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Empress Genmei

January 21, 2023

Empress Genmei (元明天皇, Genmei-tennō, April 20, 660 – December 29, 721), also known as Empress Genmyō, was the 43rd monarch of Japan,[1] according to the traditional order of succession.[2] Genmei's reign spanned the years 707 through 715 CE.[3]

Empress Genmei
元明天皇
Empress of Japan
ReignAugust 18, 707 – October 3, 715
PredecessorMonmu
SuccessorGenshō
BornAhe (阿閇 or 阿部)
April 20, 660
DiedDecember 29, 721(721-12-29) (aged 61)
Nara, Japan
Burial
Nahoyama no higashi no misasagi (奈保山東陵) (Nara)
SpousePrince Kusakabe
Issue
Posthumous name
Chinese-style shigō:
Empress Genmei (元明天皇)

Japanese-style shigō:
Yamato-neko-amatsumiyo-toyokuni-narihime no Sumeramikoto (日本根子天津御代豊国成姫天皇)
HouseYamato
FatherEmperor Tenji
MotherSoga no Mei-no-iratsume

In the history of Japan, Genmei was the fourth of eight women to take on the role of empress regnant. The three female monarchs before Genmei were Suiko, Kōgyoku/Saimei, and Jitō. The four women sovereigns reigning after Genmei were Genshō, Kōken/Shōtoku, Meishō, and Go-Sakuramachi.

Traditional narrative

Before her ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, her personal name (imina)[4] was Abe-hime.[5]

Empress Genmei was the fourth daughter of Emperor Tenji;[5] and she was a younger sister of Empress Jitō by a different mother. Her mother, Mei-no-Iratsume (also known as Soga-hime), was a daughter of Udaijin Soga-no-Kura-no-Yamada-no-Ishikawa-no-Maro (also known as Soga Yamada-no Ō-omi).[5]

Events of Genmei's life

Genmei became the consort (nyōgo) of Crown Prince Kusakabe no Miko, who was the son of Emperor Tenmu and Empress Jitō.[5] After the death of their son Emperor Monmu in 707, she acceded to the throne.[6] At least one account suggests that she accepted the role of empress because Emperor Monmu felt his young son, her grandson, was still too young to withstand the pressures which attend becoming emperor.[7]

  • July 18, 707 (Keiun 4, 15th day of the 6th month): In the 11th year of Monmu-tennō's reign (文武天皇十一年), the emperor died; and the succession (senso) was received by the emperor's mother, who held the throne in trust for her young grandson. Shortly thereafter, Empress Genmei is said to have acceded to the throne (sokui).[8]
 
Wadōkaichin monument in Saitama
  • 707 (Keiun 4): Deposits of copper were reported to have been found in Chichibu[9] in Musashi Province in the region which includes modern day Tokyo;[7]
  • 708 (Keiun 5):, The era name was about to be changed to mark the accession of Empress Genmei; but the choice of Wadō as the new nengō for this new reign became a way to mark the welcome discovery of copper.[7] The Japanese word for copper is dō (銅); and since this was indigenous copper, the "wa" (the ancient Chinese term for Japan) could be combined with the "dō" (copper) to create a new composite term – "wadō" – meaning "Japanese copper."
  • May 5, 708 (Wadō 1, 11th day of the 4th month): A sample of the newly discovered Musashi copper from was presented in Genmei's Court where it was formally acknowledged as "Japanese" copper;[10] and a mint was established in Ōmi Province.[6]
  • 708 (Wadō 1, 3rd month): Fuijwara no Fuhito was named Minister of the Right (Udaijin) . Isonokami no Maro was Minister of the Left (Sadaijin).[11]
  • 709 (Wadō 2, 3rd month): There was an uprising against governmental authority in Mutsu Province and in Echigo Province. Troops were promptly dispatched to subdue the revolt.[11]
  • 709 (Wadō 2, 5th month): Ambassadors arrived from Silla, bringing an offer of tribute. He visited Fujiwara no Fuhito to prepare the way for further visits.[12]
 
Daigokuden of Heijō-kyō at the time of capital move (reconstructed in 2010)
  • 710 (Wadō 3, 3rd month): Empress Genmei established her official residence in Nara.[6] In the last years of the Mommu's reign, the extensive preparations for this projected move had begun; but the work could not be completed before the late-emperor's death.[11] Shortly after the nengō was changed to Wadō, an Imperial Rescript was issued concerning the establishment of a new capital at the Heijō-kyō at Nara in Yamato Province. It had been customary since ancient times for the capital to be moved with the beginning of each new reign. However, Emperor Mommu decided not to move the capital, preferring instead to stay at the Fujiwara Palace which had been established by Empress Jitō.[13] Empress Genmei's palace was named Nara-no-miya.[5]
  • 711 (Wadō 4, 3rd month): The Kojiki was published in three volumes. This work presented a history of Japan from a mythological period of god-rulers up through the 28th day of the 1st month of the fifth year of Empress Suiko's reign (597).[11] Emperor Tenmu failed to bring the work to completion before his death in 686. Empress Genmei, along with other court officials, deserve credit for continuing to patronize and encourage the mammoth project.
  • 712 (Wadō 5): The Mutsu Province was separated from Dewa Province.[11]
  • 713 (Wadō 6, 3rd month): Tanba Province was separated from Tango Province; Mimasaka Province was divided from Bizen Province; and Hyūga Province was divided from Ōsumi Province.[11]
  • 713 (Wadō 6): The compilation of Fudoki was begun with the imprimatur of an Imperial decree; and copies of the census of the provinces of Izumo, Harima, Hitachi and two other provinces still exist.[6] This work was intended to describe all provinces, cities, mountains, rivers, valleys and plains. It is intended to become a catalog of the plants, trees, birds, and mammals of Japan. It also intended to contain information about all of the remarkable events which, from ancient times to the present, have happened in the country.[11]
  • 713 (Wadō 6): The road which traverses Mino Province and Shinano Province was widened to accommodate travelers; and the road was widened in the Kiso District of modern Nagano Prefecture.[11]

After Empress Genmei transferred the seat of her government to Nara, this mountain location remained the capital throughout the succeeding seven reigns.[13] In a sense, the years of the Nara period developed into one of the more significant consequences of her comparatively short reign.

Genmei had initially planned to remain on the throne until her grandson might reach maturity. However, in 715, Genmei did abdicate in favor of Mommu's older sister who then became known as Empress Genshō. Genshō was eventually succeeded by her nephew, who then became known as Emperor Shōmu.

  • 715 (Wadō 8): Genmei abdicates in favor of her daughter, Empress Genshō.[14]

The Empress reigned for eight years.[6] Although there were seven other reigning empresses, their successors were most often selected from amongst the males of the paternal Imperial bloodline, which is why some conservative scholars argue that the women's reigns were temporary and that male-only succession tradition must be maintained in the 21st century.[15] Empress Genmei, who was followed on the throne by her daughter, remains the sole exception to this conventional argument.

After abdicating, she was known as Daijō-tennō; and she was only the second woman after Empress Jitō to claim this title. Genmei lived in retirement for seven years until her death at the age of 61 in December 721.[13]

The actual site of Genmei's grave is known.[1] This empress is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (misasagi) in Narazaka-cho, Nara City which has been designated by the Imperial Household Agency as Genmei's mausoleum. [16] The "mountain shape" misasagi was named Nahoyama-no-higashi no misasagi.[17]

Poetry

The Man'yōshū includes a poem written said to be composed by Empress Genmei in 708 (Wadō 1) – and this anthology also includes a reply created by one of the ladies of her court::

Listen to the sounds of the warriors' elbow-guards;[18]
Our captain must be ranging the shields to drill the troops.[19]
– Genmei-tennō[20]
Reply:
Be not concerned, O my Sovereign;
Am I not here,
I, whom the ancestral gods endowed with life,
Next of kin to yourself?
– Minabe-hime[20]

Kugyō

Kugyō (公卿) is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras.

In general, this elite group included only three to four men at a time. These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have brought them to the pinnacle of a life's career. During Genmei's reign, this apex of the Daijō-kan included:

Spouse and children

Empress Genmei was born to Emperor Tenji and his concubine, Soga no Mei-no-iratsume, who held the rank of Hin (Beauty).She initially was named Princess Abe (阿閇皇女).She had an elder sister by the same mother: Princess Minabe.

Princess Abe married Prince Kusakabe, her eldest half-sister's son, and had issues: two daughters among which the eldest would become Empress Gensho and on son who will ascend the throne as Emperor Monmu.

Eras of Genmei's reign

The years of Genmei's reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name or nengō.[7]

Ancestry

See also

Notes

 
Japanese Imperial kamon — a stylized chrysanthemum blossom
  1. ^ a b Imperial Household Agency (Kunaichō): 元明天皇 (43); retrieved August 22, 2013.
  2. ^ Ponsonby-Fane, Richard. (1959). The Imperial House of Japan, p. 56.
  3. ^ Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Annales des empereurs du Japon, pp. 63–65, p. 63, at Google Books; Brown, Delmer M. (1979). Gukanshō, p. 271; Varley, H. Paul. (1980). Jinnō Shōtōki. p. 140.
  4. ^ Brown, pp. 264; prior to Emperor Jomei, the personal names of the emperors (imina) were very long and people did not generally use them. The number of characters in each name diminished after Jomei's reign.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h Brown, p. 271.
  6. ^ a b c d e Ponsonby-Fane, p. 56.
  7. ^ a b c d Titsingh, p. 63.
  8. ^ Brown, p. 271; Varley, p. 44; a distinct act of senso is unrecognized prior to Emperor Tenji; and all sovereigns except Jitō, Yōzei, Go-Toba, and Fushimi have senso and sokui in the same year until the reign of Go-Murakami.
  9. ^ Ponsonby-Fane, Richard. (1915). The Imperial Family of Japan, p. x.
  10. ^ Japan Mint Museum:
  11. ^ a b c d e f g h Titsingh, p. 64.
  12. ^ Titsingh, p. 64; Aoki (1989: 149)Aoki, Kazuo et al. (1989). Shin Nihon Koten Bungaku Taikei 12: Shoku Nihongi I, p. 149. (in Japanese).
  13. ^ a b c Varley, p. 140.
  14. ^ Titsingh, pp. 64–65.
  15. ^ Yoshida, Reiji. "Life in the Cloudy Imperial Fishbowl," Japan Times. March 27, 2007; retrieved August 22, 2013.
  16. ^ Nara City Tourist Association: Genmei's misasagi – image; December 26, 2007, at the Wayback Machine Genmei's misasagi – map February 27, 2008, at the Wayback Machine
  17. ^ Ponsonby-Fane, Richard. (1959). The Imperial House of Japan, p. 420.
  18. ^ Nippon Gakujutsu Shinkokai. (1969). The Manyōshu, p. 81 n1; elbow guards were made of leather and were worn on the left arm to prevent the bow-string from springing back and hurting the elbow. The string struck the elbow-guard with a loud sound.
  19. ^ Nippon Gakujutsu Shinkokai, p. 81 n2; this poem probably alludes to the expeditionary force that was sent against the Emishi in northern Japan in 709 (Wadō 2).
  20. ^ a b Nippon Gakujutsu Shinkokai, p. 81.
  21. ^ "Genealogy". Reichsarchiv (in Japanese). Retrieved January 27, 2018.
  22. ^ "Genealogy". Reichsarchiv (in Japanese). Retrieved January 27, 2018.

References

Regnal titles
Preceded by Empress of Japan:
Genmei
707–715 		Succeeded by

January 21, 2023
empress, genmei, 元明天皇, genmei, tennō, april, december, also, known, empress, genmyō, 43rd, monarch, japan, according, traditional, order, succession, genmei, reign, spanned, years, through, 元明天皇empress, japanreignaugust, october, 715predecessormonmusuccessorge. Empress Genmei 元明天皇 Genmei tennō April 20 660 December 29 721 also known as Empress Genmyō was the 43rd monarch of Japan 1 according to the traditional order of succession 2 Genmei s reign spanned the years 707 through 715 CE 3 Empress Genmei元明天皇Empress of JapanReignAugust 18 707 October 3 715PredecessorMonmuSuccessorGenshōBornAhe 阿閇 or 阿部 April 20 660DiedDecember 29 721 721 12 29 aged 61 Nara JapanBurialNahoyama no higashi no misasagi 奈保山東陵 Nara SpousePrince KusakabeIssueEmperor Monmu Empress Genshō Princess KibiPosthumous nameChinese style shigō Empress Genmei 元明天皇 Japanese style shigō Yamato neko amatsumiyo toyokuni narihime no Sumeramikoto 日本根子天津御代豊国成姫天皇 HouseYamatoFatherEmperor TenjiMotherSoga no Mei no iratsumeIn the history of Japan Genmei was the fourth of eight women to take on the role of empress regnant The three female monarchs before Genmei were Suiko Kōgyoku Saimei and Jitō The four women sovereigns reigning after Genmei were Genshō Kōken Shōtoku Meishō and Go Sakuramachi Contents 1 Traditional narrative 1 1 Events of Genmei s life 1 2 Poetry 1 3 Kugyō 2 Spouse and children 3 Eras of Genmei s reign 4 Ancestry 5 See also 6 Notes 7 ReferencesTraditional narrative EditBefore her ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne her personal name imina 4 was Abe hime 5 Empress Genmei was the fourth daughter of Emperor Tenji 5 and she was a younger sister of Empress Jitō by a different mother Her mother Mei no Iratsume also known as Soga hime was a daughter of Udaijin Soga no Kura no Yamada no Ishikawa no Maro also known as Soga Yamada no Ō omi 5 Events of Genmei s life Edit Genmei became the consort nyōgo of Crown Prince Kusakabe no Miko who was the son of Emperor Tenmu and Empress Jitō 5 After the death of their son Emperor Monmu in 707 she acceded to the throne 6 At least one account suggests that she accepted the role of empress because Emperor Monmu felt his young son her grandson was still too young to withstand the pressures which attend becoming emperor 7 July 18 707 Keiun 4 15th day of the 6th month In the 11th year of Monmu tennō s reign 文武天皇十一年 the emperor died and the succession senso was received by the emperor s mother who held the throne in trust for her young grandson Shortly thereafter Empress Genmei is said to have acceded to the throne sokui 8 Wadōkaichin monument in Saitama 707 Keiun 4 Deposits of copper were reported to have been found in Chichibu 9 in Musashi Province in the region which includes modern day Tokyo 7 708 Keiun 5 The era name was about to be changed to mark the accession of Empress Genmei but the choice of Wadō as the new nengō for this new reign became a way to mark the welcome discovery of copper 7 The Japanese word for copper is dō 銅 and since this was indigenous copper the wa the ancient Chinese term for Japan could be combined with the dō copper to create a new composite term wadō meaning Japanese copper May 5 708 Wadō 1 11th day of the 4th month A sample of the newly discovered Musashi copper from was presented in Genmei s Court where it was formally acknowledged as Japanese copper 10 and a mint was established in Ōmi Province 6 708 Wadō 1 3rd month Fuijwara no Fuhito was named Minister of the Right Udaijin Isonokami no Maro was Minister of the Left Sadaijin 11 709 Wadō 2 3rd month There was an uprising against governmental authority in Mutsu Province and in Echigo Province Troops were promptly dispatched to subdue the revolt 11 709 Wadō 2 5th month Ambassadors arrived from Silla bringing an offer of tribute He visited Fujiwara no Fuhito to prepare the way for further visits 12 Daigokuden of Heijō kyō at the time of capital move reconstructed in 2010 710 Wadō 3 3rd month Empress Genmei established her official residence in Nara 6 In the last years of the Mommu s reign the extensive preparations for this projected move had begun but the work could not be completed before the late emperor s death 11 Shortly after the nengō was changed to Wadō an Imperial Rescript was issued concerning the establishment of a new capital at the Heijō kyō at Nara in Yamato Province It had been customary since ancient times for the capital to be moved with the beginning of each new reign However Emperor Mommu decided not to move the capital preferring instead to stay at the Fujiwara Palace which had been established by Empress Jitō 13 Empress Genmei s palace was named Nara no miya 5 711 Wadō 4 3rd month The Kojiki was published in three volumes This work presented a history of Japan from a mythological period of god rulers up through the 28th day of the 1st month of the fifth year of Empress Suiko s reign 597 11 Emperor Tenmu failed to bring the work to completion before his death in 686 Empress Genmei along with other court officials deserve credit for continuing to patronize and encourage the mammoth project 712 Wadō 5 The Mutsu Province was separated from Dewa Province 11 713 Wadō 6 3rd month Tanba Province was separated from Tango Province Mimasaka Province was divided from Bizen Province and Hyuga Province was divided from Ōsumi Province 11 713 Wadō 6 The compilation of Fudoki was begun with the imprimatur of an Imperial decree and copies of the census of the provinces of Izumo Harima Hitachi and two other provinces still exist 6 This work was intended to describe all provinces cities mountains rivers valleys and plains It is intended to become a catalog of the plants trees birds and mammals of Japan It also intended to contain information about all of the remarkable events which from ancient times to the present have happened in the country 11 713 Wadō 6 The road which traverses Mino Province and Shinano Province was widened to accommodate travelers and the road was widened in the Kiso District of modern Nagano Prefecture 11 After Empress Genmei transferred the seat of her government to Nara this mountain location remained the capital throughout the succeeding seven reigns 13 In a sense the years of the Nara period developed into one of the more significant consequences of her comparatively short reign Genmei had initially planned to remain on the throne until her grandson might reach maturity However in 715 Genmei did abdicate in favor of Mommu s older sister who then became known as Empress Genshō Genshō was eventually succeeded by her nephew who then became known as Emperor Shōmu 715 Wadō 8 Genmei abdicates in favor of her daughter Empress Genshō 14 The Empress reigned for eight years 6 Although there were seven other reigning empresses their successors were most often selected from amongst the males of the paternal Imperial bloodline which is why some conservative scholars argue that the women s reigns were temporary and that male only succession tradition must be maintained in the 21st century 15 Empress Genmei who was followed on the throne by her daughter remains the sole exception to this conventional argument After abdicating she was known as Daijō tennō and she was only the second woman after Empress Jitō to claim this title Genmei lived in retirement for seven years until her death at the age of 61 in December 721 13 The actual site of Genmei s grave is known 1 This empress is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine misasagi in Narazaka cho Nara City which has been designated by the Imperial Household Agency as Genmei s mausoleum 16 The mountain shape misasagi was named Nahoyama no higashi no misasagi 17 Poetry Edit The Man yōshu includes a poem written said to be composed by Empress Genmei in 708 Wadō 1 and this anthology also includes a reply created by one of the ladies of her court Listen to the sounds of the warriors elbow guards 18 Our captain must be ranging the shields to drill the troops 19 Genmei tennō 20 dd dd dd dd dd Reply Be not concerned O my Sovereign Am I not here dd I whom the ancestral gods endowed with life Next of kin to yourself Minabe hime 20 dd dd dd dd dd Kugyō Edit Kugyō 公卿 is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre Meiji eras In general this elite group included only three to four men at a time These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have brought them to the pinnacle of a life s career During Genmei s reign this apex of the Daijō kan included Daijō daijin Prince Hozumi 5 Sadaijin Isonokami no Maro 石上麻呂 5 708 717 Udaijin Fujiwara no Fuhito 藤原不比等 5 708 720 Naidaijin DainagonSpouse and children EditEmpress Genmei was born to Emperor Tenji and his concubine Soga no Mei no iratsume who held the rank of Hin Beauty She initially was named Princess Abe 阿閇皇女 She had an elder sister by the same mother Princess Minabe Princess Abe married Prince Kusakabe her eldest half sister s son and had issues two daughters among which the eldest would become Empress Gensho and on son who will ascend the throne as Emperor Monmu Husband Prince Kusakabe 草壁皇子 d 10 May 689 son of Emperor Tenmu and Empress Jitō 21 First Daughter Princess Hidaka 氷高皇女 later Empress Gensho First Son Prince Karu 珂瑠 軽 later Emperor Monmu Second Daughter Imperial Princess Kibi 吉備内親王 686 729 married Prince NagayaEras of Genmei s reign EditThe years of Genmei s reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name or nengō 7 Keiun 704 708 Wadō 708 715 Reiki 715 717 Ancestry EditAncestors of Empress Genmei 22 16 Emperor Bidatsu 538 585 8 Prince Oshisakanohikohito no Ōe17 Hiro hime d c 575 4 Emperor Jomei 593 641 18 Emperor Bidatsu 538 585 9 Princess Nukate hime c 570 664 19 Unako no Otoshi2 Emperor Tenji 626 672 20 Prince Oshisakanohikohito no Ōe10 Prince Chinu21 Princess Nukate hime c 570 664 5 Empress Kōgyoku Empress Saimei 594 661 22 Sakurai no Miko 560 587 11 Princess Kibitsu hime d 643 1 Empress Genmei24 Soga no Umako 551 626 12 Soga no Kuramaro6 Soga no Kurayamada no Ishikawa no Maro d c 649 3 Mei no IratsumeSee also EditEmpress of Japan Emperor of Japan List of Emperors of Japan Imperial cultNotes Edit Japanese Imperial kamon a stylized chrysanthemum blossom a b Imperial Household Agency Kunaichō 元明天皇 43 retrieved August 22 2013 Ponsonby Fane Richard 1959 The Imperial House of Japan p 56 Titsingh Isaac 1834 Annales des empereurs du Japon pp 63 65 p 63 at Google Books Brown Delmer M 1979 Gukanshō p 271 Varley H Paul 1980 Jinnō Shōtōki p 140 Brown pp 264 prior to Emperor Jomei the personal names of the emperors imina were very long and people did not generally use them The number of characters in each name diminished after Jomei s reign a b c d e f g h Brown p 271 a b c d e Ponsonby Fane p 56 a b c d Titsingh p 63 Brown p 271 Varley p 44 a distinct act of senso is unrecognized prior to Emperor Tenji and all sovereigns except Jitō Yōzei Go Toba and Fushimi have senso and sokui in the same year until the reign of Go Murakami Ponsonby Fane Richard 1915 The Imperial Family of Japan p x Japan Mint Museum image of Wado Kaichin a b c d e f g h Titsingh p 64 Titsingh p 64 Aoki 1989 149 Aoki Kazuo et al 1989 Shin Nihon Koten Bungaku Taikei 12 Shoku Nihongi I p 149 in Japanese a b c Varley p 140 Titsingh pp 64 65 Yoshida Reiji Life in the Cloudy Imperial Fishbowl Japan Times March 27 2007 retrieved August 22 2013 Nara City Tourist Association Genmei s misasagi image Archived December 26 2007 at the Wayback Machine Genmei s misasagi map Archived February 27 2008 at the Wayback Machine Ponsonby Fane Richard 1959 The Imperial House of Japan p 420 Nippon Gakujutsu Shinkokai 1969 The Manyōshu p 81 n1 elbow guards were made of leather and were worn on the left arm to prevent the bow string from springing back and hurting the elbow The string struck the elbow guard with a loud sound Nippon Gakujutsu Shinkokai p 81 n2 this poem probably alludes to the expeditionary force that was sent against the Emishi in northern Japan in 709 Wadō 2 a b Nippon Gakujutsu Shinkokai p 81 Genealogy Reichsarchiv in Japanese Retrieved January 27 2018 Genealogy Reichsarchiv in Japanese Retrieved January 27 2018 References EditAoki Kazuo Kōji Inaoka Haruo Sasayama Noriyuki Shirafuji 1989 Shin Nihon Koten Bungaku Taikei 12 Shoku Nihongi I in Japanese Iwanami Shoten ISBN 4 00 240012 3 Brown Delmer M and Ichirō Ishida eds 1979 Gukanshō The Future and the Past Berkeley University of California Press ISBN 978 0 520 03460 0 OCLC 251325323 Ponsonby Fane Richard Arthur Brabazon 1959 The Imperial House of Japan Kyoto Ponsonby Memorial Society OCLC 194887 Titsingh Isaac 1834 Nihon Ōdai Ichiran ou Annales des empereurs du Japon Paris Royal Asiatic Society Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland OCLC 5850691 Varley H Paul 1980 Jinnō Shōtōki A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns New York Columbia University Press ISBN 978 0 231 04940 5 OCLC 59145842Regnal titlesPreceded byEmperor Monmu Empress of Japan Genmei707 715 Succeeded byEmpress Genshō Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Empress Genmei amp oldid 1126482649, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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