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Nikolai Bernstein

January 01, 1970

Nikolai Aleksandrovich Bernstein (Russian: Никола́й Алекса́ндрович Бернште́йн; 5 November 1896 – 16 January 1966) was a Soviet neurophysiologist who has pioneered motion-tracking devices and formal processing of information obtained from the use of these devices. He was also one of first psychologists to suggest that behaviour is generative, constructive and not reactive. He was born and died in Moscow.

Nikolai Bernstein with his son

Life edit

Nikolai Bernstein graduated high school in 1913. He was interested in languages and philosophy and wanted to be a linguist so he enrolled at Moscow University to study History and Philology. However, as World War I broke out in the summer of 1914, the Bernstein family felt the need to help their country during these hard times. Nikolai then took an alternative route in his education and started attending the medical college where he graduated in 1919 with a medical degree. Nikolai was then drafted into the Red Army as a doctor. After his service ended in 1921 his father helped him get a job as a physician at the Gilyarovsky Psychiatric Clinic till his father's death, he then took over his father's practice who was also a physician.[1]

 
A cyclogram of cutting metal with a chisel and hammer. Aleksei Gastev in the laboratory of the Central Institute of Labor

His first scientific work was in 1922, when he, along with other researchers, were invited to study movement during manual labour in Moscow's Central Institute of Labour. The purpose of the study was to optimize productivity, and Bernstein's analysis focused on cutting metal with a chisel. He used cyclographic techniques to track human movement, a technique he would continue using for many of his experiments. His research showed that most movements, like hitting a chisel with a hammer, are composed of smaller movements. Any one of these smaller movements, if altered, affect the movement as a whole.

In 1926, Bernstein started a series of experiments that examined human walking. Originally, this work was to help with the engineering of pedestrian bridges. He studied the development of walking as humans matured and aged, and he also examined the gaits of those with brain damage.

In 1935, he received a Doctor of Science degree without submitting a thesis. He was also one of the first members of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences, founded in 1944. In 1948, he was awarded the Stalin Prize for science.

Since he did his research behind the iron curtain of the USSR, his ideas only became known to Western scientists in the 1960s, when his seminal book, The Co-ordination and Regulation of Movements, was translated into English from Russian.

Work edit

Bernstein was one of the pioneers in the field of motor control and motor learning inventing original devices that track the motion of people with and without experience in actions. The field of motor control basically studies how the Central Nervous System (CNS) controls posture and movement. Understanding how humans plan and control movement is a major challenge because of the large number of joints that provide the human musculoskeletal system with numerous kinematic degrees of freedom. Because the goal of most movement tasks, like moving a hand to a target, is defined in terms of a much smaller number of kinematic degrees of freedom, it can be achieved in an infinite number of different ways (also referred to as the 'inverse kinematics problem'). Furthermore, the number of muscles acting across a joint generally exceeds the number of kinematic degrees of freedom of that joint. As a result, a given movement can be realized with an infinite number of muscle activation patterns (also referred to as the 'inverse dynamics problem'). Even though a goal can be reached in an infinite number of ways, many studies have revealed very consistent and stereotypical patterns of kinematics and muscle activation. Evidently, the Central Nervous System (CNS) is capable of adequately controlling the many degrees of freedom. This question of how the CNS is capable of adequately controlling the many degrees of freedom of the musculoskeletal system was first addressed by Bernstein[2] and is now known as the 'Bernstein problem' (though distinct from Bernstein's problem in mathematics).

Bernstein suggested that the CNS is capable of "functionally freezing degrees of freedom." As an analogy, controlling the four wheels of a car independently is very difficult. Yet, by functionally freezing degrees of freedom (the two rear wheels are only allowed to rotate around one shared horizontal axis, and the two front wheels are also allowed to rotate in parallel around a longitudinal axis, controlled by the steering wheel) a car becomes much easier to control. Bernstein also did major work with motor learning, creating models for stages of learning. His work in the 1950s and 1960s was remarkably insightful and is still valid and respected today.

Bernstein is also famous for saying that "none of the actions is repeated but every action is constructed anew; it's just a matter what level regulates this construction". He proposed a theory of "levels of control over action construction" that later were echoed in levels of control in cognitive psychology.

He was likely very much influenced by the work of John Hughlings Jackson, who posited a hierarchical organization of the nervous system.

Bernstein work opened a new discipline called kinesiology that study the structure and mechanisms of motion. American kinesiologist Karl Newell is one of many to be greatly influenced by Bernstein. Newell (1986) arranged constraints into three main groups: Individual (structural or functional), task, and environmental constraints.[3]

Bernstein also coined the term biomechanics, the study of movement through the application of mechanical principles.

See also edit

  • Runbot, a "fast-walking" robot, whose movements and adaptability are based on Bernstein's theories.

Publications edit

In Russian edit

  • Obshchaya Biomekhanika, "General Biomechanics" (1926)[4]
  • Biomekhanika dlya Instruktorov, "Biomechanics for Instructors" (Moscow, 1926)[4]
  • O Poestroenii Dvizhenni, "On the Construction of Movements" (1947)[4][5]
  • Ocherki po Fiziologii Dvizheniy i Fiziologii Aktivnosti, "Essays on Physiology of Movements and Activity Physiology" (1966)[6]
  • O Lovkosti i ee Razvitii, "On Dexterity and its Development" (1991)[4]
  • Sovremennye Iskaniia v Fiziologii Nervnogo Protsessa, "Contemporary Inquiries into the Physiology of the Nervous Process" (Moscow, 2003)[7]

English translations edit

  • The Co-ordination and Regulation of Movements, Pergamon Press (Oxford, 1967)[8]
  • Dexterity and Its Development, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates (1996), republished by Psychology Press (2009), Routledge (Oxford and New York, 2016)
  • Biomechanics for Instructors, Springer (Switzerland, 2020)
  • Bernstein's Construction of Movements: Original Text and Commentaries, Routledge (New York and Abingdon, 2020)

German translations edit

  • Bewegungsphysiologie, "Movement Physiology" (Leipzig, 1982)
  • Die Entwicklung der Bewegungsfertigkeiten, "The Development of Movement Skills", Chapter 8 of O Poestroenii Dvizhenni (Leipzig, 1996)[9]

References edit

  1. ^ Talis, Vera L. "New Pages in the Biography of Nikolai Alexandrovich Bernstein" (PDF). Retrieved 10 June 2022.
  2. ^ Bernstein, N.A. (1967). The co-ordination and regulation of movements. Oxford : Pergamon Press.
  3. ^ Newell, K.M. (1986). Constraints on the development of coordination. In M.G. Wade & H.T.A. Whiting (Eds.), Motor development in children: Aspects of coordination and control (pp. 341–361). Amsterdam: Nijhoff
  4. ^ a b c d Bernstein, Nikolai Aleksandrovich Bernstein (2020). Biomechanics for Instructors. Translated by Whyman, Rose. Switzerland: Springer. pp. xi–xii. ISBN 978-3030361624.
  5. ^ Feigenberg, I.M.; Latash, L.P. (2016). "N. A. Bernstein: The Reformer of Neuroscience". In Latash, Mark L.; Turvey, Michael T. (eds.). Dexterity and Its Development. Oxford and New York: Routledge. p. 248. ISBN 9781138967618.
  6. ^ Karbunarova, Julia (2016). "Influence author methodic teaching swimming on coordination quality of children 6–10 years old with hearing disabilities". Slobozhanskyi Herald of Science and Sport (2016 #3 (53)): 38. ISSN 2311-6374.
  7. ^ Sirotkina, Irina. "Ad Marginem: The Controversial History of Nikolai Bernstein's Book, Contemporary Inquiries into the Physiology of the Nervous Process". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  8. ^ "Trove". trove.nla.gov.au. Retrieved 2020-11-17.
  9. ^ Bernstein, N. A. (1996). Die Entwicklung der Bewegungsfertigkeiten. Institut für Angewandte Trainingswissenschaft / Fachbereich Information Kommunikation Sport.

Further reading edit

  • Latash, Mark L. (ed.) Progress in Motor Control: Bernstein's Traditions in Movement Studies, Vol. 1
  • Joseph M. Feigenberg. Nikolai Bernstein : from reflex to the model of the future. Transl .: Julia Linkova. Eds .: Eberhard Loosch; Vera Talis. (http://www.lit-verlag.de/isbn/3-643-90583-3)
  • Irina Sirotkina, Elena Biryukova. Futurism in Physiology: Nikolai Bernstein, Anticipation, and Kinaesthetic Imagination
  • Irina Sirotkina. Ad Marginem: The Controversial History of Nikolai Bernstein’s Book, Contemporary Inquiries into the Physiology of the Nervous Process
  • Irina Sirotkina. The art and science of movement in France and Russia
  • Vera Talis.New pages in the biography of Nikolai Alexandrovich Bernstein [1]

External links edit

  • Nikolai Bernstein in the German National Library catalogue
  • Genealogie der Familien Eger und Bernstein
  • Ad Marginem: The Controversial History of Nikolai Bernstein's Book, Contemporary Inquiries into the Physiology of the Nervous Process

January 01, 1970
nikolai, bernstein, nikolai, aleksandrovich, bernstein, russian, Никола, Алекса, ндрович, Бернште, йн, november, 1896, january, 1966, soviet, neurophysiologist, pioneered, motion, tracking, devices, formal, processing, information, obtained, from, these, devic. Nikolai Aleksandrovich Bernstein Russian Nikola j Aleksa ndrovich Bernshte jn 5 November 1896 16 January 1966 was a Soviet neurophysiologist who has pioneered motion tracking devices and formal processing of information obtained from the use of these devices He was also one of first psychologists to suggest that behaviour is generative constructive and not reactive He was born and died in Moscow Nikolai Bernstein with his son Contents 1 Life 2 Work 3 See also 4 Publications 4 1 In Russian 4 2 English translations 4 3 German translations 5 References 6 Further reading 7 External linksLife editNikolai Bernstein graduated high school in 1913 He was interested in languages and philosophy and wanted to be a linguist so he enrolled at Moscow University to study History and Philology However as World War I broke out in the summer of 1914 the Bernstein family felt the need to help their country during these hard times Nikolai then took an alternative route in his education and started attending the medical college where he graduated in 1919 with a medical degree Nikolai was then drafted into the Red Army as a doctor After his service ended in 1921 his father helped him get a job as a physician at the Gilyarovsky Psychiatric Clinic till his father s death he then took over his father s practice who was also a physician 1 nbsp A cyclogram of cutting metal with a chisel and hammer Aleksei Gastev in the laboratory of the Central Institute of Labor His first scientific work was in 1922 when he along with other researchers were invited to study movement during manual labour in Moscow s Central Institute of Labour The purpose of the study was to optimize productivity and Bernstein s analysis focused on cutting metal with a chisel He used cyclographic techniques to track human movement a technique he would continue using for many of his experiments His research showed that most movements like hitting a chisel with a hammer are composed of smaller movements Any one of these smaller movements if altered affect the movement as a whole In 1926 Bernstein started a series of experiments that examined human walking Originally this work was to help with the engineering of pedestrian bridges He studied the development of walking as humans matured and aged and he also examined the gaits of those with brain damage In 1935 he received a Doctor of Science degree without submitting a thesis He was also one of the first members of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences founded in 1944 In 1948 he was awarded the Stalin Prize for science Since he did his research behind the iron curtain of the USSR his ideas only became known to Western scientists in the 1960s when his seminal book The Co ordination and Regulation of Movements was translated into English from Russian Work editBernstein was one of the pioneers in the field of motor control and motor learning inventing original devices that track the motion of people with and without experience in actions The field of motor control basically studies how the Central Nervous System CNS controls posture and movement Understanding how humans plan and control movement is a major challenge because of the large number of joints that provide the human musculoskeletal system with numerous kinematic degrees of freedom Because the goal of most movement tasks like moving a hand to a target is defined in terms of a much smaller number of kinematic degrees of freedom it can be achieved in an infinite number of different ways also referred to as the inverse kinematics problem Furthermore the number of muscles acting across a joint generally exceeds the number of kinematic degrees of freedom of that joint As a result a given movement can be realized with an infinite number of muscle activation patterns also referred to as the inverse dynamics problem Even though a goal can be reached in an infinite number of ways many studies have revealed very consistent and stereotypical patterns of kinematics and muscle activation Evidently the Central Nervous System CNS is capable of adequately controlling the many degrees of freedom This question of how the CNS is capable of adequately controlling the many degrees of freedom of the musculoskeletal system was first addressed by Bernstein 2 and is now known as the Bernstein problem though distinct from Bernstein s problem in mathematics Bernstein suggested that the CNS is capable of functionally freezing degrees of freedom As an analogy controlling the four wheels of a car independently is very difficult Yet by functionally freezing degrees of freedom the two rear wheels are only allowed to rotate around one shared horizontal axis and the two front wheels are also allowed to rotate in parallel around a longitudinal axis controlled by the steering wheel a car becomes much easier to control Bernstein also did major work with motor learning creating models for stages of learning His work in the 1950s and 1960s was remarkably insightful and is still valid and respected today Bernstein is also famous for saying that none of the actions is repeated but every action is constructed anew it s just a matter what level regulates this construction He proposed a theory of levels of control over action construction that later were echoed in levels of control in cognitive psychology He was likely very much influenced by the work of John Hughlings Jackson who posited a hierarchical organization of the nervous system Bernstein work opened a new discipline called kinesiology that study the structure and mechanisms of motion American kinesiologist Karl Newell is one of many to be greatly influenced by Bernstein Newell 1986 arranged constraints into three main groups Individual structural or functional task and environmental constraints 3 Bernstein also coined the term biomechanics the study of movement through the application of mechanical principles See also editRunbot a fast walking robot whose movements and adaptability are based on Bernstein s theories Publications editIn Russian edit Obshchaya Biomekhanika General Biomechanics 1926 4 Biomekhanika dlya Instruktorov Biomechanics for Instructors Moscow 1926 4 O Poestroenii Dvizhenni On the Construction of Movements 1947 4 5 Ocherki po Fiziologii Dvizheniy i Fiziologii Aktivnosti Essays on Physiology of Movements and Activity Physiology 1966 6 O Lovkosti i ee Razvitii On Dexterity and its Development 1991 4 Sovremennye Iskaniia v Fiziologii Nervnogo Protsessa Contemporary Inquiries into the Physiology of the Nervous Process Moscow 2003 7 English translations edit The Co ordination and Regulation of Movements Pergamon Press Oxford 1967 8 Dexterity and Its Development Lawrence Erlbaum Associates 1996 republished by Psychology Press 2009 Routledge Oxford and New York 2016 Biomechanics for Instructors Springer Switzerland 2020 Bernstein s Construction of Movements Original Text and Commentaries Routledge New York and Abingdon 2020 German translations edit Bewegungsphysiologie Movement Physiology Leipzig 1982 Die Entwicklung der Bewegungsfertigkeiten The Development of Movement Skills Chapter 8 of O Poestroenii Dvizhenni Leipzig 1996 9 References edit Talis Vera L New Pages in the Biography of Nikolai Alexandrovich Bernstein PDF Retrieved 10 June 2022 Bernstein N A 1967 The co ordination and regulation of movements Oxford Pergamon Press Newell K M 1986 Constraints on the development of coordination In M G Wade amp H T A Whiting Eds Motor development in children Aspects of coordination and control pp 341 361 Amsterdam Nijhoff a b c d Bernstein Nikolai Aleksandrovich Bernstein 2020 Biomechanics for Instructors Translated by Whyman Rose Switzerland Springer pp xi xii ISBN 978 3030361624 Feigenberg I M Latash L P 2016 N A Bernstein The Reformer of Neuroscience In Latash Mark L Turvey Michael T eds Dexterity and Its Development Oxford and New York Routledge p 248 ISBN 9781138967618 Karbunarova Julia 2016 Influence author methodic teaching swimming on coordination quality of children 6 10 years old with hearing disabilities Slobozhanskyi Herald of Science and Sport 2016 3 53 38 ISSN 2311 6374 Sirotkina Irina Ad Marginem The Controversial History of Nikolai Bernstein s Book Contemporary Inquiries into the Physiology of the Nervous Process a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Trove trove nla gov au Retrieved 2020 11 17 Bernstein N A 1996 Die Entwicklung der Bewegungsfertigkeiten Institut fur Angewandte Trainingswissenschaft Fachbereich Information Kommunikation Sport Further reading editLatash Mark L ed Progress in Motor Control Bernstein s Traditions in Movement Studies Vol 1 Joseph M Feigenberg Nikolai Bernstein from reflex to the model of the future Transl Julia Linkova Eds Eberhard Loosch Vera Talis http www lit verlag de isbn 3 643 90583 3 Irina Sirotkina Elena Biryukova Futurism in Physiology Nikolai Bernstein Anticipation and Kinaesthetic Imagination Irina Sirotkina Ad Marginem The Controversial History of Nikolai Bernstein s Book Contemporary Inquiries into the Physiology of the Nervous Process Irina Sirotkina The art and science of movement in France and Russia Vera Talis New pages in the biography of Nikolai Alexandrovich Bernstein 1 External links editNikolai Bernstein in the German National Library catalogue Genealogie der Familien Eger und Bernstein History of the Study of Locomotion Ad Marginem The Controversial History of Nikolai Bernstein s Book Contemporary Inquiries into the Physiology of the Nervous Process Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Nikolai Bernstein amp oldid 1214337905, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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