Wikipedia
List of motion picture film formats
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This list of motion picture film formats catalogues formats developed for shooting or viewing motion pictures, ranging from the Chronophotographe format from 1888, to mid-20th century formats such as the 1953 CinemaScope format, to more recent formats such as the 1992 IMAX HD format.
To be included in this list, the formats must all have been used in the field or for test shooting, and they must all use photochemical images that are formed or projected on a film base, a transparent substrate which supports the photosensitive emulsion. As well, the formats must have been used to make more than just a few test frames. The camera must be fast enough (in frames per second) to create an illusion of motion consistent with the persistence of vision phenomenon. The format must be significantly unique from other listed formats in regard to its image capture or image projection. The format characteristics should be clearly definable in several listed parameters (e. g., film gauge, aspect ratio, etc.).
Legend edit
- Format is the name of the process; some formats may have multiple names in common usage.
- Creator is the individual or company most directly attributable as the developer of the system.
- Year created usually refers to the earliest date that the system was used to completion (i.e. projection), but may refer to when it was developed if no known film was made.
- First known film is the first film (not including tests) made with the format and intended for release.
- Negative gauge is the film gauge (width) used for the original camera negative.
- Negative aspect ratio is the image ratio determined by the ratio of the gate dimensions multiplied by the anamorphic power of the camera lenses (1× in the case of spherical lenses).[1]
- Gate dimensions are the width and height of the camera gate aperture, and by extension the film negative frame.
- Negative pulldown describes the film perforations per frame, the direction of film transport, and standard frame speed. Film transport is assumed to be vertical unless otherwise noted, and standard frame speed is assumed to be 24 frames per second unless the film is otherwise noted or has no standard. Silent film has no standard speed; many amateur formats have several common speeds, but no standard.
- Negative lenses indicates whether spherical (normal) or anamorphic lenses are used on the original camera negative, and if anamorphic lenses, what anamorphic power is used.
- Projection gauge is the film gauge (width) used for the release print.
- Projection aspect ratio is the image ratio determined by the ratio of the projection dimensions multiplied by the anamorphic power of the projection lenses (1× in the case of spherical lenses). This is also known as the intended theatrical aspect ratio.[1]
- Projection dimensions are the width and height of the projector aperture plate, and by extension the film frame area which is projected. The aperture plate always very slightly crops the frame.
- Projection lenses indicates whether spherical (normal) or anamorphic lenses are used on the projector, and if anamorphic lenses, what anamorphic power is used.
Formats are listed in chronological order and by release date in the case of multiple formats within one year, if this can be determined. Undated formats are listed at the bottom in alphabetical order.
Film formats edit
- The table does not cover 3-D film systems or color film systems, nor is it well-suited to emphasize the differences between those systems.
| Format | Creator | Est. | First known work | Negative gauge | Negative A/R[1] | Gate dims | Negative pulldown | Negative lenses | Projection gauge | Projection A/R[1] | Projection dims | Projection lenses |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Chronophotographe[2] | Étienne-Jules Marey | 1888 | motion analysis studies | 90 mm | 1.00 | 3.543" × 3.543" | unperforated | spherical | ||||
| Paper film[3] | Louis Le Prince | 1888 | Roundhay Garden Scene | 65 mm | 1.00 | unperforated | spherical | not known | 1.00 | spherical | ||
| Machine Camera | Wm. Friese-Greene | 1889 | Hyde Park Corner & Marble Arch | 65 mm | 1.00 | pin wheel perforation | spherical | |||||
| Kinetoscope cylinder | Wm. Dickson & T. Edison | 1889 or 1890 | Monkeyshines, No. 1 | strip rolled around a cylinder | unperforated | spherical | spherical | |||||
| Kinesigraph | Wordsworth Donisthorpe | 1890 or 1891 | view of Trafalgar Square | 70 mm | 1.00 | unperforated | spherical | |||||
| Friese-Greene | Wm. Friese-Greene | 1891 | King's Road, Chelsea, London | 60 mm | 1.325 | 8 round perfs, 2 sides | spherical | |||||
| Kinetoscope horizontal | Wm. Dickson & William Heise | 1891 | Dickson Greeting | 19 mm | 6 perf, 1 side, horizontal | spherical | spherical | |||||
| Silent film standard | Wm. Dickson & T. Edison | 1892 | Blacksmith Scene | 35 mm | 1.33 | 0.980" × 0.735" | 4 perf, 2 sides | spherical | 35 mm | 1.33 | 0.931" × 0.698" | spherical |
| Bioscop | Max Skladanowsky | 1892 | footage of Emil Skladanowsky | 54 mm | unperforated (camera); 4 perf, 2 sides (projection) | spherical | 54 mm (two strips interleaved) | spherical | ||||
| Eidoloscope[4] | Woodville Latham | 1895 | Griffo-Barnett Prize Fight | 51 mm | 1.85 | 1.457" × 0.787" | 4 perf, 2 sides | spherical | 51 mm | 1.85 | spherical | |
| Cinematographe | Lumière Brothers | 1895 | La Sortie des Usines Lumiere | 35 mm | 1.33 | 0.980" × 0.735" | 1 perf, 2 sides (rounded) | spherical | 35 mm | 1.33 | spherical | |
| Biograph | Wm. Dickson & Herman Casler | 1895 | Sparring Contest at Canastota | 68 mm | 1.35 | 2.625" × 1.938" | 1 perf, 2 sides (punched in-camera) | spherical | 68 mm | spherical | ||
| Joly-Normandin | Henri Joly | 1895 | 60 mm | 5 perf, 2 sides | spherical | 60 mm | spherical | |||||
| Biographe | Demeny-Gaumont | 1896 | 60 mm | 1.40 | 1.750" × 1.250" | unperforated | spherical | 60 mm | 1.40 | spherical | ||
| Chronophotographe | Demeny-Gaumont | 1896 | 60 mm | 1.40 | 1.750" × 1.250" | 4 perf, 2 sides | spherical | 60 mm | 1.40 | spherical | ||
| Sivan-Dalphin | Casimir Sivan and E. Dalphin | 1896 | 38 mm | 2 perf, 2 sides | spherical | 38 mm | spherical | |||||
| Veriscope | Enoch Rector | 1897 | The Corbett-Fitzsimmons Fight | 63 mm | 1.66 | 1.875" × 1.125" | 5 perf, 2 sides | spherical | 63 mm | spherical | ||
| Viventoscope | Thomas Henry Blair | 1897 | 48 mm | 1.50 | 1.500" × 1.000" | 1 perf? | spherical | 48 mm | spherical | |||
| Birtac | Birt Acres | 1898 | unknown (amateur format) | 17.5 mm | 2 perf, 1 side | spherical | 17.5 mm | spherical | ||||
| Biokam | T. C. Hepworth | 1899 | unknown (amateur format) | 17.5 mm | 1.60 | 0.630" × 0.394" | 1 perf, center | spherical | 17.5 mm | spherical | ||
| Prestwich 13 mm | John Alfred Prestwich | 1899 | unknown (amateur format) | 13 mm | spherical | 13 mm | spherical | |||||
| Mirograph | Reulos, Goudeau & Co | 1900 | unknown (amateur format) | 21 mm | 1 notch, 2 sides | spherical | 21 mm | spherical | ||||
| Lumiere Wide | Lumière Brothers | 1900 | 75 mm | 1.33 | 2.362" × 1.772" | 8 perf, 2 sides | spherical | 75 mm | 1.33 | spherical | ||
| Cinéorama | R. Grimoin-Sanson | 1900 | Cinéorama | 70 mm × 10 cameras (360°) | 4 perf? | spherical | 70 mm × 10 projectors (360°) | spherical | ||||
| La Petite (Hughes) | W.C. Hughes | 1900 | unknown (amateur format) | 17.5 mm | 1.60 | 0.630" × 0.394" | 1 perf, center (smaller and less rectangular than Biokam) | spherical | 17.5 mm | spherical | ||
| Pocket Chrono | Gaumont Demeny | 1900 | unknown (amateur format) | 15 mm | 1 perf, center | spherical | 15 mm | spherical | ||||
| Vitak | William Wardell | 1902 | unknown (amateur format) | no standard | no standard | no standard | 1 perf, center | spherical | 11 mm | spherical | ||
| Home Kinetoscope | Edison | 1912 | unknown (amateur format) | no standard | no standard | no standard | no standard | spherical | 22 mm, 2 perf (on frameline between frame rows) | 1.5 | 0.236" × 0.157" (three frames across width) | spherical |
| Pathe Kok | Pathé | 1912 | unknown (amateur format) | 28 mm | 1.36 | 0.748" × 0.551" | 3 perf on one side, 1 perf on the other | spherical | 28 mm | spherical | ||
| Duoscope | Alexander F. Victor | 1912 | unknown (amateur format) | 17.5 mm | 2 perfs, center | spherical | 17.5 mm | spherical | ||||
| Panoramico[5] | Filoteo Alberini | 1914 | Il sacco di Roma | 70 mm | 2.52 | 5 perf, 2 sides | spherical | 70 mm | spherical | |||
| Split Duplex | Duplex Corporation | 1915 | 35 mm | 1.33 | 0.980" × 0.735" | 4 perf, 2 sides (shooting) | spherical | 35 mm | 1.87 | 0.735" × 0.394" | spherical (split image 90° rotated) | |
| 11 mm | (American) | 1916 | unknown (amateur format) | 11 mm | 1 perf, center | spherical | 11 mm | spherical | ||||
| Movette | Movette Camera Company | 1917 | unknown (amateur format) | 17.5 mm | 2 perfs, 2 sides (rounded) | spherical | 17.5 mm | spherical | ||||
| 28 mm safety standard | Alexander F. Victor | 1918 | unknown (amateur format) | 28 mm | 1.36 | 0.748" × 0.551" | 3 perf, 2 sides | spherical | 28 mm | spherical | ||
| Clou | (Austrian) | 1920 | unknown (amateur format) | 17.5 mm | 2 perf, 2 sides | spherical | 17.5 mm | spherical | ||||
| 26 mm | (French) | 1920 | unknown (amateur format) | 26 mm | 1 perf, 1 side | spherical | 26 mm | spherical | ||||
| 9.5 mm | Pathé | 1922 | unknown (amateur format) | 9.5 mm | 1.31 | 0.335" × 0.256" | 1 perf, center | spherical | 9.5 mm | 1.31 | 0.315" × 0.242" | spherical |
| Phonofilm | Lee De Forest | 1922 | Barking Dog and Flying Jenny Airplane | 35 mm | 1.33 | 0.980" × 0.735" | 4 perf, 2 sides | spherical | 35 mm | 1.17 | 0.826" × 0.708" | spherical |
| Widescope[6] | John D. Elms & George W. Bingham | 1922 | 35 mm × 2 (both in same camera) | 1.33 × 2 negatives | 0.980" × 0.735" | 4 perf, 2 sides | spherical (one lens per strip) | 35 mm × 2 projectors | 2.66 | 0.931" × 0.698" | spherical | |
| Cinebloc | Ozaphan | 1922 | unknown (amateur format) | 22 mm | 2 perf, 2 sides | spherical | 22 mm | spherical | ||||
| Tri-Ergon soundfilm[6] | Tri-Ergon | 1922 | 35 mm | 1.33 | 0.980" × 0.735" | 4 perf, 2 sides | spherical | 42 mm | 1.33 | 0.931" × 0.698" | spherical | |
| 16 mm[7] | Eastman Kodak | 1923 | unknown (amateur format) | 16 mm | 1.37 | 0.404" × 0.295" | 1 perf, 1 or 2 sides | spherical | 16 mm | 1.37 | 0.378" × 0.276" | spherical |
| Duplex | G.J. Bradley | 1923 | unknown (amateur format) | 11 mm | 2 perf, 2 sides (rounded) | spherical | 11.5 mm | spherical | ||||
| Alberini-Hill | Corrado Cerqua | 1924 | 35 mm | 1.66 | 1.575" × 0.945" (curved) | 10 perf, 2 sides, horizontal | spherical, on 65° revolving drum | 35 mm | spherical | |||
| Cinelux | Ozaphan | 1924 | unknown (amateur format) | 24 mm | spherical | 24 mm | spherical | |||||
| 48 mm | J.H. Powrie | 1924 | 48 mm | 1.32 | 1.969" × 1.496" | horizontal | spherical | 35 mm | 1.33 | 0.931" × 0.698" | spherical | |
| Natural Vision[8] | George K. Spoor & P. John Berggren | 1925 | Niagara Falls and Rollercoaster Ride | 63.5 mm | 1.84 | 2.060" × 1.120" | 6 perf, 2 sides, 20 frame/s | spherical | 63.5 mm | 2.00 | spherical | |
| 13 mm | (French) | 1925 | unknown (amateur format) | 13 mm | 4 perf, center | spherical | 13 mm | spherical | ||||
| 18 mm | (Russian) | 1925 | unknown (amateur format) | 18 mm | 1 perf, 2 sides | spherical | 18 mm | spherical | ||||
| Pathe Rural | Pathé | 1926 | unknown (amateur format) | 17.5 mm | 1.35 (silent); 1.30 (sound) | 0.516" × 0.382" (silent); 0.445" × 0.343" (sound) | 1 perf, 2 sides | spherical | 17.5 mm | 1.33 (silent); 1.26 (sound) | 0.472" × 0.354" (silent); 0.445" × 0.343" (sound) | spherical |
| Widevision[6] | John D. Elms & George W. Bingham | 1926 | Natural Vision Pictures | 57 mm | 5 perf, 2 sides | spherical | 57 mm | spherical | ||||
| Magnascope[5] | Lorenzo del Riccio | 1926 | Old Ironsides | 35 mm | 1.33 | 0.980" × 0.735" | 4 perf, 2 sides | spherical | 35 mm | 1.33 | 0.931" × 0.698" | spherical (selected scenes projected using a wider lens for larger picture) |
| Fox Movietone | F. H. Owens, T. Case, Tri-Ergon | 1927 | Sunrise: A Song of Two Humans | 35 mm | 1.33 | 0.980" × 0.735" | 4 perf, 2 sides | spherical | 35 mm | 1.17 | 0.826" × 0.708" | spherical |
| Polyvision[9] | Abel Gance | 1927 | Napoléon | 35 mm × 3 cameras | 1.33 × 3 negatives | 0.980" × 0.735" | 4 perf, 2 sides | spherical | 35 mm × 3 projectors | 4.00 | 0.931" × 0.698" | spherical |
| Hypergonar | Henri Chrétien | 1927 | Pour construire un feu | 35 mm | 2.66 | 0.980" × 0.735" | 4 perf, 2 sides | 2× anamorphic | 35 mm | 2.66 | 0.931" × 0.698" | 2× anamorphic |
| Magnafilm[10] | Lorenzo del Riccio | 1929 | You're in the Army Now | 56 mm | 2.19 | 1.620" × 0.740" | 4 perf, 2 sides | spherical | 56 mm | 2.00 | spherical | |
| Fox Grandeur[10] | Fox Film Corporation | 1929 | Fox Grandeur News and Fox Movietone Follies of 1929 | 70 mm | 2.07 | 1.890" × 0.913" | 4 perf, 2 sides, 20 frame/s (before 1930) | spherical | 70 mm | 2.00 | 1.768" × 0.885" | spherical |
| Fearless Super Pictures[11] | Ralph G. Fear | 1929 | 35 mm | 2.27 | 1.813" × 0.800" | 10 perfs, 2 sides, horizontal | spherical | 35 mm, horizontal | spherical | |||
| Fearless Super-Film / Magnifilm / Fox Vitascope[12] | Ralph G. Fear | 1930 | Kismet | 65 mm | 2.00 | 1.811" × 0.906" | 5 perf, 2 sides | spherical | 65 mm | 2.05 | 1.772" × 0.866" | spherical |
| Realife[11] | MGM | 1930 | Billy the Kid | 70 mm | 2.07 | 1.890" × 0.913" | 4 perf, 2 sides | spherical | 35 mm | 1.75 | 0.904" × 0.517" | spherical |
| 50 mm[13] | Fox Film Corporation & SMPE | 1930 | 50 mm | 1.80 | 1.325" × 0.735" | spherical | 50 mm | 1.80 | 1.305" × 0.725" | spherical | ||
| 17 mm sound | (French) | 1930 | unknown (amateur format) | 17 mm | 1 perf, 1 side | spherical | 17 mm | spherical | ||||
| Giant Expanding Pictures | George Palmer | 1930 | 35 mm | 1.33 | 0.980" × 0.735" | 4 perf, 2 sides | spherical | 35 mm | 1.17 | 0.826" × 0.708" | spherical (with a special projection zoom lens zooming wider and opening masking for key sequences) | |
| Kodel Kemco Homovie | Clarence Ogden | 1931 | unknown (amateur format) | 16 mm | 4 sequential images per frame | 1 perf, 2 sides | spherical | 16 mm | spherical | |||
| Academy format[14] | AMPAS | 1932 | 35 mm | 1.375 (commonly abbreviated to 1.37) | 0.868″ × 0.631″ | 4 perf, 2 sides | spherical | 35 mm | 1.37 | 0.825″ × 0.600″ | spherical | |
| 8 mm | Eastman Kodak | 1932 | unknown (amateur format) | 16 mm | 1.32 | 0.192" × 0.145" | 1 perf, 1 side (using 16 mm film with twice as many perfs) | spherical | 8 mm | 1.33 | 0.172" × 0.129" | spherical |
| Straight 8 | Bell & Howell | 1935 | unknown (amateur format) | 8 mm | 1.32 | 0.192" × 0.145" | 1 perf, 1 side | spherical | 8 mm | 1.33 | 0.172" × 0.129" | spherical |
| Vitarama | Fred Waller | 1939 | 16 mm × 11 cameras | 1.37 × 11 negatives | 0.404" × 0.295" | 1 perf, 2 sides | spherical | 16 mm × 11 projectors | hemispherical view | 0.378" × 0.276" | spherical | |
| Waller Flexible Gunnery Trainer | Fred Waller | 1943 | US Air Force interactive training exercise | 35 mm × 5 cameras | 1.37 × 5 negatives | 0.866" × 0.630" | 4 perf, 2 sides | spherical | 35 mm × 5 projectors | hemispherical view | 0.825" × 0.602" | spherical |
| Cinerama[15] | Fred Waller | 1952 | This is Cinerama | 35 mm × 3 cameras | 2.59 (3 × negatives) | 0.996" × 1.116" | 6 perf, 2 sides at 26 frame/s | spherical | 35 mm × 3 projectors, with 6 perf pulldown | 2.59, with 146° curved screen | 0.985" × 1.088" | spherical |
| Matted 1.66[14] | Paramount | 1953 | Shane | 35 mm | 1.37 | 0.866" × 0.630" | 4 perf, 2 sides | spherical | 35 mm | 1.66 | 0.825" × 0.497" | spherical |
| Matted 1.85[14] | Universal | 1953 | Thunder Bay | 35 mm | 1.37 | 0.866" × 0.630" | 4 perf, 2 sides | spherical | 35 mm | 1.85 | 0.825" × 0.446" | spherical |
| Matted 1.75 | MGM | 1953 | Arena | 35 mm | 1.37 | 0.866" × 0.630" | 4 perf, 2 sides | spherical | 35 mm | 1.75 | 0.825" × 0.471" | spherical |
| Cinemascope[16] | 20th Century Fox | 1953 | The Robe | 35 mm | 2.55 (1953–57); 2.35 (1957–67) | 0.937" × 0.735" (1953–57); 0.868" × 0.735" (1957–67) | 4 perf, 2 sides | 2× anamorphic | 35 mm | 2.55 (1953–57); 2.35 (1957–67) | 0.912" × 0.715" (1953–57); 0.839" × 0.715" (1957–67) | 2× anamorphic |
| Arnoldscope[17] | John Arnold | 1953 | 35 mm | 10 perf, 2 sides, horizontal | spherical | |||||||
| VistaVision[18] | Paramount | 1954 | White Christmas | 35 mm | 1.51 | 1.495" × 0.991" | 8 perf, 2 sides, horizontal | spherical | 35 mm, 4 perf, vertical | 1.85 | 0.825" × 0.446" | spherical |
| VistaVision Large Area[18][19] | Paramount | 1954 | White Christmas | 35 mm | 1.51 | 1.495" × 0.991" | 8 perf, 2 sides, horizontal | spherical | 35 mm, 8 perf, horizontal | 1.96 | 1.418" × 0.723" | spherical |
| Superscope[20] | Tushinsky Brothers | 1954 | Vera Cruz | 35 mm | 1.33 | 0.980" × 0.735" | 4 perf, 2 sides | spherical | 35 mm | 2.00 | 0.715" × 0.715" | 2× anamorphic |
| Circarama[21] | Disney | 1955 | A Tour of the West | 16 mm × 11 cameras | 1.37 × 11 negatives | 0.404" × 0.295" | 1 perf, 2 sides | spherical | 16 mm × 11 projectors | 360° | 0.378" × 0.276" | spherical |
| Todd-AO[22][23] | Michael Todd | 1955 | Oklahoma | 65 mm | 2.29 | 2.072" × 0.906" | 5 perfs, 2 sides, at 30 frame/s | spherical | 70 mm | 2.21, with 120° curved screen | 1.912" × 0.870" | spherical |
| CinemaScope 55[24] | 20th Century Fox | 1955 | Carousel | 55 mm | 2.55 | 1.824" × 1.430" | 8 perfs, 2 sides | 2× anamorphic | 35 mm | 2.55 | 0.912" × 0.715" | 2× anamorphic |
| 9.5 Duplex[25] | Pathé Fréres | 1955 | ? | 9.5 mm | 1.51 | 4.1 mm × 6.2 mm | 2 central perforations in a 9.5mm film | spherical | 4.75 mm | spherical, rotated 90° | ||
| 8 mm Panoramic[26] | Dimaphot, Paris | 1955 | ? | 16 mm | 1.5 | 5 mm × 7.5 mm | 1 perf, 2 sides | spherical | 8 mm | spherical, rotated 90° | ||
| Emel Panoscope[27] | Emel, Paris | 1955 | ? | 16 mm | 2.7 | 3.5 mm × 9.6 mm | 2 perf, 2 sides | spherical | 16 mm | spherical | ||
| Technirama[28] | Technicolor | 1956 | The Monte Carlo Story | 35 mm | 2.26 | 1.496" × 0.992" | 8 perf, 2 sides, horizontally | 1.5× anamorphic | 35 mm, 4 perf vertical | 2.35 | 0.839" × 0.715" | 2× anamorphic |
| Technirama Large Area[28] | Technicolor | 1956 | The Monte Carlo Story | 35 mm | 2.26 | 1.496" × 0.992" | 8 perf, 2 sides, horizontally | 1.5× anamorphic | 35 mm, 8 perf horizontal | 2.42 | 1.421" × 0.881" | 1.5× anamorphic |
| Dynamic Frame[29] | Glenn Alvey | 1956 | The Door in the Wall | 35 mm | 1.3, 1.6, and 2.5 | variable aperture plates | 8 perf, 2 sides, horizontally | spherical | 35 mm, 4 perf, vertical | 1.3, 1.5, and 2.5 | spherical | |
| Superscope 235[20] | Superscope Inc. | 1956 | Run for the Sun | 35 mm | 1.33 | 0.980" × 0.735" | 4 perf, 2 sides | spherical | 35 mm | 2.35 | 0.839" × 0.715" | 2× anamorphic |
| Thrillarama[30] | Albert H. Reynolds | 1956 | Thrillarama Adventure | 35 mm × 2 cameras | 1.78 × 2 negatives | 3 perf, 2 sides? | spherical | 35 mm × 2 projectors | 3.55, with a curved screen | spherical | ||
| Magirama[9] | Abel Gance | 1956 | Magirama | 35 mm × 3 cameras (sides bounced off mirrors) | 1.33 × 3 negatives | 0.980" × 0.735" | 4 perf, 2 sides | spherical | 35 mm × 3 projectors (sides bounced off mirrors) | 4.00 | 0.931" × 0.698" | spherical |
| MGM Camera 65 | Panavision | 1957 | Raintree County | 65 mm | 2.76 | 2.072" × 0.906" | 5 perf, 2 sides | 1.25× anamorphic | 70 mm | 2.76 | 1.912" × 0.870" | 1.25× anamorphic |
| Ultra Panavision[31] | Panavision | 1962 | Mutiny on the Bounty | 65 mm | 2.76 | 2.072" × 0.906" | 5 perf, 2 sides | 1.25× anamorphic | 70 mm | 2.76 | 1.912" × 0.870" | 1.25× anamorphic |
| Cinestage[32] | Mike Todd | 1957 | Around the World in 80 Days | 65 mm | 2.29 | 2.072" × 0.906" | 5 perfs, 2 sides | spherical | 35 mm (1 mm shaved off for UK prints) | 2.12 | 0.912" × 0.675" | 1.567× anamorphic |
| Rank VistaVision | J. Arthur Rank Organization | 1957 | 35 mm | 1.51 | 1.495" × 0.991" | 8 perf, 2 sides, horizontally | spherical | 35 mm, 4 perf, vertical | 1.82 | 0.825" × 0.602" | 1.33× anamorphic | |
| Modern anamorphic[33] | Panavision | 1958 | The Female Animal | 35 mm | 2.37 | 0.866" × 0.732" | 4 perf, 2 sides | 2× anamorphic | 35 mm | 2.35 (1957–70); 2.39 (1970–present) | 0.839" × 0.715" (1957–70); 0.838" × 0.7" (1970–93); 0.825" × 0.690" (1993–present) | 2× anamorphic |
| Kinopanorama[34] | NIKFI | 1958 | Great Is My Country | 35 mm × 3 cameras | 0.91 × 3 negatives | 1.014" × 1.116" | 6 perf, 2 sides, at 25 frame/s | spherical | 35 mm × 3 projectors | 2.72 | 0.985" × 1.088" | spherical |
| 70 mm[22][35] | American Optical Company | 1958 | South Pacific | 65 mm | 2.28 | 2.066" × 0.906" | 5 perfs, 2 sides | spherical | 70 mm | 2.21 | 1.912" × 0.87" | spherical |
| Cinemiracle[36] | National Theatres | 1958 | Windjammer | 35 mm × 3 cameras (sides bounced off mirrors) | 0.89 × 3 negatives | 0.996" × 1.116" | 6 perf, 2 sides at 26 frame/s | spherical | 35 mm × 3 projectors (sides bounced off mirrors), with 6 perf pulldown | 2.59, with 120° curved screen | 0.985" × 1.088" | spherical |
| Super Technirama[28] | Technicolor | 1959 | Sleeping Beauty | 35 mm | 2.26 | 1.496" × 0.992" | 8 perf, 2 sides, horizontally | 1.5× anamorphic | 70 mm | 2.21 | 1.912" × 0.816" | spherical |
| Smith-Carney System[37] | Rowe E. Carney Jr. and Tom F. Smith | 1959 | Missouri travelogue | 35 mm | 4.69 | 0.839" × 0.370" (bottom half) and 0.449" × 0.370" (top quarters) | 4 perf, 2 sides | spherical × 3 | 35 mm | 4.69 | three sub-frames projected to one 180° image | spherical × 3 |
| Circular Kinopanorama / Circlorama[38] | E. Goldovsky | 1959 | The Path of Spring | 35 mm × 11 cameras | 1.37 × 11 negatives | 0.866" × 0.630" | 4 perf, 2 sides | spherical | 35 mm × 11 projectors | 360° | 0.825" × 0.602" | spherical |
| Varioscope[39] | Jan Jacobsen | 1959 | Flying Clipper | 65 mm | 2.28 | 2.066" × 0.906" | 5 perfs, 2 sides | spherical | 70 mm | variable framing run through control signal | 1.912" × 0.87" | spherical |
| Quadravision[40] | Ford Motor Company | 1959 | Design for Suburban Living showtent | ? mm × 4 cameras | ? × 4 negatives | spherical | ? mm × 4 projectors | ? (4 images in 2×2 configuration) | spherical | |||
| Techniscope[41] | Technicolor | 1960 | The Pharaoh's Woman | 35 mm | 2.33 | 0.868" × 0.373" | 2 perf, 2 sides | spherical | 35 mm | 2.39 | 0.838" × 0.7" | 2× anamorphic |
| Wonderama (Arc 120)[42] | Leon W. Wells | 1960 | Honeymoon | no standard | no standard | no standard | no standard | no standard | 35 mm | 2.50 with a 120° curved screen | 0.931" × 0.698", with two half-images turned 90° and placed side-by-side | spherical × 2 |
| Cine System 3[43][44] | Eric Berndt | 1960 | USAF and NASA usage | 3 mm | 1 perf, centered | spherical | ||||||
| Grandeur 70[45] | 20th Century Fox | 1961 | The King and I (re-release) | 55 mm | 2.55 | 1.824" × 1.430" | 8 perfs, 2 sides | 2× anamorphic | 70 mm | 2.21 | 1.912" × 0.87" | spherical |
| Cinerama 360[42] | Cinerama Corporation | 1962 | Journey to the Stars | 65 mm | 1.00 (circle) | 2.25" diameter circular image | 10 perf, 2 sides | fisheye | 70 mm | 1.00 (circle) | 2.25" diameter circular image | spherical |
| Super 8 | Eastman Kodak | 1965 | unknown (amateur format) | 8 mm | 1.48 | 0.245" × 0.166" | 1 perf, 1 side | spherical | 8 mm | 1.36 | 0.215" × 0.158" | spherical |
| Real Sound[citation needed] | Kenner | 1965 | no standard | no standard | no standard | 1 perf, 1 side | spherical | 11.5 mm | 1.33 | 0.172" × 0.129" | spherical | |
| Double Super 8[citation needed] | Eastman Kodak | 1965 | unknown (amateur format) | 16 mm | 1.48 | 0.245" × 0.166" | 1 perf, 1 side (using 16 mm film with twice as many perfs) | spherical | 8 mm | 1.36 | 0.215" × 0.158" | spherical |
| Single-8[46] | Fujifilm | 1966 | unknown (amateur format) | 8 mm | 1.36 | 0.224" × 0.164" | 1 perf, 1 side | spherical | 8 mm | 1.35 | 0.213" × 0.157" | spherical |
| Dimension 150[47] | American Optical Company | 1966 | The Bible: In the Beginning | 65 mm | 2.28 | 2.066" × 0.906" | 5 perfs, 2 sides | spherical | 70 mm | 2.21, with 150° curved screen | 1.912" × 0.87", optically curved to compensate for the screen | spherical |
| Circle Vision 360[38] | Disney | 1967 | America the Beautiful | 35 mm × 9 cameras | 1.37 × 9 negatives | 0.866" × 0.630" | 4 perf, 2 sides | spherical | 35 mm × 9 projectors | 360° | 0.825" × 0.602" | spherical |
| 8.75 mm[48] | Shanghai Film Projection Equipment Factory | 1968 | unknown (amateur format) | 1 perf | spherical | 8.75 mm | spherical | |||||
| Astrovision[49] | Goto Optical | 1969 | 65 mm | 10 perf, 2 sides | spherical or fish-eye | 70 mm | fish-eye (dome projection) | |||||
| IMAX[50] | IMAX Corporation | 1970 | Tiger Child | 65 mm | 1.34 | 2.772" × 2.072" | 15 perf, 2 sides, horizontally | spherical | 70 mm, horizontal | 1.31 | 2.692" × 2.056" | spherical |
| Super 16 mm film[7] | Rune Ericson | 1970 | Blushing Charlie | 16 mm | 1.66 | 0.493" × 0.292" | 1 perf, 1 side | spherical | no standard, but often blown up to 35 mm | no standard | 0.463" × 0.279" (full frame); 0.463" × 0.251" (framed for 1.85) | spherical |
| Pik-a-Movie[51] | Leon W. Wells | 1972 | no standard | no standard | no standard | no standard | no standard | 70 mm, horizontal, 1 perf, 2 sides | 1.48 | 0.245" × 0.166", 12 rows high, underneath 12 rows of optical sound | spherical | |
| OMNIMAX[52] | IMAX Corporation | 1973 | Garden Isle | 65 mm | 1.34 | 2.772" × 2.072" | 15 perf, 2 sides, horizontally | special fish-eye lenses optically centered 0.37" above film horizontal center line | 70 mm, horizontal | 1.31 | 2.692" × 2.056" | spherical, projected elliptically on a dome screen, 20 degrees below and 110 degrees above perfectly centered viewers |
| 8/70 (Dynavision, Iwerks 870)[53] | Dynavision | 1973? | 65 mm | 1.37 | 2.031" × 1.484" | 8 perf, 2 sides, 24 or 30 frame/s | spherical | 70 mm | 1.34 | 1.913" × 1.431" | spherical | |
| Showscan[54] | Douglas Trumbull | 1978 | Night of Dreams | 65 mm | 2.28 | 2.066" × 0.906" | 5 perfs, 2 sides, at 60 frame/s | spherical | 70 mm, at 60 frame/s | 2.21 | 1.912" × 0.87" | spherical |
| Polavision[55] | Polaroid Corporation | 1978 | unknown (amateur format) | 8 mm | 1.48 | 0.245" × 0.166" | 1 perf, 1 side | spherical | 8 mm | 1.36 | 0.215" × 0.158" | spherical |
| Cinema 180[56] | Omni Films | 1979 | Crazy Wheels | 65 mm | 2.28 | 2.066" × 0.906" | 5 perfs, 2 sides, 30 frame/s | fisheye | 70 mm | 180°, on a dome | 1.912" × 0.87" | fisheye |
| Super 35[57] | Joe Dunton | 1982 | Dance Craze | 35 mm | 1.33 | 0.980" × 0.735" | 4 perf, 2 sides | spherical | 35 mm | no standard | no standard | no standard |
| Circle Vision 200[58] | Disney | 1982 | Impressions de France | 35 mm × 5 cameras | 1.37 × 5 negatives | 0.866" × 0.630" | 4 perf, 2 sides | spherical | 35 mm × 5 projectors | 6.85, on a 200° screen | 0.825" × 0.602" | spherical |
| Swissorama 360 / Imagine 360[59] | Ernst A. Heiniger | 1984 | Impressions of Switzerland | 65 mm | 360° | 1.91" (outer edge), 1.20" (inner edge) | 10 perf, 2 sides | 360° × 35° extreme fisheye | 70 mm | 360° | 360° × 35° extreme fisheye | |
| Super Duper 8 / Max 8 / Super 8B[60][61] | Mitch Perkins & Greg Miller | mid- 1980s | Sleep Always (2002) | 8 mm | 1.51 | 0.250" × 0.166" | 1 perf, 1 side | spherical | 8 mm | no standard | no standard | spherical |
| 3-perf[62] | Rune Ericson | 1987 | Pirates of the Lake | 35 mm | 1.79 | 0.980" × 0.546" | 3 perf, 2 sides | spherical | 35 mm | no standard | no standard | no standard |
| Super VistaVision[63] | Paramount | 1989 | The Ten Commandments (re-release) | 35 mm | 1.51 | 1.495" × 0.991" | 8 perf, 2 sides, horizontal | spherical | 70 mm | 2.21 | 1.912" × 0.87" | spherical |
| Kinoton HDFS[64] | Kinoton | 1990 | no standard | no standard | no standard | no standard | no standard | 35 mm | 2.00 | 0.931" × 0.698" | 1.5× anamorphic | |
| IMAX Magic Carpet[65] | IMAX Corporation | 1990 | Flowers in the Sky | 65 mm × 2 cameras | 1.34 | 2.772" × 2.072" | 15 perf, 2 sides, horizontally | spherical | 70 mm, horizontal × 2 projectors | 1.31 × 2 screens (one in front, one below) | 2.692" × 2.056" | spherical |
| Iwerksphere[66] | Iwerks | 1991 | 65 mm | 1.37 | 2.031" × 1.484" | 8 perf, 2 sides, 24 or 30 frame/s | fisheye | 70 mm | 1.34 | 1.913" × 1.431" | fisheye | |
| IMAX HD[67] | IMAX Corporation | 1992 | Momentum | 65 mm | 1.34 | 2.772" × 2.072" | 15 perf, 2 sides, horizontally, 48 frame/s | spherical | 70 mm, horizontal | 1.31 | 2.692" × 2.056" | spherical |
| Hexiplex[68] | (Australian) | 1992 | Expo '92 demo | 35 mm × 6 cameras | 1.37 × 6 negatives | 0.866" × 0.630" | 4 perf, 2 sides | spherical | 35 mm × 6 projectors | 360°, with rotating screens and projectors | 0.825" × 0.602" | spherical |
| Ultra Toruscope[56] | Mac McCarney | 1992 | 35 mm × 3 cameras | 1.37 × 3 negatives | 0.866" × 0.630" | 4 perf, 2 sides, at 30 frame/s | spherical | 70 mm × 3 projectors, at 30 frame/s | 360° | 1.912" × 0.87" | spherical | |
| Imagination FX 7012[13] | Geo-Odyssey | 1992? | 35 mm | 2.08 | 2.040" × 0.980" | 12 perf, 2 sides, horizontal | spherical | 70 mm | 2.21 | 1.912" × 0.87" | spherical | |
| Univisium[69] | Vittorio Storaro | 1998 | Tango | 35 mm | 2.00 | 0.945" × 0.472" | 3 perf, 2 sides at 25 frame/s | spherical | 35 mm | 2.00 | spherical | |
| Maxivision[70] | Dean Goodhill | 1999 | 35 mm | 1.79 | 0.980" × 0.546" | 3 perf, 2 sides | spherical | 35 mm, 3 perf | 1.85 | spherical | ||
| Maxivision 48[70] | Dean Goodhill | 1999 | 35 mm | 1.79 | 0.980" × 0.546" | 3 perf, 2 sides, 48 frame/s | spherical | 35 mm, 3 perf, 48 frame/s | 1.85 | spherical | ||
| Super Dimension 70[71] | Robert Weisgerber | 1999 | 65 mm | 2.28 | 2.066" × 0.906" | 5 perfs, 2 sides, at 48 frame/s | spherical | 70 mm, at 48 frame/s | 2.21 | 1.912" × 0.87" | spherical | |
| FuturVision 360[49] | 65 mm | 1.52 | 2.066" × 0.906" | 5 perfs, 2 sides, 30 frame/s | 1.5× vertical anamorphic | 70 mm | 1.47 | 1.912" × 0.87" | 1.5× vertical anamorphic | |||
| Mini-Max[72] | Vistascope | 35 mm | 2.66 | 2 perf, 2 sides, 30 frame/s | spherical | 35 mm | 2.66 | spherical | ||||
| MotionMaster[73] | Omni Films | 65 mm | 2.28 | 2.066" × 0.906" | 5 perfs, 2 sides, 30 frame/s | spherical | 70 mm | 2.21, on a curved screen | 1.912" × 0.87" | spherical | ||
| Row-film[74] | R. Thun | 35 mm | 20 rows of images wide | spherical | spherical | |||||||
| Septorama[49] | ? mm × 7 cameras | 1.33 × 7 negatives | spherical | ? mm × 7 projectors | hemispherical view | spherical | ||||||
| Single Cinerama[75] | Fred Waller | 35 mm | curved gate | 16 perf, 2 sides, horizontal | spherical | 35 mm, horizontal | curved screen | spherical | ||||
| Soviet 10[76] | 65 mm | 10 perf, 2 sides | 2× anamorphic | 70 mm | 2.09 | 1.890" × 1.811" | 2× anamorphic | |||||
| Vario-35[76] | 35 mm | spherical | 35 mm | variable framing run through control signal | 0.835" × 0.713" (full); 0.835" × 0.453" (1.84); 0.709" × 0.524" (1.35); 0.614" × 0.614" (1.00); 0.535" × 0.713" (0.75) | spherical | ||||||
| Vario-35A[76] | 35 mm | 35 mm | variable framing run through control signal | 0.835" × 0.713" | variable anamorphic (2× for 2.35; 1.57× for 1.85; 1.17× for 1.37; 0.85× for 1.00; 0.64× for 0.75; 0.5× for 0.59) | |||||||
| Vario-70[76] | 65 mm | 10 perfs, 2 sides | spherical | 70 mm | variable framing run through control signal | 1.890" × 1.811" (full); 1.890" × 0.803" (2.35); 1.673" × 0.906" (1.85); 1.441" × 1.051" (1.37); 1.232" × 1.232" (1.00); 1.063" × 1.429" (0.74); 0.945" × 1.604" (0.59); 0.839" × 1.811" (0.46) | spherical | |||||
| Format | Creator | Est. | First known work | Negative gauge | Negative A/R[1] | Gate dims | Negative pulldown | Negative lenses | Projection gauge | Projection A/R[1] | Projection dims | Projection lenses |
See also edit
Notes edit
- ^ a b c d e f Strictly speaking, aspect ratios for film are always expressed as the ratio of 1 and are formatted as x:y, e.g. 1.85:1. However, in the interest of formatting, the aspect ratios listed will assume the ratio of 1 and omit the :1 suffix.
- ^ Burns, R.W., Television: An International History of the Formative Years, p. 71, Institution of Electrical Engineers, 1991.
- ^ Scott, E. Kilburn, "The Career of L. A .A. Le Prince", Adventures in Cybersound. Retrieved 2008-05-17.
- ^ Hiller, John. "Film History for the Public: The First National Movie Machine Collection", Film History, v. 11, n. 3, p. 373. Indiana University Press, 1999.
- ^ a b Sherlock, p. 3.
- ^ a b c Sherlock, p. 40.
- ^ a b Hummel, p. 16.
- ^ Sherlock, p. 5-6.
- ^ a b Sherlock, p. 4.
- ^ a b Sherlock, p. 5.
- ^ a b Sherlock, p. 6.
- ^ Sherlock, p. 6-7.
- ^ a b Sherlock, p. 59.
- ^ a b c Hummel, p. 10.
- ^ Hart, Cinerama Specs.
- ^ Hart, CinemaScope Specs and Of Apertures and Aspect Ratios.
- ^ Hart, Ultra Panavision, p. 1.
- ^ a b Hart, VistaVision Specs.
- ^ Sherlock, p. 27.
- ^ a b Hart, SuperScope Specs.
- ^ Sherlock, p. 19-20.
- ^ a b Even after slowing down the frame rate from 30 to 24 frame/s, Todd AO productions retained the use of the same trade name on the 24 frame/s films. There is no difference between 24 frame/s Todd AO, Super Panavision, and what is otherwise referred to as standard 65/70 mm.
- ^ Hart, Todd A.O. Specs.
- ^ Hart, CinemaScope Specs.
- ^ Patrice-Hervé Pont, Jean Loup Princelle: 50 Ans de Caméras Françaises, Le Reve Édition, Ondreville-sur-Essonne, France, 2007, ISBN 2-9522521-3-0, page 107
- ^ Patrice-Hervé Pont, Jean Loup Princelle: 50 Ans de Caméras Françaises, Le Reve Édition, Ondreville-sur-Essonne, France, 2007, ISBN 2-9522521-3-0, --> page num 51
- ^ Patrice-Hervé Pont, Jean Loup Princelle: 50 Ans de Caméras Françaises, Le Reve Édition, Ondreville-sur-Essonne, France, 2007, ISBN 2-9522521-3-0, --> page num 59
- ^ a b c Hart, Technirama Specs.
- ^ Sherlock, p. 58.
- ^ Hart, Thrillarama
- ^ Hart, Ultra Panavision Specs.
- ^ Sherlock, p. 31.
- ^ Hummel, p. 13.
- ^ Sherlock, p. 11-12.
- ^ Hummel, p. 17.
- ^ Hart, Cinemiracle Specs.
- ^ Hart, The Smith-Carney System.
- ^ a b Sherlock, p. 19.
- ^ Fromm, Gerhard. "The Work of Jan Jacobsen", ..in 70 mm: The 70 mm Newsletter, Issue 57 (June 1999). Retrieved 2008-12-01.
- ^ Nilsen, Sarah Dawn. Projecting America: Films at the Brussels World's Fair of 1958, p. 96. University of Southern California Press, 2000.
- ^ Hart, Techniscope Specs.
- ^ a b Sherlock, p. 18.
- ^ Nystrom
- ^ "Film Gauges". Preservation Glossary. National Film and Sound Archive. from the original on 2009-02-21.
- ^ Hart, CinemaScope, p. 6.
- ^ "Viewpoint Japan", The British Journal of Photography, December 3, 1965, p. 1050.
- ^ Sherlock, p. 17-18.
- ^ Clark, Paul. The Chinese Cultural Revolution: A History, p. 146. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008.
- ^ a b c Sherlock, p. 37.
- ^ Hummel, p. 18.
- ^ "Pik-A-Movie", British Kinematography Sound and Television, August 1973. Retrieved 2008-07-07.
- ^ Hummel, p. 18-19.
- ^ Hummel, p. 19.
- ^ Sherlock, p. 39
- ^ Giambarba, Paul. The Branding of Polaroid 1957–1977, Chapter 18, 2004-09-01. Retrieved 2008-07-07.
- ^ a b Aridi, Sal (July–December 2000). . Operating Cameraman. Archived from the original on 2008-06-29.
- ^ Hummel, p. 11.
- ^ Sherlock, p. 20
- ^ Piccolin, Lukas. "All-Around Cinema", in70mm.com, 2004-10-01. Retrieved 2008-07-07.
- ^ Vigeant, Phil. Technical schematic drawings of Max8 format, Pro8mm, 2005-11-09.
- ^ www.jelve.com. "Sleep Always lift article". www.friendlyfirefilms.com.
- ^ Hummel, p. 20.
- ^ "Upcoming Re-release of Vertigo", Los Angeles Times, 1996-06-16. Retrieved 2008-07-07.
- ^ Lobban, Grant. "Widescreen and 3D Formats Wallchart", BKSTS. [year unknown]
- ^ Schwartzberg, Schlomo. "IMAX: Oscar nominated Canadian company on the leading edge of technology" 2009-02-15 at the Wayback Machine, Performing Arts and Entertainment in Canada, Spring 1993. Retrieved 2008-07-07.
- ^ Katz, Stephen Douglas. Film Directing Shot by Shot: Visualizing from Concept to Screen, p. 330. Michael Wiese Productions, 1991.
- ^ Naimark, "Giant Rectangular Screens".
- ^ Naimark, "Cylindrical Screens".
- ^ Storaro, Vittorio. Storaro's notes on Univision, date unknown. Retrieved on 2006-12-01.
- ^ a b Hindes, Andrew. Sticking with 35mm, Variety, 1999-04-19. Retrieved 2008-05-16.
- ^ Weisgerber, Robert. Super Dimension 70: New 70 mm Process Demonstrated, in70mm.com, Issue 63 (March 2001). Retrieved 2008-05-17.
- ^ Lobban, Grant. "Film Gauges and Soundtracks Wallchart", BKSTS. [year unknown]
- ^ Motion Master[dead link], Screen Digest, October 1, 1995. Retrieved 2008-05-17.
- ^ Nystrom, sidebar.
- ^ Kimble, Greg. "This Is Cinerama!": Cinerama's 50th Anniversary, part 4 2008-04-01 at the Wayback Machine, in70mm.com, 2002-06-10. Retrieved 2008-05-16.
- ^ a b c d Sherlock, p. 58
References edit
- Carr, Robert E. and Hayes, R. M., Wide Screen Movies. A History and Filmography of Wide Gauge Filmmaking. Mc Farland & Company, 1988.
- Hart, Martin. American Widescreen Museum, 1996–2008. Retrieved on 2008-05-16.
- Herbert, Stephen and Luke McKernan, eds. Who's Who of Victorian Cinema, 1996–2006. Retrieved on 2006-12-01.
- Hummel, Rob (editor). American Cinematographer Manual, 8th edition. Hollywood: ASC Press, 2001.
- Naimark, Michael. Expo '92 Seville, Presence, Vol. 1, No. 3. MIT Press, Summer 1992. Retrieved on 2006-12-01.
- Nystrom, J.E. History of sub-35mm Film Formats and Cameras, 1998–2001. Retrieved on 2006-12-01.
- Sherlock, Daniel J. "Wide Screen Movies" Corrections, 1994–2004. Retrieved on 2006-12-01.
Further reading edit
- Baumgarten, Martin W. , 2006. Retrieved on 2006-12-01.
- de Vries, Tjitte. "Cinematographe Lumiere" a myth? Who invented the cinema?, 2006. Retrieved on 2006-10-22.
- Eastman Kodak Corporation. 40 Years of Super 8, 2005. Retrieved on 2006-12-01.
- Eastman Kodak Corporation. . 2003. Retrieved on 2006-12-01.
- eFilmCenter. , date unknown. Retrieved on 2006-12-01.
- Fisher, David. Chronomedia, 1970–2006. Retrieved on 2006-10-22.
- Hart, Douglas C. The Camera Assistant: A Complete Professional Handbook. Newton, Massachusetts: Focal Press, 1996.
- Hauerslev, Thomas, ed. in70mm.com, 1985–2006. Retrieved on 2006-12-01.
- Hayes, John. But First, a Brief History of Widescreen... Wide Screen Movies Magazine, Vol. 1, 2002. Retrieved on 2006-12-01.
- Herbert, Stephen. , date unknown. Retrieved on 2006-12-01.
- Horak, Jan-Christopher. . UCLA Film and Television Archive, 2000. Retrieved on 2006-12-01.
- Internet Movie Database Incorporated. Internet Movie Database, 1990–2006. Retrieved on 2006-12-01.
- Jennings, Tom (editor). The Dead Media Project, 2001? Retrieved on 2006-10-22.
- Kattelle, Alan. , 2003. Retrieved on 2006-10-22.
- Library of Congress, History of Edison Motion Pictures, date unknown. Retrieved on 2006-12-01.
- MCC Logical Designs. . date unknown. Retrieved on 2006-12-01.
- Mendrala, Jim. Aspect Ratio and Image Cutoff, 1994. Retrieved on 2006-10-22.
- Munafo, Robert P. Film Formats at MROB, 1996–2008. Retrieved on 2006-12-01.
- Musser, Charles. , 2005. Retrieved on 2006-12-01.
- Naughton, Russell. Adventures in Cybersound, 1998–2003. Retrieved on 2006-10-22.
- Newnham, Grahame. , 2000–2006. Retrieved on 2006-12-01.
- Norwood, Scott E. Film Tech FAQ, 1998. Retrieved on 2006-12-01.
- Panavision Incorporated. , 2004. Retrieved on 2006-12-01.
- Roepke, Martina and Henk Verheul. Ernemann film, 2002–2006. Retrieved on 2006-12-01.
- Science Museum Group. Cinematography collection. Retrieved 2020-05-04.
- ScreenSound Australia. , date unknown. Retrieved on 2006-12-01.
- ScreenSound Australia. , date unknown. Retrieved on 2006-12-01.
- Society of Camera Operators. , 1991–2005. Retrieved on 2006-12-01.
- UCLA Film and Television Archive. , 2004. Retrieved on 2006-12-01.
- unknown author. , 2004–2005. Retrieved on 2008-06-23.
- Vigeant, Rhonda. , 2005. Retrieved on 2006-12-01.
- Westphal, Kyle. An Enlarged History of Magnascope, 2016. Retrieved on 2018-01-18
- Wittmann, Armin Michael. One Long Image. Dissertation for the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich, 1999. Retrieved on 2006-12-01.