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Firmament

November 17, 2023

For the video game, see Firmament (video game).

In biblical cosmology, the firmament is the vast solid dome created by God during the Genesis creation narrative to divide the primal sea into upper and lower portions so that the dry land could appear.[1][2] The concept was adopted into the subsequent Classical/Medieval model of heavenly spheres, but was dropped with advances in astronomy in the 16th and 17th centuries. Today it survives as a synonym for "sky" or "heaven".

Early Hebrew conception of the cosmos.[citation needed] The firmament, Sheol and tehom are depicted.
The sun, planets and angels and the firmament. Woodcut dated 1475.

Etymology edit

In English, the word "firmament" is recorded as early as 1250, in the Middle English Story of Genesis and Exodus. It later appeared in the King James Bible. The same word is found in French and German Bible translations, all from Latin firmamentum (a firm object), used in the Vulgate (4th century).[3] This in turn is a calque of the Greek στερέωμᾰ (steréōma), also meaning a solid or firm structure (Greek στερεός = rigid), which appears in the Septuagint, the Greek translation made by Jewish scholars around 200 BCE.

These words all translate the Biblical Hebrew word rāqīaʿ (רָקִ֫יעַ‎), used for example in Genesis 1.6, where it is contrasted with shamayim (שָׁמַיִם‎), translated as "heaven(s)" in Genesis 1.1. Rāqīaʿ derives from the root rqʿ (רָקַע‎), meaning "to beat or spread out thinly".[4][5] The Hebrew lexicographers Brown, Driver and Briggs gloss the noun with "extended surface, (solid) expanse (as if beaten out)" and distinguish two main uses: 1. "(flat) expanse (as if of ice), as base, support", and 2. "the vault of heaven, or 'firmament,' regarded by Hebrews as solid and supporting 'waters' above it."[6] A related noun, riqquaʿ (רִקּוּעַ‎), found in Numbers 16.38 (Hebrew numbering 17.3), refers to the process of hammering metal into sheets.[6] Gerhard von Rad explains:

Rāqīaʿ means that which is firmly hammered, stamped (a word of the same root in Phoenecian means "tin dish"!). The meaning of the verb rqʿ concerns the hammering of the vault of heaven into firmness (Isa. 42.5; Ps.136.6). The Vulgate translates rāqīaʿ with firmamentum, and that remains the best rendering.

— Gerhard von Rad [7]

Models of the Firmament edit

The plurality of heaven edit

Perhaps beginning with Origen, the different identifiers used for heavens in the Book of Genesis, caelum and firmamentum, sparked some commentary on the significance of the order of creation (caelum identified as the heaven of the first day, and firmamentum as the heaven of the second day).[8] Some of these theories identified caelum as the higher, immaterial and spiritual heaven, whereas firmamentum was of corporeal existence.[9]: 237 

Christian theologians of note writing between the 5th and mid-12th century were generally in agreement that the waters, sometimes called the "crystalline orb", were located above the firmament and beneath the fiery heaven that was also called empyrean (from Greek ἔμπυρος). One medieval writer who rejected such notions was Pietro d'Abano who argued that theologians "assuming a crystalline, or aqueous sphere, and an empyrean, or firey sphere" were relying on revelation more than Scripture.[10]

About this Ambrose wrote: "Wise men of the world say that water cannot be over the heavens"; the firmament is called such, according to Ambrose, because it held back the waters above it.[11]

This matter of the position of the "waters" above the firmament was considered by Augustine in De Genesi ad litteram (perhaps his least studied work): "only God knows how and why [the waters] are there, but we cannot deny the authority of Holy Scripture which is greater than our understanding".

Corporeality edit

Early Christian writers wrote at length about the material nature of the firmament, the problem arising from the barrier said to be created when it divided the waters above and below it.[12] At issue was the reconciliation of Scripture with Aristotle's cosmology.

Saint Basil rejected the notion that the firmament is made of solid ice, although Bede in Hexaemeron ignores the problem of the motion of celestial bodies (stars) in a solid firmament and declares that the siderum caelum (heaven of the celestial bodies) was made firm (firmatum) in the midst of the waters so should be interpreted as having the firmness of crystalline stone (cristallini Iapidis).[13]

History edit

Main article: Hebrew astronomy § Biblical cosmology
 
The Flammarion engraving (1888) depicts a man crawling under the edge of the sky, depicted as if it were a solid hemisphere, to look at the mysterious Empyrean beyond. The caption underneath the engraving (not shown here) translates to "A medieval missionary tells that he has found the point where heaven and Earth meet..."

The ancient Hebrews, like all the ancient peoples of the Near East, believed the sky was a solid dome with the Sun, Moon, planets and stars embedded in it.[14] Around the 4th to 3rd centuries BCE the Greeks, under the influence of Aristotle who argued that the heavens must be perfect and that a sphere was the perfect geometrical figure, exchanged this for a spherical Earth surrounded by solid spheres. This became the dominant model in the Classical and Medieval world-view, and even when Copernicus placed the Sun at the centre of the system he included an outer sphere that held the stars (and by having the earth rotate daily on its axis it allowed the firmament to be completely stationary). Tycho Brahe's studies of the nova of 1572 and the Comet of 1577 were the first major challenges to the idea that orbs existed as solid, incorruptible, material objects,[15] and in 1584 Giordano Bruno proposed a cosmology without a firmament: an infinite universe in which the stars are actually suns with their own planetary systems.[16] After Galileo began using a telescope to examine the sky it became harder to argue that the heavens were perfect, as Aristotelian philosophy required, and by 1630 the concept of solid orbs was no longer dominant.[15]

See also edit

  • Abzu – Primeval sea in Mesopotamian mythology
  • Cosmic ocean – Mythological motif
  • Flood geology – Pseudoscientific attempt to reconcile geology with the Genesis flood narrative
  • Heaven in Judaism – Dwelling place of God and other heavenly beings
  • Nu – Ancient Egyptian personification of the primordial watery abyss
  • Primum Mobile – Outermost moving sphere in the geocentric model of the universe
  • Sky deity – Deity associated with the sky
  • Wuji – The primordial in Chinese philosophy

Citations edit

  1. ^ Pennington 2007, p. 42.
  2. ^ Ringgren 1990, p. 92.
  3. ^ "Online Etymology Dictionary – Firmament". from the original on 2012-10-18. Retrieved 2010-10-25.
  4. ^ Brown, Driver & Briggs 1906, p. 955.
  5. ^ "Lexicon Results Strong's H7549 – raqiya'". Blue Letter Bible. Blue Letter Bible. from the original on 2011-11-03. Retrieved 2009-12-04.
  6. ^ a b Brown, Driver & Briggs 1906, p. 956.
  7. ^ von Rad 1961, p. 53.
  8. ^ Et vocavit Deus firmamentum caelum.
  9. ^ Rochberg, Francesca (2008). "A Short History of the Waters of the Firmament". In Ross, Micah (ed.). From the Banks of the Euphrates: Studies in Honor of Alice Louise Slotsky. Eisenbrauns. pp. 227–244. ISBN 978-1-57506-144-3.
  10. ^ Grant, Edward (1994). Planets, Stars, and Orbs: The Medieval Cosmos, 1200-1687. Cambridge University Press. p. 321.
  11. ^ Boccaletti Dino, The Waters Above the Firmament, p.36 2020
  12. ^ Et dixit Deus, Fiat firmamentum in medio aquarum et sit dividens inter aquam et aquam
  13. ^ Randles, W. G. L. (1999). The Unmaking of the Medieval Christian Cosmos, 1500–1760. Routledge.
  14. ^ Seely, Paul H. (1991). "The Firmament and the Water Above" (PDF). Westminster Theological Journal. 53: 227–40. (PDF) from the original on 2009-03-05. Retrieved 2010-02-02.
  15. ^ a b Grant 1996, p. 349.
  16. ^ Giordano Bruno, De l'infinito universo e mondi (On the Infinite Universe and Worlds), 1584.

Bibliography edit

  • Grant, Edward (1996). Planets, Stars, and Orbs: The Medieval Cosmos, 1200-1687. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521565097.
  • Andrews, Tamra (2000). Dictionary of Nature Myths: Legends of the Earth, Sea, and Sky. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195136777. from the original on 2020-11-06. Retrieved 2021-02-01.
  • Bandstra, Barry L. (1999). Reading the Old Testament: An Introduction to the Hebrew Bible. Wadsworth. ISBN 0495391050. from the original on 2021-02-01. Retrieved 2021-02-01.
  • Berlin, Adele (2011). "Cosmology and creation". In Berlin, Adele; Grossman, Maxine (eds.). The Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199730049. from the original on 2021-02-01. Retrieved 2021-02-01.
  • Blenkinsopp, Joseph (2011). Creation, Un-Creation, Re-Creation: A Discursive Commentary on Genesis 1–11. T&T Clarke International. ISBN 9780567574558. from the original on 2021-02-01. Retrieved 2021-02-01.
  • Broadie, Sarah (1999). "Rational Theology". In Long, A.A. (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Early Greek Philosophy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521446679. from the original on 2021-02-01. Retrieved 2021-02-01.
  • Brown, Francis; Driver, S.R.; Briggs, Charles A. (1906). A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Bunnin, Nicholas; Yu, Jiyuan (2008). The Blackwell Dictionary of Western Philosophy. Blackwells. ISBN 9780470997215. from the original on 2020-10-14. Retrieved 2021-02-01.
  • Clifford, Richard J (2017). "Creatio ex Nihilo in the Old Testament/Hebrew Bible". In Anderson, Gary A.; Bockmuehl, Markus (eds.). Creation ex nihilo: Origins, Development, Contemporary Challenges. University of Notre Dame. ISBN 9780268102562. from the original on 2021-02-01. Retrieved 2021-02-01.
  • Couprie, Dirk L. (2011). Heaven and Earth in Ancient Greek Cosmology: From Thales to Heraclides Ponticus. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 9781441981165. from the original on 2020-11-02. Retrieved 2021-02-01.
  • Grunbaum, Adolf (2013). "Science and the Improbability of God". In Meister, Chad V.; Copan, Paul (eds.). The Routledge Companion to Philosophy of Religion. Routledge. ISBN 9780415782944. from the original on 2020-07-26. Retrieved 2021-02-01.
  • James, E.O. (1969). Creation and Cosmology: A Historical and Comparative Inquiry. Brill. ISBN 9789004378070. from the original on 2020-10-30. Retrieved 2021-02-01.
  • López-Ruiz, Carolina (2010). When the Gods Were Born: Greek Cosmogonies and the Near East. Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674049468. from the original on 2021-02-01. Retrieved 2021-02-01.
  • Mabie, F.J (2008). "Chaos and Death". In Longman, Tremper; Enns, Peter (eds.). Dictionary of the Old Testament. InterVarsity Press. ISBN 9780830817832. from the original on 2021-02-01. Retrieved 2021-02-01.
  • May, Gerhard (2004). Creatio ex nihilo. T&T Clarke International. ISBN 9780567456229. from the original on 2021-02-01. Retrieved 2021-02-01.
  • Nebe, Gottfried (2002). "Creation in Paul's Theology". In Hoffman, Yair; Reventlow, Henning Graf (eds.). Creation in Jewish and Christian Tradition. Sheffield Academic Press. ISBN 9781841271620. from the original on 2021-02-01. Retrieved 2021-02-01.
  • Muller, Richard A. (2017). Dictionary of Latin and Greek Theological Terms. Baker Academic. ISBN 9781493412082. from the original on 2021-02-01. Retrieved 2021-02-01.
  • Pennington, Jonathan T. (2007). Heaven and earth in the Gospel of Matthew. Brill. ISBN 978-9004162051. from the original on 2021-02-01. Retrieved 2021-02-01.
  • Pruss, Alexander (2007). "Ex Nihilo Nihil Fit". In Campbell, Joseph Keim; O'Rourke, Michael; Silverstein, Harry (eds.). Causation and Explanation. MIT Press. ISBN 9780262033633. from the original on 2021-02-01. Retrieved 2021-02-01.
  • von Rad, Gerhard (1961). Genesis: A Commentary. London: SCM Press.
  • Ringgren, Helmer (1990). "Yam". In Botterweck, G. Johannes; Ringgren, Helmer (eds.). Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament. Eerdmans. ISBN 9780802823304. from the original on 2021-02-01. Retrieved 2021-02-01.
  • Rubio, Gonzalez (2013). "Time Before Time: Primeval Narratives in Early Mesopotamian Literature". In Feliu, L.; Llop, J. (eds.). Time and History in the Ancient Near East: Proceedings of the 56th Recontre Assyriologique Internationale at Barcelona, 26–30 July 2010. Eisenbrauns. from the original on 1 February 2021. Retrieved 1 February 2021.
  • Waltke, Bruce K. (2011). An Old Testament Theology. Zondervan. ISBN 9780310863328. from the original on 2021-02-01. Retrieved 2021-02-01.
  • Walton, John H. (2006). Ancient Near Eastern Thought and the Old Testament: Introducing the Conceptual World of the Hebrew Bible. Baker Academic. ISBN 0-8010-2750-0. from the original on 2021-02-01. Retrieved 2021-02-01.
  • Walton, John H. (2015). The Lost World of Adam and Eve: Genesis 2-3 and the Human Origins Debate. InterVarsity Press. ISBN 9780830897711. from the original on 2021-02-01. Retrieved 2021-02-01.
  • Wasilewska, Ewa (2000). Creation Stories of the Middle East. Jessica Kingsley Publishers. ISBN 9781853026812. from the original on 2020-11-03. Retrieved 2021-02-01.
  • Wolfson, Harry Austryn (1976). The Philosophy of the Kalam. Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674665804. from the original on 2016-05-07. Retrieved 2021-02-01.
  • Wolters, Albert M. (1994). "Creatio ex nihilo in Philo". In Helleman, Wendy (ed.). Hellenization Revisited: Shaping a Christian Response Within the Greco-Roman World. University Press of America. ISBN 9780819195449. from the original on 2021-02-01. Retrieved 2021-02-01.

External links edit

 
Look up firmament in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
 
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article "Firmament".
  • .


November 17, 2023
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For the video game see Firmament video game In biblical cosmology the firmament is the vast solid dome created by God during the Genesis creation narrative to divide the primal sea into upper and lower portions so that the dry land could appear 1 2 The concept was adopted into the subsequent Classical Medieval model of heavenly spheres but was dropped with advances in astronomy in the 16th and 17th centuries Today it survives as a synonym for sky or heaven Early Hebrew conception of the cosmos citation needed The firmament Sheol and tehom are depicted The sun planets and angels and the firmament Woodcut dated 1475 Contents 1 Etymology 2 Models of the Firmament 2 1 The plurality of heaven 2 2 Corporeality 3 History 4 See also 5 Citations 6 Bibliography 7 External linksEtymology editIn English the word firmament is recorded as early as 1250 in the Middle English Story of Genesis and Exodus It later appeared in the King James Bible The same word is found in French and German Bible translations all from Latin firmamentum a firm object used in the Vulgate 4th century 3 This in turn is a calque of the Greek sterewmᾰ stereōma also meaning a solid or firm structure Greek stereos rigid which appears in the Septuagint the Greek translation made by Jewish scholars around 200 BCE These words all translate the Biblical Hebrew word raqiaʿ ר ק יע used for example in Genesis 1 6 where it is contrasted with shamayim ש מ י ם translated as heaven s in Genesis 1 1 Raqiaʿ derives from the root rqʿ ר ק ע meaning to beat or spread out thinly 4 5 The Hebrew lexicographers Brown Driver and Briggs gloss the noun with extended surface solid expanse as if beaten out and distinguish two main uses 1 flat expanse as if of ice as base support and 2 the vault of heaven or firmament regarded by Hebrews as solid and supporting waters above it 6 A related noun riqquaʿ ר ק ו ע found in Numbers 16 38 Hebrew numbering 17 3 refers to the process of hammering metal into sheets 6 Gerhard von Rad explains Raqiaʿ means that which is firmly hammered stamped a word of the same root in Phoenecian means tin dish The meaning of the verb rqʿ concerns the hammering of the vault of heaven into firmness Isa 42 5 Ps 136 6 The Vulgate translates raqiaʿ with firmamentum and that remains the best rendering Gerhard von Rad 7 Models of the Firmament editThe plurality of heaven edit Perhaps beginning with Origen the different identifiers used for heavens in the Book of Genesis caelum and firmamentum sparked some commentary on the significance of the order of creation caelum identified as the heaven of the first day and firmamentum as the heaven of the second day 8 Some of these theories identified caelum as the higher immaterial and spiritual heaven whereas firmamentum was of corporeal existence 9 237 Christian theologians of note writing between the 5th and mid 12th century were generally in agreement that the waters sometimes called the crystalline orb were located above the firmament and beneath the fiery heaven that was also called empyrean from Greek ἔmpyros One medieval writer who rejected such notions was Pietro d Abano who argued that theologians assuming a crystalline or aqueous sphere and an empyrean or firey sphere were relying on revelation more than Scripture 10 About this Ambrose wrote Wise men of the world say that water cannot be over the heavens the firmament is called such according to Ambrose because it held back the waters above it 11 This matter of the position of the waters above the firmament was considered by Augustine in De Genesi ad litteram perhaps his least studied work only God knows how and why the waters are there but we cannot deny the authority of Holy Scripture which is greater than our understanding Corporeality edit Early Christian writers wrote at length about the material nature of the firmament the problem arising from the barrier said to be created when it divided the waters above and below it 12 At issue was the reconciliation of Scripture with Aristotle s cosmology Saint Basil rejected the notion that the firmament is made of solid ice although Bede in Hexaemeron ignores the problem of the motion of celestial bodies stars in a solid firmament and declares that the siderum caelum heaven of the celestial bodies was made firm firmatum in the midst of the waters so should be interpreted as having the firmness of crystalline stone cristallini Iapidis 13 History editMain article Hebrew astronomy Biblical cosmology nbsp The Flammarion engraving 1888 depicts a man crawling under the edge of the sky depicted as if it were a solid hemisphere to look at the mysterious Empyrean beyond The caption underneath the engraving not shown here translates to A medieval missionary tells that he has found the point where heaven and Earth meet The ancient Hebrews like all the ancient peoples of the Near East believed the sky was a solid dome with the Sun Moon planets and stars embedded in it 14 Around the 4th to 3rd centuries BCE the Greeks under the influence of Aristotle who argued that the heavens must be perfect and that a sphere was the perfect geometrical figure exchanged this for a spherical Earth surrounded by solid spheres This became the dominant model in the Classical and Medieval world view and even when Copernicus placed the Sun at the centre of the system he included an outer sphere that held the stars and by having the earth rotate daily on its axis it allowed the firmament to be completely stationary Tycho Brahe s studies of the nova of 1572 and the Comet of 1577 were the first major challenges to the idea that orbs existed as solid incorruptible material objects 15 and in 1584 Giordano Bruno proposed a cosmology without a firmament an infinite universe in which the stars are actually suns with their own planetary systems 16 After Galileo began using a telescope to examine the sky it became harder to argue that the heavens were perfect as Aristotelian philosophy required and by 1630 the concept of solid orbs was no longer dominant 15 See also editAbzu Primeval sea in Mesopotamian mythology Cosmic ocean Mythological motif Flood geology Pseudoscientific attempt to reconcile geology with the Genesis flood narrative Heaven in Judaism Dwelling place of God and other heavenly beings Nu Ancient Egyptian personification of the primordial watery abyss Primum Mobile Outermost moving sphere in the geocentric model of the universe Sky deity Deity associated with the sky Wuji The primordial in Chinese philosophyCitations edit Pennington 2007 p 42 Ringgren 1990 p 92 Online Etymology Dictionary Firmament Archived from the original on 2012 10 18 Retrieved 2010 10 25 Brown Driver amp Briggs 1906 p 955 Lexicon Results Strong s H7549 raqiya Blue Letter Bible Blue Letter Bible Archived from the original on 2011 11 03 Retrieved 2009 12 04 a b Brown Driver amp Briggs 1906 p 956 von Rad 1961 p 53 Et vocavit Deus firmamentum caelum Rochberg Francesca 2008 A Short History of the Waters of the Firmament In Ross Micah ed From the Banks of the Euphrates Studies in Honor of Alice Louise Slotsky Eisenbrauns pp 227 244 ISBN 978 1 57506 144 3 Grant Edward 1994 Planets Stars and Orbs The Medieval Cosmos 1200 1687 Cambridge University Press p 321 Boccaletti Dino The Waters Above the Firmament p 36 2020 Et dixit Deus Fiat firmamentum in medio aquarum et sit dividens inter aquam et aquam Randles W G L 1999 The Unmaking of the Medieval Christian Cosmos 1500 1760 Routledge Seely Paul H 1991 The Firmament and the Water Above PDF Westminster Theological Journal 53 227 40 Archived PDF from the original on 2009 03 05 Retrieved 2010 02 02 a b Grant 1996 p 349 Giordano Bruno De l infinito universo e mondi On the Infinite Universe and Worlds 1584 Bibliography editGrant Edward 1996 Planets Stars and Orbs The Medieval Cosmos 1200 1687 Cambridge University Press ISBN 9780521565097 Andrews Tamra 2000 Dictionary of Nature Myths Legends of the Earth Sea and Sky Oxford University Press ISBN 9780195136777 Archived from the original on 2020 11 06 Retrieved 2021 02 01 Bandstra Barry L 1999 Reading the Old Testament An Introduction to the Hebrew Bible Wadsworth ISBN 0495391050 Archived from the original on 2021 02 01 Retrieved 2021 02 01 Berlin Adele 2011 Cosmology and creation In Berlin Adele Grossman Maxine eds The Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion Oxford University Press ISBN 9780199730049 Archived from the original on 2021 02 01 Retrieved 2021 02 01 Blenkinsopp Joseph 2011 Creation Un Creation Re Creation A Discursive Commentary on Genesis 1 11 T amp T Clarke International ISBN 9780567574558 Archived from the original on 2021 02 01 Retrieved 2021 02 01 Broadie Sarah 1999 Rational Theology In Long A A ed The Cambridge Companion to Early Greek Philosophy Cambridge University Press ISBN 9780521446679 Archived from the original on 2021 02 01 Retrieved 2021 02 01 Brown Francis Driver S R Briggs Charles A 1906 A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament Oxford Oxford University Press Bunnin Nicholas Yu Jiyuan 2008 The Blackwell Dictionary of Western Philosophy Blackwells ISBN 9780470997215 Archived from the original on 2020 10 14 Retrieved 2021 02 01 Clifford Richard J 2017 Creatio ex Nihilo in the Old Testament Hebrew Bible In Anderson Gary A Bockmuehl Markus eds Creationex nihilo Origins Development Contemporary Challenges University of Notre Dame ISBN 9780268102562 Archived from the original on 2021 02 01 Retrieved 2021 02 01 Couprie Dirk L 2011 Heaven and Earth in Ancient Greek Cosmology From Thales to Heraclides Ponticus Springer Science amp Business Media ISBN 9781441981165 Archived from the original on 2020 11 02 Retrieved 2021 02 01 Grunbaum Adolf 2013 Science and the Improbability of God In Meister Chad V Copan Paul eds The Routledge Companion to Philosophy of Religion Routledge ISBN 9780415782944 Archived from the original on 2020 07 26 Retrieved 2021 02 01 James E O 1969 Creation and Cosmology A Historical and Comparative Inquiry Brill ISBN 9789004378070 Archived from the original on 2020 10 30 Retrieved 2021 02 01 Lopez Ruiz Carolina 2010 When the Gods Were Born Greek Cosmogonies and the Near East Harvard University Press ISBN 9780674049468 Archived from the original on 2021 02 01 Retrieved 2021 02 01 Mabie F J 2008 Chaos and Death In Longman Tremper Enns Peter eds Dictionary of the Old Testament InterVarsity Press ISBN 9780830817832 Archived from the original on 2021 02 01 Retrieved 2021 02 01 May Gerhard 2004 Creatio ex nihilo T amp T Clarke International ISBN 9780567456229 Archived from the original on 2021 02 01 Retrieved 2021 02 01 Nebe Gottfried 2002 Creation in Paul s Theology In Hoffman Yair Reventlow Henning Graf eds Creation in Jewish and Christian Tradition Sheffield Academic Press ISBN 9781841271620 Archived from the original on 2021 02 01 Retrieved 2021 02 01 Muller Richard A 2017 Dictionary of Latin and Greek Theological Terms Baker Academic ISBN 9781493412082 Archived from the original on 2021 02 01 Retrieved 2021 02 01 Pennington Jonathan T 2007 Heaven and earth in the Gospel of Matthew Brill ISBN 978 9004162051 Archived from the original on 2021 02 01 Retrieved 2021 02 01 Pruss Alexander 2007 Ex Nihilo Nihil Fit In Campbell Joseph Keim O Rourke Michael Silverstein Harry eds Causation and Explanation MIT Press ISBN 9780262033633 Archived from the original on 2021 02 01 Retrieved 2021 02 01 von Rad Gerhard 1961 Genesis A Commentary London SCM Press Ringgren Helmer 1990 Yam In Botterweck G Johannes Ringgren Helmer eds Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament Eerdmans ISBN 9780802823304 Archived from the original on 2021 02 01 Retrieved 2021 02 01 Rubio Gonzalez 2013 Time Before Time Primeval Narratives in Early Mesopotamian Literature In Feliu L Llop J eds Time and History in the Ancient Near East Proceedings of the 56th Recontre Assyriologique Internationale at Barcelona 26 30 July 2010 Eisenbrauns Archived from the original on 1 February 2021 Retrieved 1 February 2021 Waltke Bruce K 2011 An Old Testament Theology Zondervan ISBN 9780310863328 Archived from the original on 2021 02 01 Retrieved 2021 02 01 Walton John H 2006 Ancient Near Eastern Thought and the Old Testament Introducing the Conceptual World of the Hebrew Bible Baker Academic ISBN 0 8010 2750 0 Archived from the original on 2021 02 01 Retrieved 2021 02 01 Walton John H 2015 The Lost World of Adam and Eve Genesis 2 3 and the Human Origins Debate InterVarsity Press ISBN 9780830897711 Archived from the original on 2021 02 01 Retrieved 2021 02 01 Wasilewska Ewa 2000 Creation Stories of the Middle East Jessica Kingsley Publishers ISBN 9781853026812 Archived from the original on 2020 11 03 Retrieved 2021 02 01 Wolfson Harry Austryn 1976 The Philosophy of the Kalam Harvard University Press ISBN 9780674665804 Archived from the original on 2016 05 07 Retrieved 2021 02 01 Wolters Albert M 1994 Creatio ex nihilo in Philo In Helleman Wendy ed Hellenization Revisited Shaping a Christian Response Within the Greco Roman World University Press of America ISBN 9780819195449 Archived from the original on 2021 02 01 Retrieved 2021 02 01 External links edit nbsp Look up firmament in Wiktionary the free dictionary nbsp Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica article Firmament The Vault of Heaven Portals nbsp Bible nbsp Christianity nbsp Astronomy nbsp Stars nbsp Outer space nbsp Language nbsp Society Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Firmament amp oldid 1183347221, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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