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Forest transition

February 15, 2024

Not to be confused with Eastern forest–boreal transition.

Forest transition refers to a geographic theory describing a reversal or turnaround in land-use trends for a given territory from a period of net forest area loss (i.e., deforestation) to a period of net forest area gain.[1][2][3][4][5][6][7] The term "landscape turnaround" has also been used to represent a more general recovery of natural areas that is independent of biome type.[2][8]

Changes in forest area (like deforestation) may follow a pattern suggested by the forest transition (FT) theory,[9] whereby at early stages in its development a country is characterized by high forest cover and low deforestation rates (HFLD countries).[10]

Then deforestation rates accelerate (HFHD, high forest cover – high deforestation rate), and forest cover is reduced (LFHD, low forest cover – high deforestation rate), before the deforestation rate slows (LFLD, low forest cover – low deforestation rate), after which forest cover stabilizes and eventually starts recovering. FT is not a "law of nature", and the pattern is influenced by national context (for example, human population density, stage of development, structure of the economy), global economic forces, and government policies. A country may reach very low levels of forest cover before it stabilizes, or it might through good policies be able to "bridge" the forest transition.[citation needed]

Theory edit

FT depicts a broad trend, and an extrapolation of historical rates therefore tends to underestimate future BAU deforestation for countries in the early stages of the transition (HFLD), while it tends to overestimate BAU deforestation for countries in the later stages (LFHD and LFLD).

Countries with high forest cover can be expected to be at early stages of the FT. GDP per capita captures the stage in a country's economic development, which is linked to the pattern of natural resource use, including forests. The choice of forest cover and GDP per capita also fits well with the two key scenarios in the FT:

(i) a forest scarcity path, where forest scarcity triggers forces (for example, higher prices of forest products) that lead to forest cover stabilization; and

(ii) an economic development path, where new and better off-farm employment opportunities associated with economic growth (= increasing GDP per capita) reduce the profitability of frontier agriculture and slows deforestation.[10]

Causes edit

Forest recovery resulting in net increases in forest extent can occur by means of spontaneous regeneration, active planting, or both.[11][12]

There are two main paths in reforestation, one emerging from economic development and another from forest scarcity.[12] There are many causes of transition, foremost, economic development leads to industrialisation and urbanisation, pulling the labour force away from the countryside to cities. For example, in Puerto Rico, industrial policies which subsidised manufacturing led to a transition towards urban sector manufacturing and service jobs, leading to land abandonment and forest regrowth.[13] Furthermore, changes in agricultural technology make the most productive areas more agriculturally productive, concentrating agricultural production into those areas.[12] Redistribution of labour resources from areas of low fertility to areas of greater fertility promotes regrowth in the areas experiencing depopulation.[12]

Demand for forest products, especially wood, resulting from earlier deforestation, also creates market incentives to plant trees and more effectively manage forest resources.[12] Due to forestry intensification, higher forest productivity saves remaining forests from exploitation pressures.[13] Moreover, cultural responses to losses in forest area lead to government intervention to implement policies promoting reforestation.[13]

A Kuznets curve analysis of the problem, where income leads to forest regrowth, has contradictory results, due to the complex interaction of income with many socioeconomic variables (e.g. democratisation, globalisation, etc.)[13] The factors which drive deforestation also control the forest transition, promoting urbanisation, development, changing relative agricultural and urban prices, population density, demand for forest products, land tenure systems, and trade. Transitions involve a combination of socioeconomic feedbacks from forest decline and development.[14]

Global forest transition edit

Studies of forest transitions have been conducted for several nations as well as sub-national regions.[15] Territories reported to have experienced forest transitions after the onset of industrialization include Bangladesh, China, Costa Rica, Cuba, Denmark,[16] Canada,[2] Dominican Republic,[17] El Salvador,[18] France,[2][19] Greece,[2] Gambia, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Morocco, Norway, New Zealand, Portugal, Puerto Rico,[2][17][20][21] Rwanda, Scotland,[22] South Korea, Spain, Switzerland,[2][23] the United States,[2] the United Kingdom,[2] and Vietnam.[24][25] Furthermore, forest-transition dynamics have been documented for regions within Brazil,[8][26][27] Ecuador,[28] and Mexico.[29][30]

The environmental effects of these forest transitions are very variable, depending on whether deforestation of old-growth forests continue, the proportions and types of tree plantations versus natural regeneration of forests, and the location and spatial configuration of the different types of forests.[15] In southern Brazil, reforestation mainly occurred through tree plantations, replanting trees, increasing forest cover.[15] And in Honduras, a transition to coffee growing led to abandonment of low-lying regions as coffee farmers moved to high-sloped highland regions.[15]

The findings of returning forests in these widespread studies raise questions about the prospects of a worldwide forest transition, particularly given ongoing processes of forest loss in many parts of the world.[2][11][31] Optimistic predictions would have a return of some 70 million hectares of forest by 2050.[32] Yet, there are significant concerns which would dampen this enthusiasm, with local governance issues and the more structural looming shortage of productive land as human populations continue to increase.[33] So far as significant increases in agricultural productivity are possible in developing countries, current under-utilised land reserves may not require exploitation.[33]

A study on forest transition theory reported that over 60 years (1960–2019), "the global forest area has declined by 81.7 million ha", and concluded higher income nations need to reduce imports of tropical forest-related products and help with theoretically forest-related socioeconomic development and international policies.[34][35]

See also edit

References edit

  1. ^ Mather, Alexander S. (1992). "The forest transition". Area. 24 (4): 367–379.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Walker, R. (1993). "Deforestation and Economic Development". Canadian Journal of Regional Science. 16 (3): 481–497.
  3. ^ Grainger, Alan (1995). "The forest transition: an alternative approach". Area. 27 (3): 242–251.
  4. ^ Mather, Alexander S.; Needle, C.L. (1998). "The forest transition: a theoretical basis". Area. 30 (2): 117–124. Bibcode:1998Area...30..117M. doi:10.1111/j.1475-4762.1998.tb00055.x.
  5. ^ Rudel, Thomas K. (1998). "Is there a forest transition? Deforestation, reforestation, and development". Rural Sociology. 63 (4): 533–552. doi:10.1111/j.1549-0831.1998.tb00691.x.
  6. ^ Perz, Stephen G. (2007). "Grand theory and context-specificity in the study of forest dynamics: forest transition theory and other directions". Professional Geographer. 59 (1): 105–114. Bibcode:2007ProfG..59..105P. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9272.2007.00594.x. S2CID 140182729.
  7. ^ Meyfroidt & Lambin 2011, p. 344.
  8. ^ a b Walker, R. (2011). "The scale of forest transition: Amazonia and the Atlantic forests of Brazil". Applied Geography. 32 (1): 12–20.
  9. ^ Meyfroidt & Lambin 2011.
  10. ^ a b Rudel, T.K. (2005) Tropical Forests: Regional Paths of Destruction and Regeneration in the Late 20th Century. Columbia University Press ISBN 0-231-13195-X
  11. ^ a b Rudel, Thomas K.; Coomes, Oliver T.; Moran, Emilio; Achard, Frederic; Angelsen, Arild; Xu, Jianchu; Lambin, Eric (2005). "Forest transitions: towards a global understanding of the land use change". Global Environmental Change. 15: 23–31. doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2004.11.001.
  12. ^ a b c d e Meyfroidt & Lambin 2011, p. 348.
  13. ^ a b c d Meyfroidt & Lambin 2011, p. 349.
  14. ^ Meyfroidt & Lambin 2011, p. 353.
  15. ^ a b c d Meyfroidt & Lambin 2011, p. 350.
  16. ^ Mather, Alexander S.; Needle, C.L.; Coull, J.R. (1998). "From resource crisis to sustainability: the forest transition in Denmark". International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology. 5 (3): 182–193. Bibcode:1998IJSDW...5..182M. doi:10.1080/13504509809469982.
  17. ^ a b Aide, T. Mitchell; Grau, H. Ricardo (2004). "Globalization, migration, and Latin American ecosystems". Science. 305 (5692): 1915–1916. doi:10.1126/science.1103179. hdl:11336/101459. PMID 15448256. S2CID 131549198.
  18. ^ Hecht, Susanna B.; Kandel, Susan; Gomes, Ileana; Cuellar, Nelson; Rosa, Herman (2006). "Globalization, forest resurgence, and environmental politics in El Salvador" (PDF). World Development. 34 (2): 308–323. doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2005.09.005.
  19. ^ Mather, Alexander S.; Fairbairn, J.; Needle, C.L. (1999). "The course and drivers of the forest transition: the case of France". Journal of Rural Studies. 15 (1): 65–90. doi:10.1016/S0743-0167(98)00023-0.
  20. ^ Rudel, Thomas K.; Perez-Lugo, Marla; Zichal, Heather (2000). "When fields revert to forest: development and spontaneous reforestation in post-war Puerto Rico". Professional Geographer. 52 (3): 386–397. Bibcode:2000ProfG..52..386R. doi:10.1111/0033-0124.00233. S2CID 128468075.
  21. ^ Grau, H. Ricardo; Aide, T. Mitchell; Zimmerman, Jess K.; Thomlinson, John R.; Helmer, Eileen; Zou, Xioming (2003). "The ecological consequences of socioeconomic and land-use changes in postagricultural Puerto Rico". BioScience. 53 (12): 1159–1168. doi:10.1641/0006-3568(2003)053[1159:TECOSA]2.0.CO;2. S2CID 43455468.
  22. ^ Mather, Alexander S. (2004). "Forest transition theory and the reforesting of Scotland". Scottish Geographical Journal. 120 (1–2): 83–98. Bibcode:2004ScGJ..120...83M. doi:10.1080/00369220418737194. S2CID 129628209.
  23. ^ Mather, Alexander S.; Fairbairn, J. (2000). "From floods to reforestation: the forest transition in Switzerland". Environment and History. 6 (4): 399–421. doi:10.3197/096734000129342352.
  24. ^ Meyfroidt, Patrick; Lambin, Eric F. (2008). "Forest transition in Vietnam and its environmental impacts". Global Change Biology. 14 (6): 1319–1336. Bibcode:2008GCBio..14.1319M. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2486.2008.01575.x. S2CID 86436706.
  25. ^ Meyfroidt, Patrick; Lambin, Eric F. (2007). "The causes of the reforestation in Vietnam". Land Use Policy. 25 (2): 182–197.
  26. ^ Perz, Stephen G.; Skole, David L. (2003). "Secondary forest expansion in the Brazilian Amazon and the refinement of forest transition theory". Society and Natural Resources. 16 (4): 277–294. Bibcode:2003SNatR..16..277P. doi:10.1080/08941920390178856. S2CID 154476196.
  27. ^ Baptista, Sandra R.; Rudel, Thomas K. (2006). "A re-emerging Atlantic forest? Urbanization, industrialization and the forest transition in Santa Catarina, southern Brazil". Environmental Conservation. 33 (3): 195–202. Bibcode:2006EnvCo..33..195B. doi:10.1017/S0376892906003134. S2CID 86716728.
  28. ^ Rudel, Thomas K.; Bates, Diane; Machinguiashi, Rafael (2002). "A tropical forest transition? Agricultural change, out-migration, and secondary forests in the Ecuadorian Amazon". Annals of the Association of American Geographers. 92 (1): 87–102. doi:10.1111/1467-8306.00281. S2CID 53055910.
  29. ^ Klooster, Dan (2003). "Forest transitions in Mexico: institutions and forests in a globalized countryside". Professional Geographer. 55 (2): 227–237. Bibcode:2003ProfG..55..227K. doi:10.1111/0033-0124.5502010. S2CID 59370821.
  30. ^ Bray, David B.; Klepeis, Peter (2005). "Deforestation, forest transitions, and institutions for sustainability in southeastern Mexico, 1900-2000". Environment and History. 11 (2): 195–223. doi:10.3197/096734005774434584.
  31. ^ Kauppi, Pekka E.; Ausubel, Jesse H.; Fang, Jingyun; Mather, Alexander S.; Sedjo, Roger A.; Waggoner, Paul E. (2006). "Returning forests analyzed with the forest identity". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 103 (46): 17574–17579. Bibcode:2006PNAS..10317574K. doi:10.1073/pnas.0608343103. PMC 1635979. PMID 17101996.
  32. ^ Meyfroidt & Lambin 2011, p. 356.
  33. ^ a b Meyfroidt & Lambin 2011, p. 357.
  34. ^ "200 million acres of forest cover have been lost since 1960". Grist. 5 August 2022. Retrieved 15 September 2022.
  35. ^ Estoque, Ronald C; Dasgupta, Rajarshi; Winkler, Karina; Avitabile, Valerio; Johnson, Brian A; Myint, Soe W; Gao, Yan; Ooba, Makoto; Murayama, Yuji; Lasco, Rodel D (1 August 2022). "Spatiotemporal pattern of global forest change over the past 60 years and the forest transition theory". Environmental Research Letters. 17 (8): 084022. Bibcode:2022ERL....17h4022E. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/ac7df5. ISSN 1748-9326.

Bibliography edit

  • Meyfroidt, Patrick; Lambin, Eric F. (21 November 2011). "Global Forest Transition: Prospects for an End to Deforestation". Annual Review of Environment and Resources. 36 (1): 343–371. doi:10.1146/annurev-environ-090710-143732. Free access link

February 15, 2024
forest, transition, confused, with, eastern, forest, boreal, transition, refers, geographic, theory, describing, reversal, turnaround, land, trends, given, territory, from, period, forest, area, loss, deforestation, period, forest, area, gain, term, landscape,. Not to be confused with Eastern forest boreal transition Forest transition refers to a geographic theory describing a reversal or turnaround in land use trends for a given territory from a period of net forest area loss i e deforestation to a period of net forest area gain 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 The term landscape turnaround has also been used to represent a more general recovery of natural areas that is independent of biome type 2 8 Changes in forest area like deforestation may follow a pattern suggested by the forest transition FT theory 9 whereby at early stages in its development a country is characterized by high forest cover and low deforestation rates HFLD countries 10 Then deforestation rates accelerate HFHD high forest cover high deforestation rate and forest cover is reduced LFHD low forest cover high deforestation rate before the deforestation rate slows LFLD low forest cover low deforestation rate after which forest cover stabilizes and eventually starts recovering FT is not a law of nature and the pattern is influenced by national context for example human population density stage of development structure of the economy global economic forces and government policies A country may reach very low levels of forest cover before it stabilizes or it might through good policies be able to bridge the forest transition citation needed Contents 1 Theory 2 Causes 3 Global forest transition 4 See also 5 References 6 BibliographyTheory editFT depicts a broad trend and an extrapolation of historical rates therefore tends to underestimate future BAU deforestation for countries in the early stages of the transition HFLD while it tends to overestimate BAU deforestation for countries in the later stages LFHD and LFLD Countries with high forest cover can be expected to be at early stages of the FT GDP per capita captures the stage in a country s economic development which is linked to the pattern of natural resource use including forests The choice of forest cover and GDP per capita also fits well with the two key scenarios in the FT i a forest scarcity path where forest scarcity triggers forces for example higher prices of forest products that lead to forest cover stabilization and ii an economic development path where new and better off farm employment opportunities associated with economic growth increasing GDP per capita reduce the profitability of frontier agriculture and slows deforestation 10 Causes editForest recovery resulting in net increases in forest extent can occur by means of spontaneous regeneration active planting or both 11 12 There are two main paths in reforestation one emerging from economic development and another from forest scarcity 12 There are many causes of transition foremost economic development leads to industrialisation and urbanisation pulling the labour force away from the countryside to cities For example in Puerto Rico industrial policies which subsidised manufacturing led to a transition towards urban sector manufacturing and service jobs leading to land abandonment and forest regrowth 13 Furthermore changes in agricultural technology make the most productive areas more agriculturally productive concentrating agricultural production into those areas 12 Redistribution of labour resources from areas of low fertility to areas of greater fertility promotes regrowth in the areas experiencing depopulation 12 Demand for forest products especially wood resulting from earlier deforestation also creates market incentives to plant trees and more effectively manage forest resources 12 Due to forestry intensification higher forest productivity saves remaining forests from exploitation pressures 13 Moreover cultural responses to losses in forest area lead to government intervention to implement policies promoting reforestation 13 A Kuznets curve analysis of the problem where income leads to forest regrowth has contradictory results due to the complex interaction of income with many socioeconomic variables e g democratisation globalisation etc 13 The factors which drive deforestation also control the forest transition promoting urbanisation development changing relative agricultural and urban prices population density demand for forest products land tenure systems and trade Transitions involve a combination of socioeconomic feedbacks from forest decline and development 14 Global forest transition editStudies of forest transitions have been conducted for several nations as well as sub national regions 15 Territories reported to have experienced forest transitions after the onset of industrialization include Bangladesh China Costa Rica Cuba Denmark 16 Canada 2 Dominican Republic 17 El Salvador 18 France 2 19 Greece 2 Gambia Hungary Ireland Italy Japan Morocco Norway New Zealand Portugal Puerto Rico 2 17 20 21 Rwanda Scotland 22 South Korea Spain Switzerland 2 23 the United States 2 the United Kingdom 2 and Vietnam 24 25 Furthermore forest transition dynamics have been documented for regions within Brazil 8 26 27 Ecuador 28 and Mexico 29 30 The environmental effects of these forest transitions are very variable depending on whether deforestation of old growth forests continue the proportions and types of tree plantations versus natural regeneration of forests and the location and spatial configuration of the different types of forests 15 In southern Brazil reforestation mainly occurred through tree plantations replanting trees increasing forest cover 15 And in Honduras a transition to coffee growing led to abandonment of low lying regions as coffee farmers moved to high sloped highland regions 15 The findings of returning forests in these widespread studies raise questions about the prospects of a worldwide forest transition particularly given ongoing processes of forest loss in many parts of the world 2 11 31 Optimistic predictions would have a return of some 70 million hectares of forest by 2050 32 Yet there are significant concerns which would dampen this enthusiasm with local governance issues and the more structural looming shortage of productive land as human populations continue to increase 33 So far as significant increases in agricultural productivity are possible in developing countries current under utilised land reserves may not require exploitation 33 A study on forest transition theory reported that over 60 years 1960 2019 the global forest area has declined by 81 7 million ha and concluded higher income nations need to reduce imports of tropical forest related products and help with theoretically forest related socioeconomic development and international policies 34 35 See also editKuznets curveReferences edit Mather Alexander S 1992 The forest transition Area 24 4 367 379 a b c d e f g h i j Walker R 1993 Deforestation and Economic Development Canadian Journal of Regional Science 16 3 481 497 Grainger Alan 1995 The forest transition an alternative approach Area 27 3 242 251 Mather Alexander S Needle C L 1998 The forest transition a theoretical basis Area 30 2 117 124 Bibcode 1998Area 30 117M doi 10 1111 j 1475 4762 1998 tb00055 x Rudel Thomas K 1998 Is there a forest transition Deforestation reforestation and development Rural Sociology 63 4 533 552 doi 10 1111 j 1549 0831 1998 tb00691 x Perz Stephen G 2007 Grand theory and context specificity in the study of forest dynamics forest transition theory and other directions Professional Geographer 59 1 105 114 Bibcode 2007ProfG 59 105P doi 10 1111 j 1467 9272 2007 00594 x S2CID 140182729 Meyfroidt amp Lambin 2011 p 344 a b Walker R 2011 The scale of forest transition Amazonia and the Atlantic forests of Brazil Applied Geography 32 1 12 20 Meyfroidt amp Lambin 2011 a b Rudel T K 2005 Tropical Forests Regional Paths of Destruction and Regeneration in the Late 20th Century Columbia University Press ISBN 0 231 13195 X a b Rudel Thomas K Coomes Oliver T Moran Emilio Achard Frederic Angelsen Arild Xu Jianchu Lambin Eric 2005 Forest transitions towards a global understanding of the land use change Global Environmental Change 15 23 31 doi 10 1016 j gloenvcha 2004 11 001 a b c d e Meyfroidt amp Lambin 2011 p 348 a b c d Meyfroidt amp Lambin 2011 p 349 Meyfroidt amp Lambin 2011 p 353 a b c d Meyfroidt amp Lambin 2011 p 350 Mather Alexander S Needle C L Coull J R 1998 From resource crisis to sustainability the forest transition in Denmark International Journal of Sustainable Development amp World Ecology 5 3 182 193 Bibcode 1998IJSDW 5 182M doi 10 1080 13504509809469982 a b Aide T Mitchell Grau H Ricardo 2004 Globalization migration and Latin American ecosystems Science 305 5692 1915 1916 doi 10 1126 science 1103179 hdl 11336 101459 PMID 15448256 S2CID 131549198 Hecht Susanna B Kandel Susan Gomes Ileana Cuellar Nelson Rosa Herman 2006 Globalization forest resurgence and environmental politics in El Salvador PDF World Development 34 2 308 323 doi 10 1016 j worlddev 2005 09 005 Mather Alexander S Fairbairn J Needle C L 1999 The course and drivers of the forest transition the case of France Journal of Rural Studies 15 1 65 90 doi 10 1016 S0743 0167 98 00023 0 Rudel Thomas K Perez Lugo Marla Zichal Heather 2000 When fields revert to forest development and spontaneous reforestation in post war Puerto Rico Professional Geographer 52 3 386 397 Bibcode 2000ProfG 52 386R doi 10 1111 0033 0124 00233 S2CID 128468075 Grau H Ricardo Aide T Mitchell Zimmerman Jess K Thomlinson John R Helmer Eileen Zou Xioming 2003 The ecological consequences of socioeconomic and land use changes in postagricultural Puerto Rico BioScience 53 12 1159 1168 doi 10 1641 0006 3568 2003 053 1159 TECOSA 2 0 CO 2 S2CID 43455468 Mather Alexander S 2004 Forest transition theory and the reforesting of Scotland Scottish Geographical Journal 120 1 2 83 98 Bibcode 2004ScGJ 120 83M doi 10 1080 00369220418737194 S2CID 129628209 Mather Alexander S Fairbairn J 2000 From floods to reforestation the forest transition in Switzerland Environment and History 6 4 399 421 doi 10 3197 096734000129342352 Meyfroidt Patrick Lambin Eric F 2008 Forest transition in Vietnam and its environmental impacts Global Change Biology 14 6 1319 1336 Bibcode 2008GCBio 14 1319M doi 10 1111 j 1365 2486 2008 01575 x S2CID 86436706 Meyfroidt Patrick Lambin Eric F 2007 The causes of the reforestation in Vietnam Land Use Policy 25 2 182 197 Perz Stephen G Skole David L 2003 Secondary forest expansion in the Brazilian Amazon and the refinement of forest transition theory Society and Natural Resources 16 4 277 294 Bibcode 2003SNatR 16 277P doi 10 1080 08941920390178856 S2CID 154476196 Baptista Sandra R Rudel Thomas K 2006 A re emerging Atlantic forest Urbanization industrialization and the forest transition in Santa Catarina southern Brazil Environmental Conservation 33 3 195 202 Bibcode 2006EnvCo 33 195B doi 10 1017 S0376892906003134 S2CID 86716728 Rudel Thomas K Bates Diane Machinguiashi Rafael 2002 A tropical forest transition Agricultural change out migration and secondary forests in the Ecuadorian Amazon Annals of the Association of American Geographers 92 1 87 102 doi 10 1111 1467 8306 00281 S2CID 53055910 Klooster Dan 2003 Forest transitions in Mexico institutions and forests in a globalized countryside Professional Geographer 55 2 227 237 Bibcode 2003ProfG 55 227K doi 10 1111 0033 0124 5502010 S2CID 59370821 Bray David B Klepeis Peter 2005 Deforestation forest transitions and institutions for sustainability in southeastern Mexico 1900 2000 Environment and History 11 2 195 223 doi 10 3197 096734005774434584 Kauppi Pekka E Ausubel Jesse H Fang Jingyun Mather Alexander S Sedjo Roger A Waggoner Paul E 2006 Returning forests analyzed with the forest identity Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 103 46 17574 17579 Bibcode 2006PNAS 10317574K doi 10 1073 pnas 0608343103 PMC 1635979 PMID 17101996 Meyfroidt amp Lambin 2011 p 356 a b Meyfroidt amp Lambin 2011 p 357 200 million acres of forest cover have been lost since 1960 Grist 5 August 2022 Retrieved 15 September 2022 Estoque Ronald C Dasgupta Rajarshi Winkler Karina Avitabile Valerio Johnson Brian A Myint Soe W Gao Yan Ooba Makoto Murayama Yuji Lasco Rodel D 1 August 2022 Spatiotemporal pattern of global forest change over the past 60 years and the forest transition theory Environmental Research Letters 17 8 084022 Bibcode 2022ERL 17h4022E doi 10 1088 1748 9326 ac7df5 ISSN 1748 9326 Bibliography editMeyfroidt Patrick Lambin Eric F 21 November 2011 Global Forest Transition Prospects for an End to Deforestation Annual Review of Environment and Resources 36 1 343 371 doi 10 1146 annurev environ 090710 143732 Free access link Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Forest transition amp oldid 1202725278, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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