Fourth voyage of Columbus

The fourth voyage of Columbus was a Spanish maritime expedition in 1502–1504 to the western Caribbean Sea lead by Christopher Columbus. The voyage, Columbus's last, failed to find a western maritime route to the Far East, returned relatively little profit, and resulted in the loss of many crew men, all the fleet's ships, and a year-long marooning in Jamaica. It is deemed the first non-Amerindian discovery of mainland Middle America, and one of the first non-Amerindian, non-Norse discoveries of continental North America.^{[n 1]}

Fourth voyage of Columbus

Landing of Columbus / 1847 oil on canvas by J Vanderlyn / via Commons
Country	Spain
Leader	Christopher Columbus
Start	Cádiz 6–11 May 1502 (1502-05)
End	Sanlúcar de Barrameda 7 November 1504 (1504-11-07)
Goal	To discover a western maritime passage to the Far East
Ships	Capitana Santiago Gallego Vizcaíno
Crew	138–152 men / excl impressed Amerindians
Fatalities	33–34 men / excl Amerindian deaths
Achievements	First non-Amerindian discovery of mainland Middle America First crossing of Caribbean Sea First non-Amerindian survey of eastern Bay of Honduras First survey of Caribbean waters off lower Central America First non-Amerindian contact with Maya civilisation / possibly
Route
Caribbean route / 2011 map by K Pickering / via Commons

Prelude

Upon being released from prison on 17 December 1500, Columbus set about planning what he deemed would be 'his most significant, most profitable expedition yet.'^[1] The 1497 discovery of an eastern maritime passage to 'the opulent East,' by Vasco de Gama, had steeled Columbus's determination to find a shorter, more direct western route.^[2] Consequently, on 26 February 1502, Columbus requested licence to sail on a fourth voyage.^[2] Passage to the East, he reasoned, might lay farther west than anyone had prior sailed.^[2] The project being deemed viable and desireable, the Catholic Monarchs granted authorisation on 14 March.^[3] The royal licence approved disbursement of ten thousand gold pesos for fitting out a fleet, appointed Francisco de Porras as comptroller of spoils, and Diego de Porras as auditor and Crown representative, and forbid the taking of slaves, among other terms and conditions.^[4] Columbus enlisted Diego Tristán to captain the flagship, La Capitana, Francisco de Porras for Santiago de Palos, Pedro de Terreros for El Gallego, and Bartolomeo Fieschi for Vizcaíno.^[4] One hundred and forty men and boys were reportedly recruited to man the fleet.^[4] By 28 April, when all preparations had been finalised, Columbus had spent 2,259,239 maravedis on wages, rent, equipment, and provisions.^[5]

Voyage

Departure

The Columbian fleet set sail on 9 May 1502.^[4] After a brief detour to Arzila, Morocco, which Ferdinand II had requested, the fleet reached Hierro, Canary Islands, where they reprovisioned.^[4] The fleet reached Martinique in 21 days, the fastest Atlantic crossing of Columbus's career.^[4]

Antilles

Crew well-rested and ships repaired, the fleet departed the Lesser Antilles due west.^[4] Though his commission forbade landing at Hispaniola at this stage of the voyage, Columbus anchored just off the Ozama River by the end of June, as he wished to request permission to enter the port of Santo Domingo so as to shelter therein from a hurricane he feared was brewing.^[4] The petition was denied, but the Admiral was shortly proven right by the landing of a 'massive hurricane,' which the fleet weathered reasonably well, possibly off the Jaina River.^[4] After repairing the ships, the fleet set off downwind from Hispaniola on 15 July.^[6] After a brief stay at Isle of Pines, Cuba, the ships picked up stiff north-easterlies and set of due southwest.^[7]

Honduras

 

Sea coast village / 1931 lithograph by A Morris / via HathiTrust

On 30 July, a crewmate sighted Bonacca.^[7] Notably, upon anchoring off the island, a richly-laden merchant's canoe approached the fleet.^[7] Noting their goods were 'all of a quality superior to what they had seen before,' the Spaniards forced a trade, buying ceramics, dyed cotton textiles, flint-edged swords, and copper hatchets with 'the usual baubles.'^[7] As the vessel is thought to have hailed from some nearby port in the Maya Lowlands, the event is deemed by some scholars the first instance of contact between Maya and non-Amerindian peoples.^{[8][n 2]}

After impressing the canoe's elderly skipper, the fleet anchored in the lee of Cape Honduras, 'where they made the first landing on the mainland of North America.'^[7] They next anchored off the Romano River, due east, where 'Columbus took formal possession' of the newly discovered lands on 17 August.^[7] The weather, which beset them with strong headwinds and fierce rain, prolonged the fleet's journey southeastwards to Cape Gracias a Dios, so christened because when they rounded it on 14 September, the weather improved noticeably.^[7]

Nicaragua

On 16 September, two days after having turned south at Cape Gracias a Dios, the fleet anchored just off a large estuary, 'probably [that of] the Rio Grande,' with surf so strong it swamped one of the boats, leading to the death by drowning of two crewmates.^[7]

Costa Rica

On 25 September, the fleet moored off Puerto Limón, where they attempted to trade with the Talamancan locals, two of whom were impressed to help with Castilian–Amerindian translation.^[7]

Panama

On 5 October, the fleet entered Almirante Bay, where Columbus 'found the first sign of fine gold, which an [Amerindian man] wore like a large medal on his breast.'^[7] They then anchored in the Chiriqui Lagoon, which the Talamancan interpreters informed was a nine-day's march from Ciguare, a rich land which lay on another ocean.^[7] Columbus took Ciguare to mean Ciamba, but nonetheless seems to have given up his search for a maritime passage to the East, having had no luck so far, and instead focussed on trading for gold, fine specimens of which the new-found peoples had.^[7]

The ships put out on 17 October, due southeast where they sighted Veragua, a local village which Amerindian guides noted for its gold production.^[7] A storm then blew the ships east to Porto Bello, and farther east to Nombre de Dios, where the crew dropped anchors to repair the fleet.^[9] To their misfortune, the weather only worsened, tempestuous winds and currents battering the ships back and forth between Porto Bello and the Chagres River.^[10] Conditions finally improved on 3 January 1503, allowing the fleet to leave for the Belén River mouth, where they anchored some days later.^[10]

At this point, Columbus lead exploratory parties up the river, while his brother, Bartholomew, led parties up the Veragua River.^[10] In February, 'the Spanish put up ten or twelve houses on the west bank of the river [Belén],' thereby founding Santa María de Belén.^[10] This soon proved an unwelcome development among the locals, however, with whom relations quickly soured to the point of military engagement.^[10] Seeking to stave off an attack, Columbus authorised the abduction of the local cacique Quibián, and his family and principal subordinates.^[10] The pre-emptive strike, led by Bartholomew and eighty men, proved both successful and profitable, netting them 'a good deal of gold.'^[10] The cacique soon managed to escape however, and responded with a force of four hundred warriors.^[10] Though the crew managed to repel the attack, they suffered twelve fatal and several non-fatal casualties.^[11] Growing convinced of Santa María de Belén's untenable situation, Columbus deemed it prudent to abandon the colonial project.^[12] Consequently, on 16 April, all ships but El Gallego set sail due east, with Diego Méndez succeeding the recently deceased Diego Tristán as captain of the flagship.^[12] After scuttling the newly-unseaworthy Vizcaíno at Porto Bello, the now-halved fleet reached a headland, probably Punta de Mosquito, and set off northwards on 1 May.^[12]

Antilles

 

L'éclipse de lune de Christophe Colomb / 1879 sketch by C Flammarion / via Commons

The fleet, reduced now to La Capitana and Santiago de Palos, both already in a sorry state, anchored at the Jardín de la Reina, Cuba, on 12 May.^[12] That week proved especially disastrous for the leaky ships, and taxing for the crew.^[12] With 'ships pierced by borers worse than a honeycomb, the people spiritless and desperate,' they carried on to Jamaica, reaching St Ann's Bay on 25 June.^[12] Columbus deeming the fleet unseaworthy, he had both ships run ashore and the 116 crew mates marooned for what would prove to be a year-long odyssey.^{[12][n 3]}

Columbus set about securing a vessel to send for rescue. That July, he enlisted his captains Méndez and Fieschi, twelve crew mates, and twenty Taino rowers to attempt the daring crossing of the Jamaica Channel aboard dugout canoes in two parties.^[12] In three days' time, both canoes reached Navassa Island, where several rowers died or fell very ill of dehydration.^[12] Despite these odds, the survivors made the rest of the crossing in one day's time.^[12] The captains were detained by the governor at Jaraguá, and did not reach Santo Domingo until March 1504.^[12] There, the governor denied them use of a small caravel to rescue their mates, further prolonging their marooning.^[13]

Meanwhile, back in Jamaica, the stranded crew's discontent festered until 2 January 1504, when Francisco and Diego de Porras led a mutiny of 48 men.^[14] The rebels fled ashore towards the eastern end of the island, to the great misfortune of Amerindian settlements they passed.^[14] Over the next month, they would attempt the Channel crossing twice, but fail both times, and so return to St Ann's Bay by the end of March, where, after a skirmish, the Porras brothers would be imprisoned, and their mutineers pardoned.^[14] Coincidentally, Amerindian attitudes towards the St Ann's party grew strained, leading to markedly fewer provisions.^[14] This trend the Admiral rather ingeniously reverted during the lunar eclipse of 29 February, which he convinced the caciques was a sign of divine disapproval of their recent reticence.^[14]

Finally, on 29 June, a rescue caravel from Santo Domingo arrived at St Ann's Bay.^[14] The rescued crew reached that port on 13 August.^[14]

Return

On 12 September, Columbus, his son, his brother, and 22 crew mates departed Santo Domingo for Sanlúcar de Barrameda, which they reached on 7 November.^[14]

Aftermath

Columbus's hopes to the contrary, this expedition proved to be 'the least profitable and most dangerous of all his voyages,' the explorer having found no passage to the East, returned miserly profits to Castile, lost many men and all four ships, and suffered a year's stranding in Jamaica.^[2] The post-voyage debriefing of the Catholic Monarchs was precluded by the death of Isabella I on 26 November 1504.^[15] Instead, Columbus presented the voyage's negative results only to Ferdinand II that December in Segovia, with the latter proving less than thrilled, as Columbus reportedly 'received nothing' from the King.^[16]

Legacy

 

Bronze of Columbus and Amerindian girl in Colón, Panama / in 1907 T Robinson memoir / via IA

In scholarship

First-hand accounts of the voyage by Columbus, his son Ferdinand, the Porras brothers, Pedro de Ledesma, and Diego Méndez remain extant.^[17] Sixteenth century second-hand accounts include one by Bartolomé de las Casas, and another by Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo.^[18] The itineraries described in these sources, however, do not perfectly concur, resulting in discrepancies within the literature.^{[19][n 4]}

In culture

The Capitulations of Santa Fe secured for Columbus and his heirs a number of rights and privileges attaching to lands discovered and formally possessed by him.^[20] As Columbus discovered and formally possessed mainland territory during his fourth voyage, rather than insular lands, conflict arose regarding the extent of mainland to which the Capitulations rights and privileges attached.^[21] In 1508, this resulted in the protracted Pleitos Colombinos, wherein Columbus's heir, Diego Columbus, sued for recognition of his inherited rights and privileges over lands discovered and possessed, claiming rights and privileges over large tracts of the Central American subcontinent by dint of Columbus's discoveries and acts of formal possession during his fourth voyage.^[22]

Tables

Ships

Fleet of the fourth voyage of Columbus.^{[n 5]}

	Capitana	Santiago	Gallego	Vizcaíno
Variant name	Gracia de Dios	Santiago de Palos	Gallega	Vizcaína
Variant name	Santa María	Bermuda	–	–
Class	carabela	carabela	navío	navío
Crew	50	37	27	25
Commissioned	4 Mar 1502	4 Mar 1502	4 Mar 1502	4 Mar 1502
Decommissioned	12 Aug 1503	23 Jul 1503	15 Apr 1503	23 Apr 1503
Captain	Diego Tristán	Francisco de Porras	Pedro de Terreros	Bartolomé de Fiesco
Pilot	Juan Sánchez	–	–	–
Maestre	Ambrosio Sánchez	Francisco Bermúdez	Quintero de Algruta	–
Contramaestre	Antón Donato	Pedro Gómez	Alonso Remón	Martín de Fuenterrabia
Proprietor	Mateo Sánchez	–	Alonso Cerrajero	Juan de Orquiva
Notable crew	Ferdinand Columbus	Bartholomew Columbus	–	Pedro de Ledesma
Notable crew	–	Andrea Columbus	–	–
Notable crew	–	Diego de Porras	–	–
Notable crew	–	Diego Méndez	–	–
Notable crew	Christopher Columbus · Antón de Alaminas
Notes	–	cf ^[n 6]	–	cf ^[n 7]

Itinerary

Itinerary of the fourth voyage of Columbus.^{[n 8]}

Date^<	Date^>	Place	Event	Notes
26 Feb 1502	26 Feb 1502	–	Commission requested	–
4 Mar 1502	4 Mar 1502	Seville	Ships commissioned	–
14 Mar 1502	14 Mar 1502	Valencia de la Torre	Commission granted	–
3 Apr 1502	3 Apr 1502	Seville	Departure from	–
6 May 1502	11 May 1502	Cádiz	Departure from	–
20 May 1502	20 May 1502	Gran Canaria	Arrival at	–
25 May 1502	26 May 1502	Hierro	Departure from	–
15 Jun 1502	16 Jun 1502	Martinique	Arrival at	–
29 Jun 1502	29 Jun 1502	Hispaniola	Arrival at	–
30 Jun 1502	30 Jun 1502	Hispaniola	Hurricane	–
3 Jul 1502	3 Jul 1502	Ocoa Bay	Arrival at	–
14 Jul 1502	15 Jul 1502	Ocoa Bay	Departure from	–
30 Jul 1502	30 Jul 1502	Bonacca	Arrival at	–
14 Aug 1502	17 Aug 1502	Romano River	Arrival at	–
14 Sep 1502	14 Sep 1502	Cape Gracias a Dios	Rounding of	–
16 Sep 1502	16 Sep 1502	Río Grande	Arrival at	–
25 Sep 1502	25 Sep 1502	Puerto Limón	Arrival at	–
5 Oct 1502	5 Oct 1502	Almirante Bay	Arrival at	–
6 Oct 1502	6 Oct 1502	Chiriqui Lagoon	Arrival at	–
16 Oct 1502	17 Oct 1502	Chiriqui Lagoon	Departure from	–
2 Nov 1502	2 Nov 1502	Porto Bello	Arrival at	–
10 Nov 1502	10 Nov 1502	Nombre de Dios Bay	Arrival at	–
23 Nov 1502	23 Nov 1502	Nombre de Dios Bay	Departure from	–
17 Dec 1502	17 Dec 1502	Limón Bay	Arrival at	–
25 Dec 1502	26 Dec 1502	Limón Bay	Arrival at	–
3 Jan 1503	3 Jan 1503	Limón Bay	Departure from	–
6 Jan 1503	6 Jan 1503	Belén River	Arrival at	–
6 Feb 1503	6 Feb 1503	Belén River	Party despatched	cf ^[n 9]
16 Apr 1503	16 Apr 1503	Belén River	Departure from	–
1 May 1503	1 May 1503	–	Departure from	–
12 May 1503	12 May 1503	Jardín de la Reina	Arrival at	–
20 May 1503	20 May 1503	Jardín de la Reina	Departure from	–
23 Jun 1503	25 Jun 1503	St Ann's Bay	Arrival at	–
2 Jan 1504	2 Jan 1504	St Ann's Bay	Mutiny start	–
29 Feb 1504	29 Feb 1504	St Ann's Bay	Lunar eclipse	–
19 May 1504	20 May 1504	St Ann's Bay	Mutiny end	–
28 Jun 1504	29 Jun 1504	St Ann's Bay	Departure from	–
3 Aug 1504	13 Aug 1504	Santo Domingo	Arrival at	–
12 Sep 1504	12 Sep 1504	Santo Domingo	Departure from	–
7 Nov 1504	7 Nov 1504	Sanlúcar de Barrameda	Arrival at	–

Accounts

Itineraries as per select accounts the fourth voyage of Columbus.^{[n 10]}

Place	Porras	Columbus^p	Columbus^f	Ledesma	Casas	Notes
–	Martininó	Dominica	Martininó	–	–	–
–	–	–	Dominica	–	–	–
–	–	–	Santa Cruz	–	–	–
–	–	–	San Juan	–	–	–
Hispaniola	Española	Española	Española	–	Española	–
–	Jamaica	Jamaica	Los Pozos	–	Isletas	cf ^[n 11]
–	Jardín de la Reina	Las Figueras	–	–	Jardín de la Reina	–
Guanaja	Guanajas	–	Guanaja	Guanasa	Isla Guanaja / isla de Pinos	cf ^[n 12]
–	–	–	–	–	Cyguare	–
Cape Honduras	Punta Caxinas	–	Punta Cajinas	–	Punta Caxinas	cf ^[n 13]
Romano River	Río Posysyón	–	Golfo de Honduras	Uiuya	–	cf ^[n 14]
Cape Gracias a Dios	Cabo Gracias a Dios	Cabo Gracias a Dios	Cabo Gracias a Dios	Cabo Gracias a Dios	Cabo Gracias a Dios	–
–	–	–	Provincia de Veragua	–	–	–
–	–	–	Nombre de Dios	–	–	–
–	Río del Desastre	–	Río de la Desgracia	–	Río del Desastre	–
–	Cabo de Toas	–	–	–	–	cf ^[n 15]
–	Provincia del Cariay	Cariay	Isla Quiribirí / Cariay	Provincia de Cariay	Isla Quiribirí / Cariari o Huerta	–
–	Cerabaró	Çarabaru	Canal Cerabaró	Provincia de Carábaru	Carabaró	–
–	Aburemá	–	Canal Aburemá	–	Aburemá	–
–	Río Guiga	–	Río Guiga	–	–	–
–	Ysla del Escudo	–	–	–	–	cf ^[n 16]
–	–	–	Río Cateba	Provincia de Catiba	Río Catiba	–
–	–	–	Cobraba	–	–	–
–	–	–	Veragua / Hurirá	Provincia de Urirá	Veragua / Hurirá	–
–	–	–	Cubija	–	Cubija	–
–	Punta de Prados	–	–	–	–	cf ^[n 17]
–	Provincia de Cobraba	–	–	–	–	–
Porto Bello	–	Belpuerto	Portobelo	–	Puerto Belo	cf ^[n 18]
–	–	–	Islas Nombre de Dios	–	Puerto Nombre de Dios	–
Bastimentos	Puerto de Bastimentos	Puerto de Bastimentos	Puerto de Bastimentos	–	Puerto de Bastimentos	–
–	–	–	–	–	Tierra Guiga	–
–	Puerto Retrete	Puerto Retrete	Puerto Retrete	–	Puerto Retrete	–
–	–	–	Portobelo	–	–	–
–	–	–	Canal Huiva	–	–	–
–	N Ebra	–	Río Yebra	–	Río Yebra	–
Limón Bay	–	Puerto Gordo	–	–	–	cf ^[n 19]
–	Río Beragua	Beragua o Huerta	Río Beragua / Hurirá	Río Veragua	Río Veragua	–
–	–	Puerto	Cobraba	–	–	–
–	–	–	Zobraba	–	–	–
–	–	–	Río Cateba	–	–	–
–	–	Beragua	–	–	–	–
–	St M^a de Belén	Belén	Río Belén	–	–	–
–	–	Belporto	Portobelo	–	Belporto	–
–	–	–	Puerto Retrete	Puerto Retrete	–	–
–	–	–	Islas Barbas	Islas Barvas	Islas Barbas	–
–	–	–	Punta Mármol	–	Punta Cartagena	–
–	–	–	Islas Tortugas	–	Islas Tortugas	–
–	Juana	Mango	Jardín de la Reina	Ysla de Cuba	Jardín de la Reina	–
Jamaica	Jamaica	Jamaica	Jamaica	–	Jamaica	–

See also

• Cabot expeditions, pre-1502 English voyages to mainland Northern America
• Pinzón–Solís voyage, 1508–1509 Spanish voyage partly tracking the fourth voyage of Columbus
• Magellan expedition, 1519–1522 Spanish voyage which finally discovered a western passage to the East

Notes and references

Explanatory footnotes

1. Dubbed El Alto Viaje by Columbus (Bedini 2000, p. 720). In infobox, start per Davidson 1997, p. 451; end per Polo Martín 2015, p. 146, Bedini 2000, p. 727; goal per Polo Martín 2015, p. 144, Davidson 1997, p. 450; ships per Bedini 2000, p. 721; crew per León Guerrero 2005, pp. 22, 31–32, Gil 2003, p. 614, Bedini 2000, p. 721; fatalities per León Guerrero 2005, pp. 24–32; achievements per Reichert 2017, p. 13, Hofman & Keehnen 2019, p. 239, Fernández-Armesto 1991, pp. 164, 164. Note, Bay of Honduras bound by a line running from Cape Catoche to Cape Gracias a Dios per Reichert 2017, p. 11.
2. The nearest major maritime port was Nito, in Manche Chol or Toquegua polities, while the nearest maritime post simpliciter was Masca, in Toquegua. Alternatively, the merchants 'may have been part of a high culture akin to the Mayan [Maya]' (Bedini 2000, p. 724). Candidates for such group include (i) the fairly Mayanised but as-yet-unidentified people of the Lower Ulua Valley, (ii) the not-so-fairly Mayanised Paya people of the Bay Islands and abutting mainland (Healy & Savage 2021, pp. 2–3, Ikäheimo, Salmi & Äikäs 2015, pp. 160, 167–168, Sheptak 2013, pp. 39, 54–57, 62).
3. Of the original 140 men, 'six had died or deserted before Veragua, twelve had been killed at Belen, and six had since died' (Bedini 2000, p. 726).
4. Davidson 1997, pp. xiv, xxv deems the Ferdinand and Casas works as both the most influential accounts of Columbus generally, and so inaccurate or distorted as to make ascertaining fact from myth 'the most difficult task for the Columbus' scholar reading them. Similarly, Polo Martín 2015, p. 152 deems the Ferdinand work the most detailed account of Columbus's fourth voyage, but also questions its fidelity to first-hand experience. The Porras source has been noted for its inclusion of distances, and the Ledesma one for its geographic coherence Polo Martín 2015, pp. 147, 151. Davidson 1997, p. 451 notes that historical accounts of the voyage do not agree on 'most of the dates' they provide, citing as an example the date of departure from Cádiz, which was 'reported differently by all participants.'
5. Per León Guerrero 2005, pp. 23–32 or Gil 2003, pp. 619, 631–634, unless otherwise stated. Note, pronouns excluded from Variant name rows.
6. Andrea was Columbus's nephew (León Guerrero 2005, p. 25). The Diegos are named in the literature, eg de Porras in Polo Martín 2015, pp. 144, 147–148, Méndez in León Guerrero 2005, pp. 28–29 or Gil 2003, p. 619.
7. Pedro is named in the literature, eg in Polo Martín 2015, pp. 144, 149–150.
8. Per Polo Martín 2015, pp. 144, 146 or León Guerrero 2005, p. 22 or Bedini 2000, pp. 720–727 or Fernández-Armesto 1991, pp. xix–xx, xxvii, unless otherwise stated.
9. Per Gil 2003, p. 616.
10. Per Polo Martín 2015, pp. 154–155. Tha accounts are those of, from left to right, the Porras brothers, Columbus himself, Columbus's son, de Ledesma, and de las Casas.
11. Note, per Columbus's son, Los Pozos were islands near Jamaica (Polo Martín 2015, p. 152).
12. Place per Polo Martín 2015, p. 147. Note, per Columbus's son, Guanaja was a large island, but per the Porras brothers, it was small (Polo Martín 2015, pp. 147, 152).
13. Place per Polo Martín 2015, p. 152. Note, per the Porras brothers, this peninsula was 70 leagues distant from Cabo Gracias a Dios (Polo Martín 2015, pp. 147–148).
14. Place per Bedini 2000, p. 724.
15. Note, per the Porras brothers, this cape was 12 leagues distant from Río del Desastre (Polo Martín 2015, pp. 147–148).
16. Note, per the Porras brothers, this island was 15 leagues distant from Aburemá (Polo Martín 2015, pp. 147–148).
17. Note, per the Porras brothers, this peninsula was 28 leagues distant from Ysla de Escudo, and 35 leagues from Puerto de Bastimentos (Polo Martín 2015, pp. 147–148).
18. Place per Bedini 2000, p. 724.
19. Place per Bedini 2000, p. 725. Note, per Columbus, this entry logs a return arrival to Puerto Gordo, but no first arrival is logged (Polo Martín 2015, pp. 144–145).

Short citations

1. Polo Martín 2015, p. 144; Bedini 2000, p. 720.
2. Bedini 2000, p. 720.
3. Bedini 2000, pp. 720–721.
4. Bedini 2000, p. 721.
5. Gil 2003, p. 613.
6. Bedini 2000, pp. 721, 724.
7. Bedini 2000, p. 724.
8. Hofman & Keehnen 2019, p. 239; Reichert 2017, p. 13; Bedini 2000, p. 361.
9. Bedini 2000, pp. 724–725.
10. Bedini 2000, p. 725.
11. Bedini 2000, pp. 725–726.
12. Bedini 2000, p. 726.
13. Bedini 2000, pp. 726–727.
14. Bedini 2000, p. 727.
15. Polo Martín 2015, p. 146; Bedini 2000, p. 727.
16. Polo Martín 2015, p. 146; Bedini 2000, p. 727; Fernández-Armesto 1991, p. xix.
17. Polo Martín 2015, p. 144; Davidson 1997, pp. 448–450.
18. Polo Martín 2015, p. 144; Davidson 1997, p. 450.
19. Polo Martín 2015, p. 144.
20. Bedini 2000, pp. 413–415.
21. Bedini 2000, p. 415.
22. Bedini 2000, p. 416.

Full citations

1. Bedini SA, ed. (2000) [first published 1992 by Simon & Schuster]. The Christopher Columbus Encyclopedia (reprint of 1st ed.). Basingstoke, England: Macmillian. doi:10.1007/978-1-349-12573-9. ISBN 978-1-349-12573-9.
2. Carter R (November 2006). "Yucatan Channel and Trade". FAMSI Journal of the Ancient Americas. sn: 1–7. OCLC 613035173.
3. Cerezo Martínez R (2007–2008). "El plan, los viajes y los números de Cristóbal Colón". Cuadernos de Estudios Borjanos. L–LI: 441–481. ISSN 0210-8224.
4. Conti S (2011). "El cuarto viaje de Colon y las primeras posesiones españolas en Tierra Firme según algunos mapas del siglo XVI". Revista de estudios colombinos. 7: 35–48. ISSN 1699-3926.
5. Davidson MH (1997). Columbus Then and Now: A Life Reexamined. Norman, Oklahoma; London: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-2934-4. OL 3353000W.
6. de Altolaguirre y Duvale A, Bonilla y San Martín A, eds. (1892). De los pleitos de Colón. Colección de documentos inéditos relativos al descubrimiento, conquista y organización de las antiguas posesiones españolas de ultramar : Segunda serie : Colección de documentos inéditos de ultramar. Vol. 7. Madrid: Real Academia de la Historia.
7. Fernández-Armesto F (1991) [first published 1991 by Oxford University Press]. Columbus (reprint of 1st ed.). Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-215898-8.
8. García Cruzado E, ed. (2011). Jornadas IV, V y VI, 2008, 2009 y 2010. Actas de las jornadas de historia sobre el descubrimiento de América. Vol. II. Palos de la Frontera, Spain: Universidad Internacional de Andalucía; Ayuntamiento de Palos de la Frontera. hdl:10334/3367. ISBN 978-84-7993-211-4.
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