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Pesticide drift

January 01, 1970

Pesticide drift, also known as spray drift refers to the unintentional diffusion of pesticides toward nontarget species. It is one of the most negative effects of pesticide application. Drift can damage human health, environment, and crops.[1][2] Together with runoff and leaching, drift is a mechanism for agricultural pollution.[3] Some drift results from contamination of sprayer tanks.[4]

Possible sinks of pesticide drift-caused environmental contamination

Farmers struggle to minimize pesticide drift and remain productive.[5] Research continues on developing pesticides that are more selective,[6] but the current pesticides have been highly optimized.

Pesticide application edit

Main article: pesticide application

Pesticides are commonly applied by the use of mechanical sprayers. Sprayers convert a pesticide formulation, often consisting of a mixture of water, the pesticide, and other components (adjuvants, for example) into droplets, which are applied to the crop. Ideally, the pesticide droplets attach evenly to the targeted crop. Because components of the mist are highly mobile, spray drift can occur, especially for smaller droplets. Some pesticides mists are visible, appearing cloud-like, while others can be invisible and odorless.[7][8]

The quality of sprayer equipment affects drift problems.[9][10] Sprayer tanks contaminated with another herbicide are one source of drift.[4] With placement (localised) spraying of broad spectrum pesticides, considerable efforts have been made to quantify and control spray drift from hydraulic nozzles.[11] Conversely, wind drift is also an efficient mechanism for moving droplets of an appropriate size range to their targets over a wide area with ultra-low volume (ULV) spraying.[12]

"Drift retardants" are compounds added to the spray mixture to suppress pesticide drift. A typical retardant is polyacrylamide. These polymers suppress the formation of tiny droplets.[13]

Weather conditions and timing affect the drift problem.[4] The efficiency of the spray and reach of the spray drift can be computed.[14] In addition to weather, windbreaks can mitigate the effects of drift.[15] Other ways to mitigate spray drift is to apply the pesticide directly to the desired treatment area, as well as paying attention to where surface waters, gutters, drainage ditches, and storm drains are located. This is to make sure that the pesticide is applied in a way that prevents it from getting in to these spaces. [16]

Most herbicides are organic compounds of low volatility, unlike fumigants, which are usually gases. Several are salts and others have boiling points above 100 °C (Dicamba is a solid that melts at 114°C). Thus, drift often entails mobilization of droplets, which can be very small. The contribution from their volatility, low as they are, cannot be ignored, either.[17]

A distinction has been made between "exo-drift" (the transfer of spray out of the target area) and endo-drift, where the active ingredient (AI) in droplets falls into the target area, but does not reach the biological target. "Endo-drift" is volumetrically more significant and may therefore cause greater ecological contamination (e.g. where chemical pesticides pollute ground water).[18]

Since drift can be problematic, alternative weed-control technologies have evolved. A topical approach is integrated pest management, which involves fewer chemicals but often greater manual work.[19]

Dicamba drift edit

 
Chemical structure of Dicamba, 3,6-dichloro-2-methoxybenzoic acid

Dicamba drift is a particular problem, as has been recognized since at least 1979.[20] The effects have been noted for many crops: grapes, tomatoes, soybeans.[21][22] In 2017, Dicamba-resistant soybeans and cotton were approved for use in the US. This new technology worsened the drift problem because these farmers could use Dicamba more freely.[23]

Although already low in volatility, as discussed above, Dicamba can be made even less volatile by conversion to various salts. The approach entails treatment of Dicamba with amines, which form ammonium salts. These salts are described by their acronyms BAPMA-Dicamba and DGA-Dicamba. Although these salts are of lower volatility in laboratory tests, in the field the situation is more complicated, and drift remains a problem.[17]

Safety and society edit

Much public concern has led to research into spray drift, point source pollution (e.g. pesticides entering bodies of water following spillage of concentrate or rinsate) can also cause environmental harm.[24] Public concern for pesticide drift is not met with regulatory response.[18] Farm workers and communities surrounding large farms are at a high risk of coming in contact with pesticides. People in agricultural areas are at risk for increased genotoxicity because of pesticide drift.[25][26]

Insecticides sprayed on crop fields can also have detrimental effects on non-human lifeforms that are important to the surrounding ecosystems like bees and other insects.[27]

The seriousness of crop injury caused by dicamba drift is increasingly being recognized. For example, the American Soybean Association and various land-grant universities are cooperating in the race to find ways to preserve the usability of dicamba while ending drift injury.[28] Application of herbicides later in the season to protect herbicide-resistant genetically modified plants increases the risk of volatilisation as the temperature is higher and incorporation into the soil impractical.[7]

From 1998 to 2006, Environmental Health Perspectives found nearly 3,000 cases of pesticide drift; nearly half were workers on the fields treated with pesticides and 14% of cases were children under the age of 15.[29]

Health concerns edit

Bystander exposure describes the event when individuals unintentionally come in contact with airborne pesticides. Bystanders include workers working in an area separate to the pesticide application area, individuals living in the surrounding areas of an application area, or individuals passing by fields as they are being treated with a pesticide.[30]

 
Pesticide application

Different pesticides can affect different body systems, inflicting different symptoms.[31] Pesticides can have long-term negative health impacts, including cancer, lung diseases, fertility and reproductive problems, and neurodevelopmental issues in children, when exposure levels are high enough.[32]

 
Farmworkers, disproportionately of the Latinx community, experience pesticide drift frequently as a work hazard.

Regulations edit

In 2001, the United States Environmental Protection Agency published a guidance to "manufacturers, formulators, and registrants of pesticide products" (EPA 2001)[33] that stated the EPA's stance against pesticide drift as well as suggested product labelling practices.

To try and reduce pesticide drift, the EPA is a part of several initiatives. The EPA has routine pesticide risk assessments to check potential drift impact on farmworkers living near or on fields where crops are grown, farmworkers, water sources, and the environment.[34] The USDA and EPA are working together to examine new studies and how to improve scientific models to estimate the exposure, risk, and drift of pesticides.[34] The EPA is also working with pesticide manufacturers to ensure labels are easy to read, contain the correct application process and DRT for that specific pesticide.[35][36]

See also edit

References edit

  1. ^ "Community Guide to Recognizing and Reporting Pesticide Problems". CA Dept. of Pesticide Regulation. Retrieved 25 March 2011.
  2. ^ US EPA, OCSPP (1 August 2014). "Introduction to Pesticide Drift". www.epa.gov. Retrieved 14 March 2024.
  3. ^ Egan, J. Franklin; Barlow, Kathryn M.; Mortensen, David A. (2014). "A Meta-Analysis on the Effects of 2,4-D and Dicamba Drift on Soybean and Cotton". Weed Science. 62: 193–206. doi:10.1614/WS-D-13-00025.1. S2CID 85873934.
  4. ^ a b c Desmarteau, Dean A; Ritter, Amy M; Hendley, Paul; Guevara, Megan W (March 2020). "Impact of Wind Speed and Direction and Key Meteorological Parameters on Potential Pesticide Drift Mass Loadings from Sequential Aerial Applications". Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management. 16 (2): 197–210. Bibcode:2020IEAM...16..197D. doi:10.1002/ieam.4221. PMC 7064987. PMID 31589364.
  5. ^ Moeller, Daniel L. (March 2019). "Superfund, Pesticide Regulation, and Spray Drift: Rethinking the Federal Pesticide Regulatory Framework to Provide Alternative Remedies for Pesticide Damage". Iowa Law Review. 104 (3): 1523–1550. ProQuest 2212659406.
  6. ^ Brain, Richard; Goodwin, Greg; Abi-Akar, Farah; Lee, Brian; Rodgers, Carol; Flatt, Brian; Lynn, Abby; Kruger, Greg; Perkins, Dan (August 2019). "Winds of change, developing a non-target plant bioassay employing field-based pesticide drift exposure: A case study with atrazine". Science of the Total Environment. 678: 239–252. Bibcode:2019ScTEn.678..239B. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.04.411. PMID 31075591. S2CID 149455432.
  7. ^ a b Pollack, Andrew (25 April 2012). "Dow Corn, Resistant to a Weed Killer, Runs Into Opposition". The New York Times.
  8. ^ Menalled, Fabian; Dyer, William E. (19 April 2005). . Montana State University. Archived from the original on 21 December 2012. Retrieved 25 April 2012.
  9. ^ "Pesticide Drift – Pesticide Environmental Stewardship". Retrieved 23 November 2021.
  10. ^ Peters, Tom; Thostenson, Andrew; Nowatzki, John; Hofman, Vern; Wilson, James (July 2017). "Selecting Spray Nozzles to Reduce Particle Drift". NDSU Extension Service. AE1246.
  11. ^ Hewitt, A.J., Spray drift: impact of requirements to protect the environment, Crop Protection 19 (2000) p 623-627
  12. ^ Harrison, Jill Lindsey (2011). Pesticide Drift and the Pursuit of Environmental Justice. doi:10.7551/mitpress/9780262015981.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-262-01598-1.[page needed]
  13. ^ Appleby, Arnold P.; Müller, Franz; Carpy, Serge (15 June 2001). "Weed Control". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Weinheim, Germany: Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA. doi:10.1002/14356007.a28_165. ISBN 978-3-527-30673-2.
  14. ^ Hong, Se-Woon; Zhao, Lingying; Zhu, Heping (December 2018). "SAAS, a computer program for estimating pesticide spray efficiency and drift of air-assisted pesticide applications". Computers and Electronics in Agriculture. 155: 58–68. Bibcode:2018CEAgr.155...58H. doi:10.1016/j.compag.2018.09.031. S2CID 53791164.
  15. ^ Ucar, Tamer; Hall, Franklin R. (2001). "Windbreaks as a Pesticide Drift Mitigation Strategy: A Review". Pest Management Science. 57 (8): 663–675. doi:10.1002/ps.341.
  16. ^ US EPA, OCSPP (1 August 2014). "Introduction to Pesticide Drift". www.epa.gov. Retrieved 14 March 2024.
  17. ^ a b Bish, Mandy D.; Farrell, Shea T.; Lerch, Robert N.; Bradley, Kevin W. (2019). "Dicamba Losses to Air after Applications to Soybean under Stable and Nonstable Atmospheric Conditions". Journal of Environmental Quality. 48 (6): 1675–1682. doi:10.2134/jeq2019.05.0197. ISSN 0047-2425.
  18. ^ a b Harrison, Jill Lindsey (June 2006). "'Accidents' and invisibilities: Scaled discourse and the naturalization of regulatory neglect in California's pesticide drift conflict". Political Geography. 25 (5): 506–529. doi:10.1016/j.polgeo.2006.02.003.
  19. ^ Damos, Petros; Colomar, Lucía-Adriana; Ioriatti, Claudio (26 June 2015). "Integrated Fruit Production and Pest Management in Europe: The Apple Case Study and How Far We Are From the Original Concept?". Insects. 6 (3): 626–657. doi:10.3390/insects6030626. ISSN 2075-4450. PMC 4598656. PMID 26463407.
  20. ^ Behrens, Richard; Lueschen, W. E. (1979). "Dicamba Volatility". Weed Science. 27 (5): 486–493. doi:10.1017/S0043174500044453. ISSN 0043-1745.
  21. ^ Riter, Leah S.; Pai, Naresh; Vieira, Bruno C.; MacInnes, Alison; Reiss, Richard; Hapeman, Cathleen J.; Kruger, Greg R. (8 December 2021). "Conversations about the Future of Dicamba: The Science Behind Off-Target Movement". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 69 (48): 14435–14444. doi:10.1021/acs.jafc.1c05589. ISSN 0021-8561.
  22. ^ Britt E. Erickson (28 August 2022). "EPA Finds More Risks for the Pesticide Dicamba". Chemical & Engineering News: 13–13. doi:10.47287/cen-10030-polcon1. ISSN 1520-605X.
  23. ^ Egan, J. Franklin; Barlow, Kathryn M.; Mortensen, David A. (2014). "A Meta-Analysis on the Effects of 2,4-D and Dicamba Drift on Soybean and Cotton". Weed Science. 62 (1): 193–206. doi:10.1614/WS-D-13-00025.1. ISSN 0043-1745.
  24. ^ Spanoghe, P.; Maes, A.; Steurbaut, W. (2004). "Limitation of point source pesticide pollution: results of bioremediation system". Communications in Agricultural and Applied Biological Sciences. 69 (4): 719–732. PMID 15756863.
  25. ^ Doğanlar, Zeynep Banu; Doğanlar, Oğuzhan; Tozkir, Hilmi; Gökalp, Fulya Dilek; Doğan, Ayten; Yamaç, Ferah; Aşkın, Orhan Onur; Aktaş, Ümmühan Ersin (November 2018). "Nonoccupational Exposure of Agricultural Area Residents to Pesticides: Pesticide Accumulation and Evaluation of Genotoxicity". Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology. 75 (4): 530–544. Bibcode:2018ArECT..75..530D. doi:10.1007/s00244-018-0545-7. PMID 30003277. S2CID 51617217.
  26. ^ Suratman, Suratman; Edwards, John William; Babina, Kateryna (2015). "Organophosphate pesticides exposure among farmworkers: Pathways and risk of adverse health effects". Reviews on Environmental Health. 30 (1): 65–79. doi:10.1515/reveh-2014-0072. PMID 25741936. S2CID 38705916.
  27. ^ McEwen, F.L. (1977), "Pesticide Residues and Agricultural Workers—An Overview", Pesticide Management and Insecticide Resistance, Elsevier, pp. 37–49, doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-738650-8.50008-4, ISBN 9780127386508
  28. ^ "ASA Steps up Urgency in Search for Answers on Dicamba Damage". American Soybean Association. 25 September 2017. Retrieved 13 June 2021. This issue...
  29. ^ Lee, Soo-Jeong; Mehler, Louise; Beckman, John; Diebolt-Brown, Brienne; Prado, Joanne; Lackovic, Michelle; Waltz, Justin; Mulay, Prakash; Schwartz, Abby; Mitchell, Yvette; Moraga-McHaley, Stephanie; Gergely, Rita; Calvert, Geoffrey M. (August 2011). "Acute Pesticide Illnesses Associated with Off-Target Pesticide Drift from Agricultural Applications: 11 States, 1998–2006". Environmental Health Perspectives. 119 (8): 1162–1169. doi:10.1289/ehp.1002843. PMC 3237344. PMID 21642048.
  30. ^ Matthews, Graham (2016). Pesticides: Health, Safety and the Environment. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-118-97602-9.[page needed]
  31. ^ "Pesticide Drift Exposure and Your Health" (PDF). Minnesota Poison Control System. 30 March 2018. Retrieved 2 March 2023.
  32. ^ "Pesticide Drift Exposure and Your Health" (PDF). Minnesota Poison Control System. 20 March 2018. Retrieved 14 March 2024.
  33. ^ "PRN 2001-X Draft: Spray and Dust Drift Label Statements for Pesticide Products". U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 4 September 2014.
  34. ^ a b "What EPA is Doing to Reduce Pesticide Drift". U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1 August 2014.
  35. ^ "About the Drift Reduction Technology Program". U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
  36. ^ "Improving Labels to Reduce Pesticide Drift". U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1 August 2014.

Sources edit

  • "For Your Information: Spray Drift of Pesticides". U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1999. 735F99024.

Notes edit

  • Himel, C.M. (1974). "Analytical methodology in ULV". Pesticide application by ULV methods. British Crop Protection Council Monograph No. 11. pp. 112–119. OCLC 16299124.
  • Matthews G.A. (2006) Pesticides: Health, Safety and the Environment Blackwell, Oxford

External links edit

  • EarthJustice - health impacts of pesticide drift in rural farming community
  • Pesticide Action Network North America (PANNA)- "Advancing alternatives to pesticides worldwide"
  • International Pesticide Application Research Centre (IPARC)

January 01, 1970
pesticide, drift, also, known, spray, drift, refers, unintentional, diffusion, pesticides, toward, nontarget, species, most, negative, effects, pesticide, application, drift, damage, human, health, environment, crops, together, with, runoff, leaching, drift, m. Pesticide drift also known as spray drift refers to the unintentional diffusion of pesticides toward nontarget species It is one of the most negative effects of pesticide application Drift can damage human health environment and crops 1 2 Together with runoff and leaching drift is a mechanism for agricultural pollution 3 Some drift results from contamination of sprayer tanks 4 Possible sinks of pesticide drift caused environmental contamination Farmers struggle to minimize pesticide drift and remain productive 5 Research continues on developing pesticides that are more selective 6 but the current pesticides have been highly optimized Contents 1 Pesticide application 1 1 Dicamba drift 2 Safety and society 2 1 Health concerns 2 2 Regulations 3 See also 4 References 4 1 Sources 5 Notes 6 External linksPesticide application editMain article pesticide application Pesticides are commonly applied by the use of mechanical sprayers Sprayers convert a pesticide formulation often consisting of a mixture of water the pesticide and other components adjuvants for example into droplets which are applied to the crop Ideally the pesticide droplets attach evenly to the targeted crop Because components of the mist are highly mobile spray drift can occur especially for smaller droplets Some pesticides mists are visible appearing cloud like while others can be invisible and odorless 7 8 The quality of sprayer equipment affects drift problems 9 10 Sprayer tanks contaminated with another herbicide are one source of drift 4 With placement localised spraying of broad spectrum pesticides considerable efforts have been made to quantify and control spray drift from hydraulic nozzles 11 Conversely wind drift is also an efficient mechanism for moving droplets of an appropriate size range to their targets over a wide area with ultra low volume ULV spraying 12 Drift retardants are compounds added to the spray mixture to suppress pesticide drift A typical retardant is polyacrylamide These polymers suppress the formation of tiny droplets 13 Weather conditions and timing affect the drift problem 4 The efficiency of the spray and reach of the spray drift can be computed 14 In addition to weather windbreaks can mitigate the effects of drift 15 Other ways to mitigate spray drift is to apply the pesticide directly to the desired treatment area as well as paying attention to where surface waters gutters drainage ditches and storm drains are located This is to make sure that the pesticide is applied in a way that prevents it from getting in to these spaces 16 Most herbicides are organic compounds of low volatility unlike fumigants which are usually gases Several are salts and others have boiling points above 100 C Dicamba is a solid that melts at 114 C Thus drift often entails mobilization of droplets which can be very small The contribution from their volatility low as they are cannot be ignored either 17 A distinction has been made between exo drift the transfer of spray out of the target area and endo drift where the active ingredient AI in droplets falls into the target area but does not reach the biological target Endo drift is volumetrically more significant and may therefore cause greater ecological contamination e g where chemical pesticides pollute ground water 18 Since drift can be problematic alternative weed control technologies have evolved A topical approach is integrated pest management which involves fewer chemicals but often greater manual work 19 Dicamba drift edit nbsp Chemical structure of Dicamba 3 6 dichloro 2 methoxybenzoic acid Dicamba drift is a particular problem as has been recognized since at least 1979 20 The effects have been noted for many crops grapes tomatoes soybeans 21 22 In 2017 Dicamba resistant soybeans and cotton were approved for use in the US This new technology worsened the drift problem because these farmers could use Dicamba more freely 23 Although already low in volatility as discussed above Dicamba can be made even less volatile by conversion to various salts The approach entails treatment of Dicamba with amines which form ammonium salts These salts are described by their acronyms BAPMA Dicamba and DGA Dicamba Although these salts are of lower volatility in laboratory tests in the field the situation is more complicated and drift remains a problem 17 Safety and society editMuch public concern has led to research into spray drift point source pollution e g pesticides entering bodies of water following spillage of concentrate or rinsate can also cause environmental harm 24 Public concern for pesticide drift is not met with regulatory response 18 Farm workers and communities surrounding large farms are at a high risk of coming in contact with pesticides People in agricultural areas are at risk for increased genotoxicity because of pesticide drift 25 26 Insecticides sprayed on crop fields can also have detrimental effects on non human lifeforms that are important to the surrounding ecosystems like bees and other insects 27 The seriousness of crop injury caused by dicamba drift is increasingly being recognized For example the American Soybean Association and various land grant universities are cooperating in the race to find ways to preserve the usability of dicamba while ending drift injury 28 Application of herbicides later in the season to protect herbicide resistant genetically modified plants increases the risk of volatilisation as the temperature is higher and incorporation into the soil impractical 7 From 1998 to 2006 Environmental Health Perspectives found nearly 3 000 cases of pesticide drift nearly half were workers on the fields treated with pesticides and 14 of cases were children under the age of 15 29 Health concerns edit Bystander exposure describes the event when individuals unintentionally come in contact with airborne pesticides Bystanders include workers working in an area separate to the pesticide application area individuals living in the surrounding areas of an application area or individuals passing by fields as they are being treated with a pesticide 30 nbsp Pesticide application Different pesticides can affect different body systems inflicting different symptoms 31 Pesticides can have long term negative health impacts including cancer lung diseases fertility and reproductive problems and neurodevelopmental issues in children when exposure levels are high enough 32 nbsp Farmworkers disproportionately of the Latinx community experience pesticide drift frequently as a work hazard Regulations edit In 2001 the United States Environmental Protection Agency published a guidance to manufacturers formulators and registrants of pesticide products EPA 2001 33 that stated the EPA s stance against pesticide drift as well as suggested product labelling practices To try and reduce pesticide drift the EPA is a part of several initiatives The EPA has routine pesticide risk assessments to check potential drift impact on farmworkers living near or on fields where crops are grown farmworkers water sources and the environment 34 The USDA and EPA are working together to examine new studies and how to improve scientific models to estimate the exposure risk and drift of pesticides 34 The EPA is also working with pesticide manufacturers to ensure labels are easy to read contain the correct application process and DRT for that specific pesticide 35 36 See also editAerial application Agricultural runoff Environmental impact of agriculture Environmental protection Nonpoint source pollutionReferences edit Community Guide to Recognizing and Reporting Pesticide Problems CA Dept of Pesticide Regulation Retrieved 25 March 2011 US EPA OCSPP 1 August 2014 Introduction to Pesticide Drift www epa gov Retrieved 14 March 2024 Egan J Franklin Barlow Kathryn M Mortensen David A 2014 A Meta Analysis on the Effects of 2 4 D and Dicamba Drift on Soybean and Cotton Weed Science 62 193 206 doi 10 1614 WS D 13 00025 1 S2CID 85873934 a b c Desmarteau Dean A Ritter Amy M Hendley Paul Guevara Megan W March 2020 Impact of Wind Speed and Direction and Key Meteorological Parameters on Potential Pesticide Drift Mass Loadings from Sequential Aerial Applications Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management 16 2 197 210 Bibcode 2020IEAM 16 197D doi 10 1002 ieam 4221 PMC 7064987 PMID 31589364 Moeller Daniel L March 2019 Superfund Pesticide Regulation and Spray Drift Rethinking the Federal Pesticide Regulatory Framework to Provide Alternative Remedies for Pesticide Damage Iowa Law Review 104 3 1523 1550 ProQuest 2212659406 Brain Richard Goodwin Greg Abi Akar Farah Lee Brian Rodgers Carol Flatt Brian Lynn Abby Kruger Greg Perkins Dan August 2019 Winds of change developing a non target plant bioassay employing field based pesticide drift exposure A case study with atrazine Science of the Total Environment 678 239 252 Bibcode 2019ScTEn 678 239B doi 10 1016 j scitotenv 2019 04 411 PMID 31075591 S2CID 149455432 a b Pollack Andrew 25 April 2012 Dow Corn Resistant to a Weed Killer Runs Into Opposition The New York Times Menalled Fabian Dyer William E 19 April 2005 Getting the Most from Soil Applied Herbicides Montana State University Archived from the original on 21 December 2012 Retrieved 25 April 2012 Pesticide Drift Pesticide Environmental Stewardship Retrieved 23 November 2021 Peters Tom Thostenson Andrew Nowatzki John Hofman Vern Wilson James July 2017 Selecting Spray Nozzles to Reduce Particle Drift NDSU Extension Service AE1246 Hewitt A J Spray drift impact of requirements to protect the environment Crop Protection 19 2000 p 623 627 Harrison Jill Lindsey 2011 Pesticide Drift and the Pursuit of Environmental Justice doi 10 7551 mitpress 9780262015981 001 0001 ISBN 978 0 262 01598 1 page needed Appleby Arnold P Muller Franz Carpy Serge 15 June 2001 Weed Control Ullmann s Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry Weinheim Germany Wiley VCH Verlag GmbH amp Co KGaA doi 10 1002 14356007 a28 165 ISBN 978 3 527 30673 2 Hong Se Woon Zhao Lingying Zhu Heping December 2018 SAAS a computer program for estimating pesticide spray efficiency and drift of air assisted pesticide applications Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 155 58 68 Bibcode 2018CEAgr 155 58H doi 10 1016 j compag 2018 09 031 S2CID 53791164 Ucar Tamer Hall Franklin R 2001 Windbreaks as a Pesticide Drift Mitigation Strategy A Review Pest Management Science 57 8 663 675 doi 10 1002 ps 341 US EPA OCSPP 1 August 2014 Introduction to Pesticide Drift www epa gov Retrieved 14 March 2024 a b Bish Mandy D Farrell Shea T Lerch Robert N Bradley Kevin W 2019 Dicamba Losses to Air after Applications to Soybean under Stable and Nonstable Atmospheric Conditions Journal of Environmental Quality 48 6 1675 1682 doi 10 2134 jeq2019 05 0197 ISSN 0047 2425 a b Harrison Jill Lindsey June 2006 Accidents and invisibilities Scaled discourse and the naturalization of regulatory neglect in California s pesticide drift conflict Political Geography 25 5 506 529 doi 10 1016 j polgeo 2006 02 003 Damos Petros Colomar Lucia Adriana Ioriatti Claudio 26 June 2015 Integrated Fruit Production and Pest Management in Europe The Apple Case Study and How Far We Are From the Original Concept Insects 6 3 626 657 doi 10 3390 insects6030626 ISSN 2075 4450 PMC 4598656 PMID 26463407 Behrens Richard Lueschen W E 1979 Dicamba Volatility Weed Science 27 5 486 493 doi 10 1017 S0043174500044453 ISSN 0043 1745 Riter Leah S Pai Naresh Vieira Bruno C MacInnes Alison Reiss Richard Hapeman Cathleen J Kruger Greg R 8 December 2021 Conversations about the Future of Dicamba The Science Behind Off Target Movement Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 69 48 14435 14444 doi 10 1021 acs jafc 1c05589 ISSN 0021 8561 Britt E Erickson 28 August 2022 EPA Finds More Risks for the Pesticide Dicamba Chemical amp Engineering News 13 13 doi 10 47287 cen 10030 polcon1 ISSN 1520 605X Egan J Franklin Barlow Kathryn M Mortensen David A 2014 A Meta Analysis on the Effects of 2 4 D and Dicamba Drift on Soybean and Cotton Weed Science 62 1 193 206 doi 10 1614 WS D 13 00025 1 ISSN 0043 1745 Spanoghe P Maes A Steurbaut W 2004 Limitation of point source pesticide pollution results of bioremediation system Communications in Agricultural and Applied Biological Sciences 69 4 719 732 PMID 15756863 Doganlar Zeynep Banu Doganlar Oguzhan Tozkir Hilmi Gokalp Fulya Dilek Dogan Ayten Yamac Ferah Askin Orhan Onur Aktas Ummuhan Ersin November 2018 Nonoccupational Exposure of Agricultural Area Residents to Pesticides Pesticide Accumulation and Evaluation of Genotoxicity Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 75 4 530 544 Bibcode 2018ArECT 75 530D doi 10 1007 s00244 018 0545 7 PMID 30003277 S2CID 51617217 Suratman Suratman Edwards John William Babina Kateryna 2015 Organophosphate pesticides exposure among farmworkers Pathways and risk of adverse health effects Reviews on Environmental Health 30 1 65 79 doi 10 1515 reveh 2014 0072 PMID 25741936 S2CID 38705916 McEwen F L 1977 Pesticide Residues and Agricultural Workers An Overview Pesticide Management and Insecticide Resistance Elsevier pp 37 49 doi 10 1016 b978 0 12 738650 8 50008 4 ISBN 9780127386508 ASA Steps up Urgency in Search for Answers on Dicamba Damage American Soybean Association 25 September 2017 Retrieved 13 June 2021 This issue Lee Soo Jeong Mehler Louise Beckman John Diebolt Brown Brienne Prado Joanne Lackovic Michelle Waltz Justin Mulay Prakash Schwartz Abby Mitchell Yvette Moraga McHaley Stephanie Gergely Rita Calvert Geoffrey M August 2011 Acute Pesticide Illnesses Associated with Off Target Pesticide Drift from Agricultural Applications 11 States 1998 2006 Environmental Health Perspectives 119 8 1162 1169 doi 10 1289 ehp 1002843 PMC 3237344 PMID 21642048 Matthews Graham 2016 Pesticides Health Safety and the Environment John Wiley amp Sons ISBN 978 1 118 97602 9 page needed Pesticide Drift Exposure and Your Health PDF Minnesota Poison Control System 30 March 2018 Retrieved 2 March 2023 Pesticide Drift Exposure and Your Health PDF Minnesota Poison Control System 20 March 2018 Retrieved 14 March 2024 PRN 2001 X Draft Spray and Dust Drift Label Statements for Pesticide Products U S Environmental Protection Agency 4 September 2014 a b What EPA is Doing to Reduce Pesticide Drift U S Environmental Protection Agency 1 August 2014 About the Drift Reduction Technology Program U S Environmental Protection Agency Improving Labels to Reduce Pesticide Drift U S Environmental Protection Agency 1 August 2014 Sources edit For Your Information Spray Drift of Pesticides U S Environmental Protection Agency 1999 735F99024 Notes editHimel C M 1974 Analytical methodology in ULV Pesticide application by ULV methods British Crop Protection Council Monograph No 11 pp 112 119 OCLC 16299124 Matthews G A 2006 Pesticides Health Safety and the Environment Blackwell OxfordExternal links editEarthJustice health impacts of pesticide drift in rural farming community Pesticide Action Network North America PANNA Advancing alternatives to pesticides worldwide International Pesticide Application Research Centre IPARC Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Pesticide drift amp oldid 1213748218, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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