Central North Pacific Tropical Cyclone Data (PDF) (NOAA Technical Memorandum NWS NHC 16). United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's National Weather Service. (PDF) from the original on March 1, 2013. Retrieved July 27, 2013.
7. Blake, Eric S; Gibney, Ethan J; Brown, Daniel P; Mainelli, Michelle; Franklin, James L; Kimberlain, Todd B; Hammer, Gregory R (2009). Tropical Cyclones of the Eastern North Pacific Basin, 1949-2006 (PDF). Archived from the original on July 28, 2013. Retrieved June 14, 2013.
8. Leftwhich, Preston W; Brown, Gail M (February 1981). Eastern North Pacific Tropical Cyclone Occurrences during Intra Seasonal Periods (PDF) (NOAA Technical Memorandum NWS WR-160). United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's National Weather Service — Western Region. pp. 2–3. (PDF) from the original on February 18, 2015. Retrieved July 27, 2013.
9. Davis, Mary A.S.; Brown, Gail M; Leftwhich, Preston W; National Hurricane Center (September 1984). A Tropical Cyclone Data Tape for the Eastern and Central North Pacific Basins, 1949-1983: Contents, Limitations, and Uses (PDF) (NOAA Technical Memorandum NWS NHC 25). United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's National Weather Service. pp. 2–3. (PDF) from the original on February 19, 2013. Retrieved July 28, 2013.
10. Sheets, Robert C (June 1990). "The National Hurricane Center — Past, Present, and Future" (PDF). Weather and Forecasting. 5 (2): 197. Bibcode:1990WtFor...5..185S. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1990)005<0185:TNHCPA>2.0.CO;2. ISSN 1520-0434.
11. National Hurricane Center (April 2015). Revisions made to EPAC HURDAT (Report). United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's National Weather Service. Retrieved March 6, 2015.
12. Landsea, Christopher W; Franklin, James L; Blake, Eric S; Tanabe Raymond (April 2013). The revised Northeast and North Central Pacific hurricane database (HURDAT2) (PDF) (Report). United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's National Weather Service. p. 1. (PDF) from the original on August 28, 2013. Retrieved July 28, 2013.
13. "Re-analysis of the 1959 Manzanillo Mexico Hurricane Landfall intensity changed from category 5 to category 4" (PDF) (Press release). United States National Hurricane Center. February 4, 2016. (PDF) from the original on February 5, 2016. Retrieved February 4, 2016.
14. Longshore, David (2009). Encyclopedia of Hurricanes, Typhoons, and Cyclones, New Edition. Infobase Publishing. p. 333. ISBN 978-1-4381-1879-6.
15. Dorst, Neal (2010-01-21). "TCFAQ G1) When is hurricane season?". Hurricane Research Division. United States: Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory. Retrieved 2011-11-30.
16. Graham, Steve; Riebeek, Holli (November 1, 2006). "Hurricanes: The Greatest Storms on Earth: Feature Articles". Earth Observatory. United States: National Aeronautics and Space Administration. from the original on May 6, 2017. Retrieved July 24, 2018.
17. "Tropical Cyclone Climatology". FAQ. Central Pacific Hurricane Center. Retrieved 2007-12-31.
18. "Latest Advisories on Current Tropical Cyclones Hurricanes Typhoons". World Meteorological Organization. Retrieved 1 April 2015.
19. National Hurricane Center. Tropical Cyclone Climatology. 2007-12-13 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved on 2008-04-19.
20. Michael Chenoweth and Chris Landsea. The San Diego Hurricane of 2 October 1858. Retrieved on 2008-04-19.
21. Todd B. Kimberlain; Eric S. Blake & John P. Cangialosi (February 1, 2016). Hurricane Patricia (PDF) (Report). Tropical Cyclone Report. Miami, Florida: National Hurricane Center. Retrieved February 4, 2016.
22. . FAQ. National Hurricane Center & Central Pacific Hurricane Center. Archived from the original on January 4, 2019. Retrieved November 30, 2019.
23. E. Jáuregui (2003). (PDF). Atmósfera. p. 200. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-12-01. Retrieved 2007-12-28.