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Mountain warfare

February 03, 2023

Mountain warfare (also known as alpine warfare) is warfare in mountains or similarly rough terrain. Mountain ranges are of strategic importance since they often act as a natural border and may also be the origin of a water source such as the Golan Heights.

US Army mountain warfare training, 2016

Attacking a prepared enemy position in mountain terrain generally requires a greater ratio of attacking soldiers to defending soldiers than a war conducted on level ground. Mountains present natural hazards such as lightning, strong gusts of wind, rock falls, avalanches, snow packs, ice, extreme cold, and glaciers with their crevasses. The general uneven terrain and the slow pace of troop and material movements are additional threats to combatants. Movement, reinforcements, and medical evacuation up and down steep slopes and areas in which even pack animals cannot reach involves an enormous exertion of energy.[1]

History

Second Punic War

See also: Hannibal's crossing of the Alps

In 218 BC (DXXXVI AUC), the Carthaginian army commander Hannibal marched troops, cavalry and African elephants across the Alps in an effort to conquer Rome by approaching it from north of the Italian Peninsula. The Roman government was complacent because the Alps were viewed as a secure natural obstacle to would-be invaders. In December 218 BC, the Carthaginian forces defeated Roman troops, in the north, with the use of elephants. Many elephants did not survive the cold weather and disease typical of the European climate. Hannibal's army fought Roman troops in Italy for 15 years but failed to conquer Rome. Carthage was ultimately defeated by Roman general Scipio Africanus at Zama in North Africa in 202 BC (DLII AUC).[2]

Early history

The term mountain warfare is said to have come about in the Middle Ages after the monarchies of Europe found it difficult to fight the Swiss armies in the Alps because the Swiss fought in smaller units and took vantage points against a huge unmaneuverable army. Similar styles of attack and defence were later employed by guerrillas, partisans and irregulars, who hid in the mountains after an attack, which made it challenging for an army of regulars to fight back. In Napoleon Bonaparte's Italian campaign and the 1809 rebellion in Tyrol, mountain warfare played a large role.[3]

Another example of mountain warfare was the Crossing of the Andes, which was carried out by the Argentinean Army of the Andes (Spanish: Ejército de los Andes), commanded by General José de San Martín in 1817. One of the divisions surpassed 5000 m in height.[4]

World War I

 
Italian Front in 1915–1917: eleven Battles of the Isonzo and Asiago offensive. In blue are initial Italian conquests.

Mountain warfare came to the fore once again during World War I, when some of the nations that were involved in the war had mountain divisions that had not been tested. The Austro-Hungarian defence repelled Italian attacks by taking advantage of the terrain in the Julian Alps and the Dolomites, where frostbite and avalanches proved deadlier than bullets.[5] During the summer of 1918, the Battle of San Matteo took place on the Italian front and was fought at the highest elevation of any during the war. In December 1914, another offensive was launched by the Ottoman supreme commander Enver Pasha with 95,000–190,000 troops against the Russians] in the Caucasus. Insisting on a frontal attack against Russian positions in the mountains in the heart of winter, the result was devastating, and Enver lost 86% of his forces.[6]

World War II

Examples of mountain warfare used during World War II inlude: Battles of Narvik, Battle of the Caucasus, Kokoda Track campaign, Operation Rentier, Operation Gauntlet, and Operation Encore.

Kashmir conflicts

Since the Partition of India in 1947, India and Pakistan have been in conflict over the Kashmir region. They have fought two wars and numerous additional skirmishes or border conflicts in the region.[7] Kashmir is located in the Himalayas, the highest mountain range in the world.[8]

The first hostilities between the two nations, during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947, showed that both were ill-equipped to fight in biting cold, let alone at the highest altitudes in the world.[9] During the Sino-Indian War of 1962, hostilities broke out between India and China in the same area.[7]

The subsequent Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 between India and Pakistan was mainly fought in Kashmir's valleys, rather than the mountains themselves, but several mountain battles took place. During the Kargil War (1999), Indian forces sought to flush out opponents who had captured high mountain posts. That proxy war was the only modern war that was fought exclusively in the mountains.[10] After the Kargil War, the Indian Army implemented specialist training on artillery use in the mountains, where ballistic projectiles have different characteristics than at sea level.[11]

Falklands War

 
Landscape of South Georgia
Main article: Operation Paraquet

Most of the Falklands War took place on hills in semi-Arctic conditions on the Falkland Islands. However, during the opening stage of the war, there was military action on the bleak mountainous island of South Georgia, where a British expedition sought to eject occupying Argentine forces. South Georgia is a periantarctic island, and the conflict took place during the southern winter and so Alpine conditions prevailed almost down to sea level. The operation (codenamed Operation Paraquet) was unusual in that it combined aspects of long-range amphibious warfare, arctic warfare and mountain warfare. It involved several ships, special forces troops and helicopters.[12]

War in Afghanistan

 
Afghanistan topography
 
Australians patrolling in the mountains of Oruzgan Province

Throughout history but especially since 1979, many mountain warfare operations have taken place throughout Afghanistan. Since the coalition invasion of Afghanistan in 2001, 'The have been primarily in the eastern provinces of Kunar and Nuristan.[13]

Kunar and eastern Nuristan are strategic terrain since the area constitutes a major infiltration route into Afghanistan, and insurgents can enter the provinces from any number of places along the border with Pakistan to gain access to a vast network of river valleys. In that part of Afghanistan (Regional Command East), the US military adopted a hybrid style of mountain warfare incorporating counterinsurgency (COIN) theory in which the population is paramount as the center of gravity in the fight.[14]

In counterinsurgency, seizing and holding territory are less important than avoiding civilian casualties. The primary goals of counterinsurgency are to secure the backing of the populace and thereby to legitimize the government, rather than to focus on militarily defeating the insurgents. Counterinsurgency doctrine has proved difficult to implement in Kunar and Nuristan. In the sparsely-populated mountain regions of eastern Afghanistan, strategists have argued for holding the high ground, a tenet of classical mountain warfare. The argument suggests that if the counterinsurgent does not deny the enemy the high ground, the insurgents can attack at will. In Kunar and Nuristan, US forces continued to pursue a hybrid style of counterinsurgency warfare, with its focus on winning hearts and minds, and mountain warfare, with the US forces seizing and holding the high ground.

Training

 
Royal Marines training in the Himalayas, 2007

The expense of training mountain troops precludes them from being on the order of battle of most armies except those that reasonably expect to fight in such terrain. Mountain warfare training is arduous and in many countries the exclusive preserve of elite units such as special forces or commandos, which as part of their remit should have the ability to fight in difficult terrain such as the Royal Marines. Regular units may also occasionally undertake training of this nature.

See also

References

  1. ^ "Research report" (PDF). www.rand.org. Retrieved 2020-01-26.
  2. ^ Ball, Philip (April 3, 2016). "The truth about Hannibal's route across the Alps" – via www.theguardian.com.
  3. ^ "PBS - Napoleon: Napoleon at War". www.pbs.org.
  4. ^ "Data" (PDF). www.loc.gov. Retrieved 2020-01-26.
  5. ^ Chow, Brian Mockenhaupt, Stefen. "The Most Treacherous Battle of World War I Took Place in the Italian Mountains". Smithsonian Magazine.
  6. ^ "Siachen Glacier: Mountain Warfare". www.siachenglacier.com.
  7. ^ a b "The Kashmir conflict: How did it start?". Culture. March 2, 2019.
  8. ^ "Himalayan Peaks". www.its.caltech.edu.
  9. ^ "Indo-Pakistani Conflict of 1947-48". www.globalsecurity.org.
  10. ^ Abbas, Zaffar (July 30, 2016). "When Pakistan and India went to war over Kashmir in 1999". Herald Magazine.
  11. ^ (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-04-13. Retrieved 2020-01-07.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  12. ^ "Sink the Belgrano", Mike Rossiter, 2007, Transworld, London, pp 189–233
  13. ^ "On the ground in Afghanistan" (PDF). www.marines.mil. 2012. Retrieved 2021-03-20.
  14. ^ Marks, Thomas A. (2005). "Counterinsurgency and Operational Art". Low Intensity Conflict & Law Enforcement. 13 (3): 168–211. doi:10.1080/09662840600560527. S2CID 144725353.

Sources

  • Frederick Engels, (January 27, 1857) "Mountain Warfare in the Past and Present" New York Daily Tribune MECW Volume 15, p 164

Further reading

  • Govan, Thomas P. (1946-09-01). . AGF Study, no. 23. [Washington, D.C.]: Historical Section, Army Ground Forces. Archived from the original on May 27, 2012. Retrieved 2011-01-28.
  • Malik, Muhammad Asim (2004-09-10). "Mountain warfare: the need for specialized training" (PDF). Military Review. 84 (5): 94–102. ISSN 0026-4148. OCLC 2558412. Retrieved 2011-01-28.[permanent dead link]
  • Pierce, Scott W. (2008-05-22). . SAMS Monograph. Fort Leavenworth, Kans.: School of Advanced Military Studies, United States Army Command and General Staff College. Archived from the original on May 27, 2012. Retrieved 2011-01-28.

External links

  • Official page of documentary film GLOBAL WARNING on the Mountain War 1915–1918
  • Mountain War in World War I The war in the Italian Dolomites (Italian)
  • Historic films showing Mountain Warfare in World War I at europeanfilmgateway.eu
  • Mountain Combat World War II
  • High Altitude Warfare School of the Indian Army
  • Official Italian Army website page on Alpine Troops Command
  • Official page of 11th Mountain Infantry Battalion (Brazil)[3]

February 03, 2023
mountain, warfare, also, known, alpine, warfare, warfare, mountains, similarly, rough, terrain, mountain, ranges, strategic, importance, since, they, often, natural, border, also, origin, water, source, such, golan, heights, army, mountain, warfare, training, . Mountain warfare also known as alpine warfare is warfare in mountains or similarly rough terrain Mountain ranges are of strategic importance since they often act as a natural border and may also be the origin of a water source such as the Golan Heights US Army mountain warfare training 2016 Attacking a prepared enemy position in mountain terrain generally requires a greater ratio of attacking soldiers to defending soldiers than a war conducted on level ground Mountains present natural hazards such as lightning strong gusts of wind rock falls avalanches snow packs ice extreme cold and glaciers with their crevasses The general uneven terrain and the slow pace of troop and material movements are additional threats to combatants Movement reinforcements and medical evacuation up and down steep slopes and areas in which even pack animals cannot reach involves an enormous exertion of energy 1 Contents 1 History 1 1 Second Punic War 1 2 Early history 1 3 World War I 1 4 World War II 1 5 Kashmir conflicts 1 6 Falklands War 1 7 War in Afghanistan 2 Training 3 See also 4 References 4 1 Sources 5 Further reading 6 External linksHistory EditSecond Punic War Edit See also Hannibal s crossing of the Alps In 218 BC DXXXVI AUC the Carthaginian army commander Hannibal marched troops cavalry and African elephants across the Alps in an effort to conquer Rome by approaching it from north of the Italian Peninsula The Roman government was complacent because the Alps were viewed as a secure natural obstacle to would be invaders In December 218 BC the Carthaginian forces defeated Roman troops in the north with the use of elephants Many elephants did not survive the cold weather and disease typical of the European climate Hannibal s army fought Roman troops in Italy for 15 years but failed to conquer Rome Carthage was ultimately defeated by Roman general Scipio Africanus at Zama in North Africa in 202 BC DLII AUC 2 Early history Edit The term mountain warfare is said to have come about in the Middle Ages after the monarchies of Europe found it difficult to fight the Swiss armies in the Alps because the Swiss fought in smaller units and took vantage points against a huge unmaneuverable army Similar styles of attack and defence were later employed by guerrillas partisans and irregulars who hid in the mountains after an attack which made it challenging for an army of regulars to fight back In Napoleon Bonaparte s Italian campaign and the 1809 rebellion in Tyrol mountain warfare played a large role 3 Another example of mountain warfare was the Crossing of the Andes which was carried out by the Argentinean Army of the Andes Spanish Ejercito de los Andes commanded by General Jose de San Martin in 1817 One of the divisions surpassed 5000 m in height 4 World War I Edit Italian Front in 1915 1917 eleven Battles of the Isonzo and Asiago offensive In blue are initial Italian conquests Mountain warfare came to the fore once again during World War I when some of the nations that were involved in the war had mountain divisions that had not been tested The Austro Hungarian defence repelled Italian attacks by taking advantage of the terrain in the Julian Alps and the Dolomites where frostbite and avalanches proved deadlier than bullets 5 During the summer of 1918 the Battle of San Matteo took place on the Italian front and was fought at the highest elevation of any during the war In December 1914 another offensive was launched by the Ottoman supreme commander Enver Pasha with 95 000 190 000 troops against the Russians in the Caucasus Insisting on a frontal attack against Russian positions in the mountains in the heart of winter the result was devastating and Enver lost 86 of his forces 6 World War II Edit This section is in list format but may read better as prose You can help by converting this section if appropriate Editing help is available September 2019 Examples of mountain warfare used during World War II inlude Battles of Narvik Battle of the Caucasus Kokoda Track campaign Operation Rentier Operation Gauntlet and Operation Encore This section needs expansion You can help by adding to it March 2020 Kashmir conflicts Edit Since the Partition of India in 1947 India and Pakistan have been in conflict over the Kashmir region They have fought two wars and numerous additional skirmishes or border conflicts in the region 7 Kashmir is located in the Himalayas the highest mountain range in the world 8 The first hostilities between the two nations during the Indo Pakistani War of 1947 showed that both were ill equipped to fight in biting cold let alone at the highest altitudes in the world 9 During the Sino Indian War of 1962 hostilities broke out between India and China in the same area 7 The subsequent Indo Pakistani War of 1965 between India and Pakistan was mainly fought in Kashmir s valleys rather than the mountains themselves but several mountain battles took place During the Kargil War 1999 Indian forces sought to flush out opponents who had captured high mountain posts That proxy war was the only modern war that was fought exclusively in the mountains 10 After the Kargil War the Indian Army implemented specialist training on artillery use in the mountains where ballistic projectiles have different characteristics than at sea level 11 Falklands War Edit Landscape of South Georgia Main article Operation Paraquet Most of the Falklands War took place on hills in semi Arctic conditions on the Falkland Islands However during the opening stage of the war there was military action on the bleak mountainous island of South Georgia where a British expedition sought to eject occupying Argentine forces South Georgia is a periantarctic island and the conflict took place during the southern winter and so Alpine conditions prevailed almost down to sea level The operation codenamed Operation Paraquet was unusual in that it combined aspects of long range amphibious warfare arctic warfare and mountain warfare It involved several ships special forces troops and helicopters 12 War in Afghanistan Edit Afghanistan topography Australians patrolling in the mountains of Oruzgan Province Throughout history but especially since 1979 many mountain warfare operations have taken place throughout Afghanistan Since the coalition invasion of Afghanistan in 2001 The have been primarily in the eastern provinces of Kunar and Nuristan 13 Kunar and eastern Nuristan are strategic terrain since the area constitutes a major infiltration route into Afghanistan and insurgents can enter the provinces from any number of places along the border with Pakistan to gain access to a vast network of river valleys In that part of Afghanistan Regional Command East the US military adopted a hybrid style of mountain warfare incorporating counterinsurgency COIN theory in which the population is paramount as the center of gravity in the fight 14 In counterinsurgency seizing and holding territory are less important than avoiding civilian casualties The primary goals of counterinsurgency are to secure the backing of the populace and thereby to legitimize the government rather than to focus on militarily defeating the insurgents Counterinsurgency doctrine has proved difficult to implement in Kunar and Nuristan In the sparsely populated mountain regions of eastern Afghanistan strategists have argued for holding the high ground a tenet of classical mountain warfare The argument suggests that if the counterinsurgent does not deny the enemy the high ground the insurgents can attack at will In Kunar and Nuristan US forces continued to pursue a hybrid style of counterinsurgency warfare with its focus on winning hearts and minds and mountain warfare with the US forces seizing and holding the high ground Training Edit Royal Marines training in the Himalayas 2007 Alpen Ranger training of the Japan Ground Self Defense Force The expense of training mountain troops precludes them from being on the order of battle of most armies except those that reasonably expect to fight in such terrain Mountain warfare training is arduous and in many countries the exclusive preserve of elite units such as special forces or commandos which as part of their remit should have the ability to fight in difficult terrain such as the Royal Marines Regular units may also occasionally undertake training of this nature See also EditNATO Mountain Warfare Centre of Excellence List of mountain warfare forces HAWS Cold weather warfare Cold weather medicineReferences Edit Research report PDF www rand org Retrieved 2020 01 26 Ball Philip April 3 2016 The truth about Hannibal s route across the Alps via www theguardian com PBS Napoleon Napoleon at War www pbs org Data PDF www loc gov Retrieved 2020 01 26 Chow Brian Mockenhaupt Stefen The Most Treacherous Battle of World War I Took Place in the Italian Mountains Smithsonian Magazine Siachen Glacier Mountain Warfare www siachenglacier com a b The Kashmir conflict How did it start Culture March 2 2019 Himalayan Peaks www its caltech edu Indo Pakistani Conflict of 1947 48 www globalsecurity org Abbas Zaffar July 30 2016 When Pakistan and India went to war over Kashmir in 1999 Herald Magazine Archived copy PDF Archived from the original PDF on 2018 04 13 Retrieved 2020 01 07 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint archived copy as title link Sink the Belgrano Mike Rossiter 2007 Transworld London pp 189 233 On the ground in Afghanistan PDF www marines mil 2012 Retrieved 2021 03 20 Marks Thomas A 2005 Counterinsurgency and Operational Art Low Intensity Conflict amp Law Enforcement 13 3 168 211 doi 10 1080 09662840600560527 S2CID 144725353 Sources Edit Frederick Engels January 27 1857 Mountain Warfare in the Past and Present New York Daily Tribune MECW Volume 15 p 164Further reading EditGovan Thomas P 1946 09 01 Training for mountain and winter warfare AGF Study no 23 Washington D C Historical Section Army Ground Forces Archived from the original on May 27 2012 Retrieved 2011 01 28 Malik Muhammad Asim 2004 09 10 Mountain warfare the need for specialized training PDF Military Review 84 5 94 102 ISSN 0026 4148 OCLC 2558412 Retrieved 2011 01 28 permanent dead link Pierce Scott W 2008 05 22 Mountain and cold weather warfighting critical capability for the 21st century SAMS Monograph Fort Leavenworth Kans School of Advanced Military Studies United States Army Command and General Staff College Archived from the original on May 27 2012 Retrieved 2011 01 28 External links EditOfficial page of documentary film GLOBAL WARNING on the Mountain War 1915 1918 Global Warning Mountain War in World War I The war in the Italian Dolomites Italian Historic films showing Mountain Warfare in World War I at europeanfilmgateway eu Mountain Combat World War II Militaria Combat Lessons High Altitude Warfare School of the Indian Army 1 Official Italian Army website page on Alpine Troops Command 2 Official page of 11th Mountain Infantry Battalion Brazil 3 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Mountain warfare amp oldid 1133189499, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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